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Since Indonesia's transition to democracy in 1998, wealth inequality has increased significantly with a dramatic rise in the wealth of the rich and stagnating income growth among poorer citizens. Similar to many developing countries, the issue of child workers in Indonesia is a critical problem. The "2015 National Labour Force Survey" recorded 1.65 million children aged 15-17 involved in child work in Indonesia. Efforts to encourage the participation of child workers in schooling has been greatly promoted but few studies have investigated the issue of the impact of child work on student learning outcomes. Children involved in work are likely to be left behind in educational achievement. Their disadvantaged social, cultural, and economic backgrounds lead to physical and psychosocial vulnerabilities, which requires democratic-classroom approaches, characterized by child-centred settings and teachers familiar with students' diverse learning abilities. This paper presents findings from a study investigating Indonesian teachers' perspectives on the impacts of work on student learning outcomes and how they implement diverse teaching and learning styles when educating child workers. This study highlighted the lack of school and teacher readiness in managing child workers' diverse needs and the absence of teachers' involvement in developing policies for child worker education that may all lead to child workers not achieving learning outcomes. This study outcomes also support democratic-style classroom approaches in making education a reliable investment for child workers. This study provides recommendations for improved policies and practices for the local government and schools in the East Nusa Tenggara province.

The primary purpose of this paper is to review and evaluate the causes of educational poverty in less developed countries. The basic intent in carrying out such a study is to define and derive the role of governing agencies in deliberately creating educational poverty in the country, so that the private interest of the rich and powerful ruling class can be fully safeguarded. This study is of crucial interest to the common man because majority of the people living in less developed countries are poor in spite of the fact, that almost all these countries own ample human and material resources. However, the common man in these countries is continuously suffering, generation after generation, and has been denied access to basic amenities of life. The rich and powerful ruling class, in majority of the less developed countries, has intentionally denied basic education facilities to its people for keeping them ignorant and unaware of their fundamental rights to share national resources and to gain competence for comfortable living in the society. The paper advocates a complete reversal in economic growth policies of the less developed countries so that top priority is given to those projects and programs that directly benefit the common man in the society. In this respect, the author calls for awareness among the people to exercise their economic and social rights so that people of all the strata can share equally the fruits of growth and prosperity.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the role of people's credit banks (BPRs), a predominant form of microfinance in Indonesia, in mitigating poverty. Using panel data from 31 provinces in Indonesia, this study employs static panel and panel models with instrument variables. Our findings substantiate that BPR credit significantly contributes to poverty reduction across various indices, including headcount poverty, poverty gap, and poverty severity measures. The empirical results offer valuable insights into the efficacy of targeted microfinance as a potent tool for poverty alleviation in developing economies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smoke from massive wildfires blanketed Indonesia in late 1997. This paper examines the impact that this air pollution (particulate matter) had on fetal, infant, and child mortality. Exploiting the sharp timing and spatial patterns of the pollution and inferring deaths from "missing children" in the 2000 Indonesian Census, I find that the pollution led to 15,600 missing children in Indonesia (1.2 percent of the affected birth cohorts). Prenatal exposure to pollution drives the result. The effect size is much larger in poorer areas, suggesting that differential effects of pollution contribute to the socioeconomic gradient in health. (Contains 10 tables, 4 figures and 26 footnotes.)

Rural residents account for the bulk of poverty in developing countries. This paper evaluates the impact of Indonesia's Dana Desa program (Village Fund Program or VFP) on rural poverty and female labour force participation. The VFP, introduced in 2014, was an ambitious national-level village governance program which transferred administrative responsibility and financial resources to Indonesia's 79,000 plus rural villages, providing them with the autonomy to invest in rural infrastructure, human capital, and job creation programs. Using nationally representative data from before and after the program, we show that the implementation of the VFP was associated with an improvement in rural household's consumption expenditure among households, particularly among agricultural households. Female labour force participation in rural areas increased by about 10 percentage points and there is also evidence of a sectoral shift away from agricultural employment towards jobs in the service sector. This improvement in labour force participation is associated with poverty reduction among rural households., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Rammohan, Tohari. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

While urbanization has great potential to facilitate poverty reduction, climate shocks represent a looming threat to such upward mobility. This paper empirically analyzes the effects of climatic risks on the function of urban agglomerations to support poor households' escape from poverty. Combining household surveys with climatic datasets, our analyses of Chile, Colombia, and Indonesia find that households in large metropolitan areas are more likely to escape from poverty, indicating better access to economic opportunities in those areas. However, climate shocks such as extreme rainfalls and high flood risks significantly reduce upward mobility, thus offsetting such benefits of urban agglomerations. The findings underscore the need to enhance resilience among the urban poor to allow them to fully utilize the benefits of urban agglomerations.

This Paper examines the Indonesian government's new microcredit programme, the Ultra Microcredit (UMi) scheme, designed to provide cheap, hassle-free loans to micro businesses (MBs) owned by the poor and vulnerable. Based on UMi's loan disbursement, the number of participating non-bank financial institutions (NBFIs), the number of borrowers and its impact on the borrowers' business performance, this paper shows that the programme has so far been significantly promising in supporting the development of MBs. This study not only highlights the ways in which UMi has addressed various problems that MBs face, but also details the scheme's limitations in achieving its large-scale anti-poverty objectives. The results show that UMi's main policy challenges can be overcome by: first, shifting its distribution away from Jakarta and towards the less prosperous provinces of the country; second, improving business facilitation services; and third, complementing the scheme with other non-financial programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social protection policies involve distributional politics and practices that pose significant challenges. Focusing on Indonesia, where such policies are rapidly expanding, this paper discusses two programmes most relevant to the poor -- the rice for welfare (Rastra) scheme and the conditional cash transfer (PKH) programme. We elaborate on the tensions between a "layered" approach to social protection (where new institutional arrangements are placed on top of, or alongside existing ones) and a "nested" approach (where community-level distribution principles are located within wider state arrangements). The paper concludes that Indonesia is still looking for a welfare regime that is compatible with its politicaleconomic situation and cultural practices. This study argues that, to improve the "fit" of social protection policies, policymakers will need to take a more polycentric approach, allowing the state-supported targeting logic to accommodate the social ethics and moral concerns of the country's rural poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to find out a conceptual approach to the social safety net in the Qur'an and some essential values that can be realized as role models in contemporary modern life. This study investigates several significant questions, such as how the Qur'an argues for taking sides with the disadvantaged people, and what instruments are outlined by the Qur'an as the main support for the implementation of social safety nets. These questions are approached contextually and critically by examining primary texts, such as verses of the Qur'an that talk about the topic, to be interpreted thematically contextually. Meanwhile, secondary texts are used as interpretive supports to enrich perspectives in reconstructing and reformulating the idea of a social safety net based on the Qur'anic values. This study concludes; first, even though the Qur'an does not mention explicitly the term social safety net, the teachings of the social safety net are implicitly embodied in the Qur'an. Second, some fundamental instruments in the Qur'an can be realized as supporting systems for social safety nets, such as zakah, kafarat, infaq, sadaqah, qurban, dam and fidyah, fai', and ghanimah. Third, the Qur'anic concept of social safety net engages with five principles, namely expanse and balance, justice and equity, spirituality and productivity, sustainability and empowerment, and dynamic and systematic. Thus, the concept of the social safety net in the Qur'an is a comprehensive approach, not only for the short term but also for the long term, not only consumptive-giving but also productive-empowering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Menstrual hygiene management and health is increasingly gaining policy importance in a bid to promote dignity, gender equality and reproductive health. Effective and adequate menstrual hygiene management requires women and girls to have access to their menstrual health materials and products of choice, but also extends into having private, clean and safe spaces for using these materials. The paper provides empirical evidence of the inequality in menstrual hygiene management in Kinshasa (DRC), Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Rajasthan (India), Indonesia, Nigeria and Uganda using concentration indices and decomposition methods. There is consistent evidence of wealth-related inequality in the conditions of menstrual hygiene management spaces as well as access to sanitary pads across all countries. Wealth, education, the rural-urban divide and infrastructural limitations of the household are major contributors to these inequalities. While wealth is identified as one of the key drivers of unequal access to menstrual hygiene management, other socio-economic, environmental and household factors require urgent policy attention. This specifically includes the lack of safe MHM spaces which threaten the health and dignity of women and girls.

A generous PAYG defined benefit pension system can guarantee retirees to have comfortable life, but the state budget may not be sustainable when the population is ageing. On the other hand, a defined contribution pension system guarantees state budget sustainability, but making retirees' standard of living depends fully on their labour market performance (before retiring). The choice is even more difficult in developing countries with low budgets such as Indonesia. The defined contribution system is even more uncertain in promising old-age financial adequacy as people's income and investment rates are low. This paper uses a simple OLG model to find an optimal solution from the government perspective—how much state budget should be allocated for the PAYG defined benefit system. It concludes that with a small state budget allocation, as part of a PAYG defined contribution system, to supplement a defined contribution system, the government of Indonesia can guarantee that retirees will not live under poverty while maintaining the state budget sustainability. It recommends that Indonesia combine a defined contribution system, to make a sustainable state budget, and a small budget allocation for a defined benefit system, to ensure that there is no old age poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the launch of Indonesia's decentralization reforms in 2001, the country has achieved significant progress in improving the welfare of its citizens-as seen from increasing income per capita and decreasing poverty levels. However, vertical inequality has increased, raising concerns whether inequality between different parts of the country has also grown. Using spatial econometric models with data covering the 2002-19 period, this paper examines whether there has been a convergence or divergence in income per capita, inequality and poverty across local government areas in Indonesia, The findings indicate that there has been a conditional convergence of these development outcomes across local government areas. This means that the levels of income per capita, inequality and poverty across the country's municipalities and regencies will converge, but the gaps will not be completely eliminated due to di#erences in their endowment factors. This conditional convergence occurs across municipalities and across regencies as well as across local government areas in Java and outside Java, but at different rates of convergence. This finding implies that Indonesia needs to maintain its decentralization policy and resist efforts to recentralize revenue sources and responsibilities. In addition, this should be complemented by efforts to assist areas with low income per capita, high inequality and high poverty rates to improve their endowment factors and institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an experiment in 640 Indonesian villages on three approaches to target the poor: proxy means tests (PMT), where assets are used to predict consumption; community targeting, where villagers rank everyone from richest to poorest; and a hybrid. Defining poverty based on PPP$2 per capita consumption, community targeting and the hybrid perform somewhat worse in identifying the poor than PMT, though not by enough to significantly affect poverty outcomes for a typical program. Elite capture does not explain these results. Instead, communities appear to apply a different concept of poverty. Consistent with this finding, community targeting results in higher satisfaction. (JEL C93, I32, I38, O12, O15, O18, R23) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The objective of this study was to examine the fuzzy c-means clustering (FCM) method to establish the optimum cluster accuracy of zakat potential in Indonesia. A spatial mapping approach is also suggested and can be considered as the first step in knowing the distribution of zakat potential in Indonesia. Furthermore, strategies that can be implemented are formulated to increase zakat collection in Indonesia. Potential zakat data from the National Amil Zakat Agency (Baznas) in 2020 consisting of bank deposits, salaries, agricultural products, plantation products, and staple foods. Each province in Indonesia is used as the proposed variable. In this paper, firstly collecting data on indicators of potential zakat. Second, the FCM clustering algorithm. Third, the results of the FCM grouping are visualized in the form of a mapping. This novel mapping study with FCM was applied in order to analyze clustering accuracy. The FCM results confirm 2 optimum clusters for zakat potential in Indonesia where cluster 2 has more members than cluster 1. Besides, the second cluster only has one variable that has a high value, namely agricultural products, while the rest is in the first cluster. This indicates that the first cluster has a higher potential for zakat. The application of fuzzy c-means (FCM) to obtain the optimum cluster on zakat potential to produce a mapping of zakat potential is a novelty in the field of Islamic economic studies. Finally, the results of the analysis with this approach provide optimum results to strengthen the zakat collection strategy in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When President Joko "Jokowi" Widodo took office in 2014, Indonesia was facing stagnating poverty and high inequality. To address these problems, he quickly introduced several initiatives, mainly in the form of social assistance programmes which gave the poor access to education and health services, as well as food and cash transfers, and grants for villages as mandated by the Village Law. This paper assesses the implications of these initiatives on poverty and inequality, by correlating economic growth with real per capita household consumption growth by quintile at the district level. The results indicate that economic growth has become less pro-poor during the first three years of the Jokowi government. This is indicated by lower growth elasticity of consumption of the poorest 20 per cent of the population, while those of the middle quintiles have increased significantly and that of the richest 20 per cent remains the highest. This suggests that Jokowi's poverty and inequality reduction strategy is not sufficient. A complementary approach to connect the poor to economic growth -- through job creation and income generation -- is needed. Furthermore, the findings also show that it is important to pay more attention to assist the livelihood of the poor who live in Java as well as the urban poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty in agricultural sector is still becomes a serious issue in developing country, and Indonesia is no exception. Our previous study was focusing on poverty and income (income poverty). This paper, however, deals with a substantive question, can access to social facility (non-income) help poverty reduction in agriculture? The study (also) utilized previous model of Dimensionality Test, Factor and Path Analysis to answer the question. The results show that the higher government transfer source income in terms of Social safety Net Program, the more money for smallholders will be. This leads us to argue that transfer income from the government to the smallholder community can be still considered in maintaining smallholders' daily life, means helping them move out poverty. The better access to social services such as primary public health center (called PUSKESMAS), clean water supplied by PDAM (Local Government Division for Drinking Water Affairs) and secondary school is, the higher the household income will be. Thus, if PUSKESMAS, primary and secondary schools as well as clean water sources are nearer, the less time and money will be spent to travel, then the more household income at hand will be saved. In other words, distance and degree of utilization appear to be a crucial part of these interpretations above. Therefore, it is reasonable to say that the better the access to social services such as public health center, schools and public clean water, the more household income will be and in turn it will alleviate the poverty of smallholders. It is clear that providing better access to social facility can help poverty reduction in agricultural sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protected areas (PAs) are central to sustainability targets, yet few evaluations explore outcomes for both conservation and development, or the trade‐offs involved. We applied counterfactual analyses to assess the extent to which PAs maintained forest cover and influenced well‐being across >31,000 villages in Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia. We examined multidimensional aspects of well‐being, tracking education, health, living standards, infrastructure, environment, and social cohesion in treatment and control villages between 2005 and 2018. Overall, PAs were effective at maintaining forest cover compared to matched controls and were not detrimental to well‐being. However, impacts were highly heterogeneous, varying by island and strictness of protection. While health, living standards, and infrastructure aspects of well‐being improved, education access, environmental conditions, and social cohesion declined. Our analysis reveals the contexts through which individual PAs succeed or fail in delivering multiple benefits and provides insights into where further on‐ground support is needed to achieve conservation and development objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the impact of contract farming in the oil palm industry in Indonesia on smallholders' well-being and investigates its implication for poverty reduction. Data were collected using random sampling from 245 smallholders in the province of Jambi, Sumatra. A treatment effects model was applied in order to capture endogeneity and selection bias. Results show that participation in contract farming is significantly associated with type of household, age of household head, size of oil palm plot, and the time of plantation establishment. While contract farming has a significant positive effect on smallholder income overall, it discriminates against poorer smallholders. It is recommended that the agro industry and government review contractual arrangements in order to increase the chances of the poor benefiting from oil palm expansion in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remittances have been reported as a tool for fighting poverty in some selected countries, such as Indonesia. An increase of income through remittances tends to improve the economic status of the migrant's household. Once they get a high salary, they will remit money (a remittance) to their household in Indonesia via formal institutions, such as banks. The migrant's household can fulfil their basic needs and can use the remittance for educational investment and productive activities. The education investment aims to educate the children or grandchildren of migrants, which will be beneficial for the future generations of the family, allowing them the chance of a more prosperous life. The poverty rate would be reduced gradually, and economic welfare can be achieved. The main objectives of this paper are first to estimate the effects of remittances on poverty in Indonesia from 1983 to 2015 and second, to propose several strategic policies related to remittances and poverty reduction. Other variables considered include inflation, exchange rates, income, income inequality and the labor force participation rate. An Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method was used to explore the econometric and estimated results. The study found that an increase in remittances led to a reduction in poverty by 2.56%. Inflation and the exchange rate have positive and negative effects on poverty, respectively. The small effect of remittances on poverty's reduction could possibly be explained by the low educational background of the migrants, low wage jobs, expensive remittance costs, and migrants not knowing how to remit money through formal financial institutions. Hence, to reduce the poverty level, the government needs to first facilitate skills training for the workers so that they could get a better job and earn more, second, lower the transaction costs of remittances, and lastly, provide agents at Indonesian banks overseas to provide better facilities to Indonesian workers to remit money back to their home country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Village tourism is a type of tourism which integrates nature, culture, education, and the active participation of the local. It is intended to improve the community’s prosperity. This model aligns with the Community Economy (CE) concept which advocates for people’s well-being. This paper aims to describe the ways in which village tourism is incorporated in a CE course in economics department using problem-based learning (PBL) method and explore the development of students’ characteristics out of the learning process. The subjects of this research were 3 lecturers and 90 students from a state university and a private university in Indonesia. The research design was mixed research. The data collection techniques include observation, interview, and documentation. The research results show that 1) village tourism condition can be integrated into themes related to CE materials such as CE’s basic concept, development model, policy, strategy, and partnership, society’s empowerment, cooperative and micro small-medium enterprise, poverty alleviation, and 2) student’s characteristics developed during the project. The researchers set some criteria to be observed: nationalistic, hardworking, creative, environmentally conscious, independent and cooperative, and after the observation, this research found that there was an increase in all these criteria. PBL encourages students to develop villages in Indonesia and find ways to increase national income and create sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose -- The repayment performance of microfinancing loans funded by donors amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars is an important issue, because it indicates the effectiveness of utilising these funds to alleviate poverty. The purpose of this paper is to develop models to predict the repayment success of microfinancing loans. Design/methodology/approach -- Analysing data relating to 1,109 random loan records from Indonesia and Sri Lanka, the study develops models to predict the repayment probability of microfinancing loans using logistic regression. Findings -- There are significant differences between the two countries. In Sri Lanka, the time to approve and disburse the loan, loan cycle, gender and age of the borrower, whether a group or individual borrower, the purpose for which the loan is used and visiting frequency by the loan officers were found to be significant when predicting the repayment. Only three factors were significant in Indonesia: time to approve and disburse the loan, interest repayment frequency and gender. Both models have over 70 per cent prediction accuracy. Originality/value -- The models developed can be used in the loan appraisal stage to improve the repayment performance of microfinancing institutions saving hundreds of millions of dollars in bad debt write offs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Severe conditions of poverty have been found in households headed by women in East Java Province, Indonesia. In response to this, the Provincial Government of East Java initiated an innovative program called Jalin Matra (Jalan Lain Menuju Mandiri dan Sejahtera or Another Way Towards Sustenance and Welfare) in which one of the programs is Program Feminisasi Kemiskinan (PFK). This paper is based on a research that is concerned with the implementation of PFK in the regions of Trenggalek and Lamongan, East Java, Indonesia, especially in the village level. It is especially focused on the impacts of the program implementation on the empowerment of the beneficiaries, namely, women household heads, referred to as 'Kepala Rumah Tangga Perempuan (KRTP)'. The target of the empowerment of women household heads in the program is predominantly focused on developing social entrepreneurship, shown by the increase of micro and small enterprises owned by the women household heads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prof. Sajogyo is one of the founders of rural sociology in Indonesia. He concerned himself very intensely with the problems of rural communities, especially rural poverty. In observing the current phenomenon of coastal communities, which are still highly characterized by poverty and social conflict, retracing Prof. Sajogyo's conception on rural development becomes very important and pertinent. This article was written using a literature review method by exploring the thoughts of Prof. Sajogyo from his writings and from several other relevant writers. The aim of this study is to trace the Sajogyo development paradigm which is relevant to the development of coastal areas in Indonesia. This study shows that "The Sajogyo development paradigm" can be summarized to "equal and civilized welfare". This means, in terms of content, for Prof. Sajogyo, development means increasing welfare or prosperity (growth dimension), especially for the lower class, the weak, and of course, the poor (equality dimension). Meanwhile, from the aspect of process, various efforts to improve welfare must be carried out in a civilized manner, namely by upholding dialogue, participation, capability, sovereignty, independence, and dignity of the poor and the weak. Thus, the Sajogyo development paradigm is conflict-sensitive and guarantees human security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty is one of the main issues in the economic development of a country, including Indonesia. This was exacerbated when the Covid-19 pandemic had an impact on economic activities, so there are educated people who are still below the poverty line. Therefore, strategies in tackling the problem of poverty need to be developed in line with the times that have entered the era of digitalization. The research aimed to examine the importance of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) on high-educated poverty in East Java. Data obtained from the National Survey in Indonesia is analyzed with the random forest algorithm as a classification method in machine learning. The analysis shows that social media, laptop ownership, age, higher education, and internet access are the five most important variables for high-educated poverty classification in East Java. Based on this, a number of recommendations can be made to policy makers regarding the effect of digitalization on high-educated poverty in East Java. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pregnant women in urban poor societies are vulnerable groups. Due to low financial capacity, there are obstacles to accessing delivery in an institution for poor women in urban areas. The study analyses factors associated with the delivery place among pregnant women in urban poor society in Indonesia. Materials and Methods: The study analyzed secondary data from the 2017 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS). A total of 1,562 samples were childbearing-age women (15–49 years) who gave birth in an urban poor society in Indonesia in the last 5 years. The study examined some variables, such as delivery place, age, education, employment, marital status, parity, insurance, knowledge of pregnancy danger, antenatal care (ANC), the autonomy of health, and family finance autonomy. The study employed binary logistic regression in the final stage. Results: The results show that age is associated with the place of delivery. The higher the education, the higher the possibility for delivery in an institution. Being employed and having partners are protective factors for women in institution delivery. The likelihood of giving birth in a medical facility decreases as more children are born alive. In addition, having health insurance, thorough ANC visits, knowledge of pregnancy danger symptoms, and health autonomy are protective factors for pregnant women having deliveries in medical facilities. On the contrary, pregnant women who rely solely on family financing have a higher chance of delivering in a medical facility. Conclusion: The study concluded that 10 variables were associated with pregnant women's delivery in Indonesia's urban poor society: age, education, employment, marital, parity, insurance, pregnancy danger knowledge, ANC, health autonomy, and family finance autonomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The food security assessment used by the United State's Food Security/Hunger Survey Module (US- FSSM) was used in five studies: these were in two urban and four rural areas in Indonesia between February 2004- August 2005. The number of households assessed was 3,704 and consisted of 45% urban and 55% rural. All households had children below five years. This paper aims to assess the applicability of US-FSSM for measuring household food-insecurity in Indonesia. Common coping-strategies discussed are to borrow money from the family, get an additional job, to lessen portion size of food, and to sell small assets. Although households in urban and rural areas were similar in size/number of children and male headed; the urban households were more income-secure, educated, and had better access to electrical appliances. A majority of the households was food-insecure (77% and 84% in urban and rural consecutively). More food-insecure households without and with hunger were found in rural areas. The number of affirmative responses to 17 out of 18 questions in the USFSSM was more in the rural households, showing less fortunate cases of food-insecurity. For a given coping strategy, as food-security status becomes more severe, the higher the percentage of households employing it. For a given food-security status, percentage of households was higher among lower-degree and less among higher-degree coping. Combining food-security and coping-strategy indicators may help to identify transient-food-secure households. Observing both indicators throughout different time of the year continuously may further identify adaptive mechanism by chronic-food-insecure households. Information on household food diversity could enrich findings on dietary intake modification, hence moving from food-security to nutrition-security.

Estimates suggest that over 350,000 deaths and more than 20 million severe disabilities result from the complications of pregnancy, childbirth or its management each year. Death and disability occur predominately among disadvantaged women in resource-poor settings and are largely preventable with adequate delivery care. This paper presents the substantive findings and policy implications from a programme of PhD research, of which the overarching objective was to assess quality of, and access to, care in obstetric emergencies. Three critical incident audits were conducted in two rural districts on Java, Indonesia: a confidential enquiry, a verbal autopsy survey, and a community-based review. The studies examined cases of maternal mortality and severe morbidity from the perspectives of local service users and health providers. A range of inter-related determining factors was identified. When unexpected delivery complications occurred, women and families were often uninformed, unprepared, found care unavailable, unaffordable, and many relied on traditional providers. Midwives in villages made important contributions by stabilising women and facilitating referrals but were often scarce in remote areas and lacked sufficient clinical competencies and payment incentives to treat the poor. Emergency transport was often unavailable and private transport was unreliable and incurred costs. In facilities, there was a reluctance to admit poorer women and those accepted were often admitted to illequipped, under-staffed wards. As a result, referrals between hospitals were also common. Otherwise, social health insurance, designed to reduce financial barriers, was particularly problematic, constraining quality andaccess within and outside facilities. Health workers and service users provided rich and explicit assessments of care and outcomes. These were used to develop a conceptual model in which quality and access are conceived of as social processes, observable through experience and reflective of the broader relationships between individuals and health systems. According to this model, differential quality and access can become both socially legitimate (imposed by structural arrangements) and socially legitimised (reciprocally maintained through the actions of individuals). This interpretation suggests that in a context of commodified care provision, adverse obstetric outcomes will occur and recur for disadvantaged women. Health system reform should focus on the unintended effects of market-based service provision to exclude those without the ability to pay for delivery care directly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sorghum is uniquely adapted to dryland and used by the Indonesian government to optimize the utilization of dryland and increase farmers' incomes. The objective of this study was to analyze the contribution of sorghum to increasing income and the level of welfare of dryland farmer households in Wonogiri, Central Java, Indonesia. The study was conducted from October to December 2022 using a survey method through direct interviews with purposively selected sorghum-growing farmers. A set of questions included household income and expenditure. The average total income and expenditure indicators, poverty line figures, RMW, and ERFHI were used to measure the welfare level of farmer households. The study found that the income derived from sorghum contributes 22.87% to total household income and tends to increase household income by 29.65%. According to the average total income earned, farming households were in a prosperous condition. This can be seen from the total income, which is higher than the total expenditure, the average per capita income higher than the poverty line, the average total income higher than RMW, and the value of ERFHI at 1.25. Income derived from sorghum has increased by 21.43–56.00% from less prosperous households to prosperous ones. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the existing literature on sorghum development and farmers' income and to be a reference for policy makers in formulating poverty alleviation programs and improving the welfare of farmer households, as well as expanding sorghum development by optimizing the utilization of agroecological, economic and social resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia has lowered the total poverty rate by less than 10%. Earlier poverty measurements in Indonesia suggest that transient poverty is more prevalent. We argue that, when employing the Equally Distributed Equivalent (EDE) approach and disaggregated poverty lines, chronic poverty is more prevalent than transient poverty. We estimated chronic and transient poverty in Indonesia from 2007 to 2014 by employing a large longitudinal dataset and disaggregated poverty line measures at the district level. The empirical results are robust in various groups based on education, gender, marital status, location (urban-rural), and employment characteristics (status, farming and non-farming, type, and sector). The results indicate that chronic poverty accounts for at least two-thirds of total poverty. Poverty gaps based on education, regional location, gender, and employment are significant. Moreover, we assess whether poverty is linked to socioeconomic aspects and policy programs using quantile regression. The findings indicate that gender (female), age, number of household members, and household location are positively related to higher poverty and chronic poverty. Household head deaths and physical disabilities are positively associated with poverty. Although the urban-rural poverty gap has decreased, casual workers remain prone to poverty. Moreover, poverty is negatively linked to educational attainment, access to financial, transportation, and communication services, suggesting that improving these aspects may help reduce poverty. Social aid programs that support health, food assistance, education, and conditional cash transfers are negatively linked to both total and chronic poverty. Energy subsidies were not associated with lower levels of poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to a lack of focus and practice, mental health issues in Indonesia have received little attention. Moreover, cultural, religious, economic, and local factors determine perceptions of mental health and poverty. To examine these issues, Indigenous Psychology was carried out as a perspective and narrative review that accompanies its research methods. To reach the goals of this study, some of the most important results are described in this report, particularly the state of affairs and context of mental health studies and offerings in Indonesia, the intertwining of mental health with a way of life and poverty, the hyperlink between mental health and poverty, how indigenous psychology as a new paradigm in the field of psychology plays a role in reading mental health issues, and the challenges confronted by indigenous psychology in contributing to mental health studies and offerings in Indonesia. In conclusion, this examination indicates that mental health must be viewed as a socio culturally built phenomenon. The praxis consequence is that in public policy making, such as studies in the area of mental health, this locality variable has to be a good consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: It is hoped that the presence of Islamic microfinance in Muslim countries will not only pursue each other and increase productivity to increase their assets. However, Islamic microfinance is hoped to be able to provide benefits to the whole community, especially in eradicating poverty. The phenomenon, it becomes the basis for research to measure the determinants of participation in the utilization of Islamic microfinance products using the TPB approach in Indonesia Islamic microfinance. Purpose: This research has a purpose to measure the determinants of participation in the utilization of Islamic microfinance products. The model hypothesized that three factors, attitude, subjective norms and Perceived Behavior Control influence customers participation in the utilization of Islamic microfinance products. Methodology: This research uses a descriptive-quantitative-analytic method or approach with several stages, namely testing hypotheses, measuring data, interpretation and description of results and making conclusions. This research using primary data by questionnaires distributed to customers of Islamic financing products in Islamic microfinance. Data collection method using simple random sampling and the data analysis technique uses Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with the Smart PLS-3 application. Findings: The research results show that attitude directly has a significant positive effect on intentions in participation behavior in utilizing Islamic microfinance products at Islamic microfinance institutions. Meanwhile, indirectly attitudes are formed and influenced by awareness, compability, complexity and relative advantadge variables. This finding also confirms that subjective norms originating from a person's group and the perceived pressure from a person's reference to carry out targeted behavior can influence the intentions in participation behavior in utilizing Islamic microfinance products at Islamic microfinance institutions. Other findings that perceived behavioral control results is increased, when individuals feel they have more resources and confidence to perform. Perceived behavior control as measured by individual perceptions about the extent to which behavior performance is easy or difficult and considers facilitators and barriers to doing so has a significant effect on the intention to utilizing Islamic microfinance products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty is an important problem affecting the global economy, including Indonesia. Poverty in Indonesia fluctuates while the acquisition of zakat increases yearly. The main target in the distribution of zakat and infaq funds is to reduce to alleviate poverty. This study aims to determine the effect of zakat and infaq on poverty in Indonesia. This research uses quantitative methods with a descriptive approach. The data analysis used is multiple linear regression analysis. This research showed that zakat had a significant negative influence on poverty. Infaq also has a significant negative effect on poverty. Simultaneously, zakat and infaq have a significant effect on poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study examines the contribution of financial development to poverty reduction in Indonesia using the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bound testing approach to the cointegration framework. It also employs annual data of several financial development measures such as domestic credit, broad money, and financial development indexes from 1986 to 2018. Our findings suggest that financial development and poverty reduction have a cointegration relationship, regardless of the financial development indicators used. Furthermore, we find that domestic credit, broad money, financial institution depth, financial market depth, financial market access, and financial market efficiency reduced poverty. It suggests that financial development reduced poverty through its indirect channel, i.e., the economic growth effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Childhood obesity is a major public health concern as it increases the risk of premature death and adult disability. Globally, the latest estimates showed that more than 340 million children and adolescents between the ages of 5 and 19 were overweight or obese in 2016. This study aimed to investigate the disparities in childhood overweight and obesity across 514 districts in Indonesia, based on geographic and socioeconomic factors. Methods: Geospatial and quantitative analyses were performed using the latest Indonesian Basic Health Survey data from 2018. Dependent variables were rates of overweight and obesity among children aged 5–17 years including by gender. Results: This study found that the rates of overweight were 17.2%, 17.6%, and 16.8% among all children, boys, and girls, while the rates of obesity were 7.0%, 7.9%, and 6.1%, respectively. Boys were 1.30 times more likely to be obese than girls, while overweight was similar between both sexes. Urban cities had significantly higher prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity compared with rural districts by up to 1.26 and 1.32 times, respectively. In addition, the most developed region had significantly higher prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity than the least developed region by up to 1.37 and 1.38 times, respectively. With regard to socioeconomic factors, our analysis demonstrated a notable disparity in the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity across income quintiles. Specifically, the wealthiest districts exhibited a 1.18 times higher prevalence of overweight and obesity among all children compared with the poorest districts. This association was particularly pronounced among boys; in the richest quintile, the prevalence of overweight and obesity was 1.24 and 1.26 times higher, respectively, in comparison to the poorest income quintile. In contrast, district-level education appears to exhibit an inverse relationship with the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity, although the findings were not statistically significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice is very important as Indonesia’s main staple. It contributes a lot to the national expenditure where more than 80% of households of every social class consumed rice. There is a high demand level for rice but there is a limited number of farmers. Of 70% of households in rural that work in the agricultural sector, only 50% grow rice, and most of them are poor farmers. Almost 52% of Indonesia’s rice is produced at Java Isle. However, production growth is only 0,7% given the rapidly increasing number of people and land conversion over the past 7 years. Most Indonesian farmers are classified as small farmers has average land ownership of only less than 0.5 hectares, making them can’t innovate and only can fulfil their basic needs without saving for investment. This is made worse by around 35% of farmers don’t own their land. Technology usage also become an issue where 85% of farmers don’t use internet and 45% are not used in using mechanical technology. The purpose of this research is to find the effect of paddy land conversion, land ownership area, and agriculture technology on farmer’s poverty in Indonesia. By using multiple regression method on 6 independent variables data from all Indonesia provinces, we found that the most significant variable to reduce farmer’s poverty is land ownership area. The statistical result is supported and cross-checked by data and related policies from literature review, and interview with some stakeholders from Ministry of Agriculture, local government, paddy farmer representative, and agriculture instructor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Indonesia has made significant progress in expanding universal health coverage (UHC) through its National Health Insurance (NHI) mechanism. However, in the context of NHI implementation in Indonesia, socioeconomic disparities caused its subpopulations to have different literacy of NHI concepts and procedures, increasing the risk of healthcare access inequities. Hence, the study aimed to analyse the predictors of NHI membership among the poor with different education levels in Indonesia. Methods: This study used the secondary dataset of the nationwide survey "Abilities and Willingness to Pay, Fee, and Participant Satisfaction in implementing National Health Insurance in Indonesia in 2019" by The Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia. The study population was the poor population in Indonesia and included a weighted sample of 18,514 poor people. The study used NHI membership as a dependent variable. Meanwhile, the study analysed seven independent variables: wealth, residence, age, gender, education, employment, and marital status. In the final step of the analysis, the study used binary logistic regression. Results: The results show that the NHI membership among the poor population tends to be higher among those who have higher education, live in urban areas, are older than 17 years old, are married and are wealthier. The poor population with higher education levels is more likely to become NHI members than those with lower education. Their residence, age, gender, employment, marital status, and wealth also predicted their NHI membership. Poor people with primary education are 1.454 times more likely to be NHI members than those without education (AOR 1.454; 95% CI 1.331–1.588). Meanwhile, those with secondary education are 1.478 times more likely to be NHI members than those with no education (AOR 1.478; 95% CI 1.309–1.668). Moreover, higher education is 1.724 times more likely to result in being an NHI member than no education (AOR 1.724; 95% CI 1.356–2.192). Conclusion: Education level, residence, age, gender, employment, marital status, and wealth predict NHI membership among the poor population. Since significant differences exist in all of those predictors among the poor population with different education levels, our findings highlighted the importance of government investment in NHI, which must be supported with investment in the poor population's education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines whether income inequality and poverty are determinants of crime rates across 34 provinces in Indonesia. Three indicators of income inequality and four poverty measures are tested to examine whether the dimension and degree of unequal welfare distribution are linked to crime occurrences. We use panel data from 2010 to 2019 with the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) approach. The findings indicate that higher income levels and wider income inequality are associated with higher crime rates. Our first indicator of income inequality, non-food expenditure, has a larger impact on crime rates than our second and third indicators, i.e., the gap in food expenditure and the Gini ratio. Poverty is also positively associated with crime. The wider the poverty gap (a measure of poverty) and the severity index, the higher the deprivation levels among the poor, which lead to more crime. The significant and positive effect of poverty on crime rates, and the positive nexus between crime, income, and inequality suggest that Indonesia will face a higher crime risk as the country becomes increasingly more affluent. In such a scenario, policymakers can leverage education and investment (domestic and foreign) to minimize the crime rate. The government could also strengthen crime prevention programs, crime settlement systems, and policing in Indonesia, and raise the budget for social assistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transmigration program in Gorontalo Province plays an important role in poverty reduction. The districts of Gorontalo and Boalemo, as a part of Gorontalo Province, were purposefully selected as research locations. A total of 240 respondents of transmigrant and local households were interviewed using a questionnaire containing a list of questions with a 5-Likert scale. The objectives of this research are: (1) to measure the multidimensional poverty level of transmigrant and local households, (2) to determine the impact of the transmigration program on poverty reduction and (3) to identify the factors that influence poverty status of transmigrant and local households. The results show that the poverty level of transmigrant households tends to be lower than local households. The longer the placement of transmigration, the more likely it is to reduce regional poverty levels. The health dimension has a high contribution to the cause of poverty of transmigrants, while the education dimension contributes to the highest cause of poverty of local households. The results of the analysis also show that farmers who are more educated, participate in skills training and have a side business have more opportunity to reduce poverty. The study confirms that the transmigration program has a significant impact on poverty reduction in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic caused an economic downturn, bringing about the emergence of new forms of poverty in society. This study examines how Islamic philanthropy organizations in Indonesia that collect, manage, and distribute zakat, sedekah, and waqf have adapted to the global pandemic to continue serving people in need in urban areas by using digital platforms. The use of technology has accelerated philanthropic practices, ranging from fundraising, distributing, and delivering services to coordinating duties and responsibilities during the pandemic, especially in an urban area such as Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia. By focusing on the experiences of two leading Islamic philanthropy organizations, Badan Amil Zakat Nasional and Dompet Dhuafa, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia, this study reveals that Islamic philanthropic organizations have adopted several changes and innovations by embracing technology. The article also argues that Islamic philanthropy has had a significant role in mitigating the impact of the worldwide pandemic on society's vulnerabilities and economic problems through technological support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesian government shows their big commitment on the improvement of infrastructure which is reflected in some regulations and policies made. It is supported by many empirical evidences that show the importance of infrastructure improvement on the economic performance. This paper developed a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model to analyze the impacts of infrastructure on the Indonesian economy by introducing several types of infrastructure and discussing the impacts of it on the poverty level. The results suggest that improvement on any types of infrastructure is expected to increase the economic growth, raise the government revenue, raise the factors' income and reduce the poverty level. Improvement on the public work of agriculture, land transportation and telecommunication are still being preferable options comparing to others. Interestingly, even though the public work of agriculture is usually located in rural areas, the model suggests that the improvement on this sector will result higher impact on the urban household rather than to the rural household. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By exploring Islamic charitable clinics in Indonesia, this paper shows how community-based initiatives and zakat [Islamic charitable obligation] agencies have provided wider access to viable health services for destitute families in poor urban and rural areas. Zakat agencies, with their charitable clinics, have recently gained strong support from both society and the government. They have, for example, tried to bring a community response to the current social economic challenges through the revitalization of the zakat and Islamic charity practice. Low-priced, accessible and free medical assistance for poorer families and small economic enterprises provided by the zakat agencies reflect the endeavours of middle class Indonesian Muslims to translate Islamic discourse on social welfare in a more concrete way. The rise of Islamic charitable clinics, whose origins and motives can partly be linked to the Islamic discourse of the welfare of the ummah [the Islamic community], is without doubt a consequence of emerging interpretations of the meaning and function of Islamic aid in contemporary Indonesian Islam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the relationship between internal migration and economic growth and development in Asia, concentrating on four countries: China, India, Vietnam and Indonesia. Levels of internal migration in Asia are high and rising. Despite being negatively regarded by many policy makers, internal migration can contribute to economic growth and poverty reduction. For example, remittances sent home by internal migrants can reduce poverty at the household level, stimulate economic growth in both the receiving and sending areas and reduce social inequalities. Until now, the potential of internal migration has been severely limited by policies designed to discourage it, However, policy makers are now beginning to recognise the benefits, In order to maximise these benefits, the article argues, effective partnerships between governments, civil society, the private sector and donors will have to be formed. Better data on the various Factors stimulating and affecting internal migration will also be needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty in Indonesia has become a critical issue as a result of social and economic disparities. The phenomenon is inextricably linked to education's role as a gateway to poverty alleviation. One of the primary causes of entrepreneurial failure, which ultimately increases the risk of bankruptcy and poverty, is a lack of public knowledge about marketing. From the stated problem, the purpose of this research is to investigate how marketing education can aid in the reduction of poverty in the context of quality-of-life improvement. Because most previous research focused on unemployment and income levels as indicators of poverty, which did not explain the quality of life comprehensively, a review of the quality of life is required in this study. Additionally, Man Whitney analysis was used to compare the quality of life in the two groups of respondents using a quantitative method. Observations were also conducted for a period of six months to assess the respondents' quality of life. WHOQOLBREF was used as a research instrument and was distributed to Group 1 (30 respondents who had received marketing education) and Group 2 (30 respondents who had not received marketing education). Each respondent is from a different province in Indonesia. The findings indicate that marketing education can help reduce poverty, resulting in significant improvements in quality of life. Marketing knowledge leads to positive changes that have a significant impact on human well-being. This research contributes to our understanding of marketing education as a means of reducing poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Households around the world as well as in Indonesia have become exposed to a wider variety of vulnerabilities and risks in recent years due to an increase in the intensity and scope of natural disasters. This study aims to comprehensively examine the impact of natural disasters on Indonesian household welfare (consumption and poverty) using the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) of Wave 3 and 4. This study finds that households in rural areas are the most vulnerable to natural disasters; the average asset losses and medical/funeral costs from natural disasters are roughly USD 2,190/household. Our econometric models confirm that earthquakes are the most destructive disaster to affect household welfare, whereas droughts, forest fires, floods, and other disasters appear to have only moderate effects. Earthquakes reduce households' probability of being non-poor by 5 percentage points. Disaster mitigation and preparedness play a significant role in reducing the devastating impacts of disasters and in lessening households' vulnerability to poverty. The policy recommendations resulting from this study include advancing the provision of life and health insurance, promoting food buffers, and increasing households' access to formal credit institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aims to examine the relationship between poverty and human development index to happiness rate in Indonesia through Islamic studies approach. This is because poverty Indonesia till become a prominent economic issue but, it has a high rate of happiness compared to another developed country in ASIA at the same time. Besides, to reach such happiness, it also needs a great human development as an indicator to create welfare of such countries. This is a quantitative research with multiple regressions, using macro-economic data since 2014 & 2017 from 33 provinces of Indonesia as a sample. The result revealed that poverty and human development index have a positive significant effect on happiness. Then, this empirical finding is in line with the concept of maqāṣid alsyariah, specifically hifdz al- dīn and hifdz al-‘aql. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]