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Novel foods especially formulated and targeted for the elderly population should provide sufficient nutrients and bioactive ingredients to counteract the natural age-related deterioration of various organs and tissues. Dietary protein and phenolic compounds achieve this goal; however, older adults have alterations in their gastrointestinal system that may impact their bioavailability and few studies have been aimed at this population. Since phenolic compounds are the subject of multiple biotransformations by host and microbiome enzymes during the digestion process, identification of their bioavailable forms in human plasma or tissues represents a considerable analytical challenge. In this study, UHPLC-ESI-QTOF/MS-MS, chemometrics, and multivariate statistical methods were used to identify the amino acids and phenolic compounds that were increased in the plasma of elderly adults after a 30-day intervention in which they had consumed an especially formulated muffin and beverage containing Brosimum alicastrum Sw. seed flour. A large interindividual variation was observed regarding the amino acids and phenolic metabolites identified in the plasma samples, before and after the intervention. Three phenolic metabolites were significantly increased in the population after the intervention: protocatechuic acid, 5-(methoxy-4′-hydroxyphenyl) valerolactone, and phloretic acid. These metabolites, as well as others that were not significantly increased (although they did increase in several individuals), are probably the product of the microbiota metabolism of the major phenolic compounds present in the B. alicastrum Sw. seed flour and other food ingredients. A significant decrease in 4-ethyl-phenol, a biomarker of stress, was observed in the samples. Results showed that the incorporation of foods rich in phenolic compounds into the regular diet of older adults contributes to the increase in bioactive compounds in plasma, that could substantially benefit their mental, cardiovascular, and digestive health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present work was to analyse the concentrations of bioactive compounds, and the antioxidant capacity of three foods prepared from the seeds and leaves of Ramon tree (Brosimum alicastrum). We studied the effect of infusion time and ultrasonic extraction on leaves, roasted seeds (coffee substitute), and Ramon flour to optimise the recovery of bioactive components. Infusion time positively affected the concentrations of total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total tannins (TCT), and glycosylated flavonoids (TFG) in the leaves and seeds. The amount of solubilised phenolic compounds increased with increasing infusion time until 2,552 mg of TPC, 54.1 mg of TFC, 75.3 mg of TFG, and 2.40 mg of TCT were obtained per 100 g of leaves. We reported 32.9% greater infusion of toasted seeds in TPC, 87.3% in anthocyanins, 84.6% in TCT, and 91.5% in vitamin C than in leaves. Furthermore, the antioxidant capacity of the seed infusions was 56% greater than that of the leaf infusions. The ultrasonication time was positively correlated with the tannin concentration, which was 43.8% greater in the leaves (5.24 mg/100 g) than in the flour. The neutralising capacity of free radicals determined by 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) was 23.6% greater than that of flour (27.93 μmol/g) and leaves (6.48 μmol/g), and was not related to the extraction time. Taken together, these findings showed that Ramon seeds and leaves could be highly functional foods due to their nutritional quality and high content of antioxidant compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The foliage of the tree Brosimum alicastrum is widely employed by small farmers in Latin America to supplement cattle, sheep and goats during the dry season. Foliage is manually cut, and the branches are chopped and fed directly, being highly palatable to ruminant species. The foliage remains green throughout the year, and the tree can be defoliated twice per year. Cattle can also directly browse the foliage from the tree, but it is mostly used in cut and carry systems and transported in carts to farms. The experiment hereby described showed that the crude protein fraction of the foliage of B. alicastrum is highly fermentable in the rumen, supplying nitrogen for growth of the microbial population. As the percent of foliage of B. alicastrum in the ration was increased, dry matter intake by sheep was concomitantly increased, as was the rate of the passage of digesta through the rumen and the supply of microbial nitrogen to the small intestine. The foliage of B. alicastrum is a valuable feedstuff for ruminants in the tropics and can be used as a cheap source of protein during the critical periods of the year to improve weight gain and milk yield in a sustainable way. An experiment was carried out to assess the effect of the incorporation of sun-dried foliage of Brosimum alicastrum into rations based on hay of Megathyrsus maximus on intake, rumen fermentation, kinetics of passage, microbial nitrogen supply to the small intestine, apparent digestibility in Pelibuey hair sheep. Four rations were randomly allotted to four rumen-cannulated lambs (BW = 37.4 ± 4.9 kg) using a 4 × 4 Latin square design to assess the effect of increasing levels (0, 15, 30 and 45% DM basis) of foliage of Brosimum alicastrum on a basal ration of M. maximus. Organic matter intake and water consumption increased linearly (p < 0.01) with increasing levels of B. alicastrum in the ration. The rate and potential extent of rumen fermentation of OM and CP of B. alicastrum were 10.6%/h and 86.6% and 11.4%/h and 95.2%, respectively, but no effect (p > 0.05) was found on the potential rumen degradation of DM (40.2%) or on the rate of degradation of DM (0.033%/h) of M. maximus, although a positive effect was found in the rumen degradation rate of NDF (p < 0.05). VFA and ammonia concentration in the rumen and the rate of passage of solids and liquids through the rumen (k1) increased linearly (p < 0.01) with increasing levels of B. alicastrum. Rumen pH was not affected by the incorporation of B. alicastrum (p > 0.05). Microbial nitrogen supply to the small intestine (p < 0.001), apparent digestibility of dry matter (p < 0.01) and NDF (p < 0.05) of the rations were also significantly increased as a result of the incorporation of B. alicastrum foliage. Results from this experiment suggest that the foliage of Brosimum alicastrum can be readily incorporated at around 30% of the ration of dry matter in hair sheep with beneficial effects on feed intake, rate of passage and microbial N supply to the lower tract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Novel foods especially formulated and targeted for the elderly population should provide sufficient nutrients and bioactive ingredients to counteract the natural age-related deterioration of various organs and tissues. Dietary protein and phenolic compounds achieve this goal; however, older adults have alterations in their gastrointestinal system that may impact their bioavailability and few studies have been aimed at this population. Since phenolic compounds are the subject of multiple biotransformations by host and microbiome enzymes during the digestion process, identification of their bioavailable forms in human plasma or tissues represents a considerable analytical challenge. In this study, UHPLC-ESI-QTOF/MS-MS, chemometrics, and multivariate statistical methods were used to identify the amino acids and phenolic compounds that were increased in the plasma of elderly adults after a 30-day intervention in which they had consumed an especially formulated muffin and beverage containing Brosimum alicastrum Sw. seed flour. A large interindividual variation was observed regarding the amino acids and phenolic metabolites identified in the plasma samples, before and after the intervention. Three phenolic metabolites were significantly increased in the population after the intervention: protocatechuic acid, 5-(methoxy-4′-hydroxyphenyl) valerolactone, and phloretic acid. These metabolites, as well as others that were not significantly increased (although they did increase in several individuals), are probably the product of the microbiota metabolism of the major phenolic compounds present in the B. alicastrum Sw. seed flour and other food ingredients. A significant decrease in 4-ethyl-phenol, a biomarker of stress, was observed in the samples. Results showed that the incorporation of foods rich in phenolic compounds into the regular diet of older adults contributes to the increase in bioactive compounds in plasma, that could substantially benefit their mental, cardiovascular, and digestive health.

An experiment was carried out to assess the effect of the incorporation of sun-dried foliage of Brosimum alicastrum into rations based on hay of Megathyrsus maximus on intake, rumen fermentation, kinetics of passage, microbial nitrogen supply to the small intestine, apparent digestibility in Pelibuey hair sheep. Four rations were randomly allotted to four rumen-cannulated lambs (BW = 37.4 ± 4.9 kg) using a 4 × 4 Latin square design to assess the effect of increasing levels (0, 15, 30 and 45% DM basis) of foliage of Brosimum alicastrum on a basal ration of M. maximus. Organic matter intake and water consumption increased linearly (p < 0.01) with increasing levels of B. alicastrum in the ration. The rate and potential extent of rumen fermentation of OM and CP of B. alicastrum were 10.6%/h and 86.6% and 11.4%/h and 95.2%, respectively, but no effect (p > 0.05) was found on the potential rumen degradation of DM (40.2%) or on the rate of degradation of DM (0.033%/h) of M. maximus, although a positive effect was found in the rumen degradation rate of NDF (p < 0.05). VFA and ammonia concentration in the rumen and the rate of passage of solids and liquids through the rumen (k1) increased linearly (p < 0.01) with increasing levels of B. alicastrum. Rumen pH was not affected by the incorporation of B. alicastrum (p > 0.05). Microbial nitrogen supply to the small intestine (p < 0.001), apparent digestibility of dry matter (p < 0.01) and NDF (p < 0.05) of the rations were also significantly increased as a result of the incorporation of B. alicastrum foliage. Results from this experiment suggest that the foliage of Brosimum alicastrum can be readily incorporated at around 30% of the ration of dry matter in hair sheep with beneficial effects on feed intake, rate of passage and microbial N supply to the lower tract.

Premise: The mechanisms generating the geographical distributions of genetic diversity are a central theme in evolutionary biology. The amount of genetic diversity and its distribution are controlled by several factors, including dispersal abilities, physical barriers, and environmental and climatic changes. We investigated the patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation among populations of the widespread species Brosimum alicastrum in Mexico. Methods: Using nuclear DNA microsatellite data, we tested whether the genetic structure of B. alicastrum was associated with the roles of the Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as geographical barriers to gene flow and to infer the role of past events in the genetic diversity patterns. We further used a maximum‐likelihood population‐effects mixed model (MLPE) to identify the main factor affecting population differentiation in B. alicastrum. Results: Our results suggested that Mexican B. alicastrum is well differentiated into three main lineages. Patterns of the genetic structure at a finer scale did not fully correspond to the current geographical barriers to gene flow. According to the MLPE mixed model, isolation by distance is the best model for explaining the genetic differentiation of B. alicastrum in Mexico. Conclusions: We propose that the differentiation patterns might reflect (1) an ancient differentiation that occurred in Central and South America, (2) the effects of past climatic changes, and (3) the functions of some physical barriers to gene flow. This study provides insights into the possible mechanisms underlying the geographic genetic variation of B. alicastrum along a moisture gradient in tropical lowland forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aimed to evaluate domestication effects on the genetic structure of two dioecious species Brosimum alicastrum Sw. (Moraceae) and Spondias purpurea L. (Anacardiaceae), and a heterostylous one Cordia dodecandra A. DC. (Cordiaceae), growing in remnant forests and homegardens within two climatic regions of the Peninsula of Yucatan. The trees of B. alicastrum and C. dodecandra are propagated by seeds in both population types, while those of S. purpurea are propagated asexually in the homegardens. ISSRs genetic markers were amplified from foliar tissue of 18 to 21 plants per population type/region combination for each species. Genetic diversity, genetic differentiation, and genetic structure estimators were obtained and compared among species at the regional and population level. We found higher polymorphism (37.5–41), but lower private alleles (4–4.4) and similar heterozygosity (0.1–0.12) in the species with sexual reproduction compared to S. purpurea (34, 8, and 0.11, respectively). Genetic diversity in B. alicastrum populations varied with the region; in C. dodecandra, to the population type; and in S. purpurea, to both the population type and the region. Unrestricted gene flow among regions was suggested by low ΦRT in C. dodecandra and S. purpurea (−0.006 and 0.002) but not for B. alicastrum (0.1). Gene flow between populations within the regions for the sexually reproducing species was suggested by lower θII (0.005–0.07 and 0.008–0.1) estimates than those of S. purpurea (0.09 and 0.13). Even though the lowest paired FST (0.002–0.05) and ΦST (0.002–0.12) values were found between the northeastern forest and homegarden populations for the three species, the dendrogram, Bayesian assignment, and K-Means analyses suggest that the least differentiated populations are southwestern forest and homegarden populations of B. alicastrum and S. purpurea, and the southwestern forest and northeastern homegarden of C. dodecandra. The sexual reproduction, biotic interactions, and extensive management of B. alicastrum and C. dodecandra in the agroforestry and the urban systems may contribute to connectivity between wild and domesticated populations, while in S. purpurea this connectivity is interrupted by the clonal propagation of the species in the homegardens.

La apicultura es una de las actividades sobresalientes a nivel mundial, sin embargo, la época de escasez de néctar y polen afecta negativamente las condiciones de las colonias; ante tal situación, el presente trabajo, tuvo como objetivo evaluar jarabes proteicos obtenido de hojas de chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius Mill I. M. Johns), moringa (Moringa oleifera L.) y semillas de ramón (Brosimum alicastrum Swarts) adicionadas en dosis de 10, 25 y 50 g al jarabe de azúcar en proporción 1:1 (p/v). Se registró la aceptación, ganancia de peso, número de abejas, número de celdas con cría operculada, néctar-miel y polen. Los datos se recabaron mediante un diseño bloques completamente al azar con un arreglo factorial 3x4. El jarabe de B. alicastrum, tuvo una aceptación de 99.9%, seguido de C. aconitifolius y M. oleifera, con un 91.7 y 83.4% respectivamente, en la ganancia de peso, B. alicastrum gano 0.87 ± 0.14 kg, seguido de C. aconitifolius y M. oleifera, con 0.3 ± 0.17 y -0.4 ± 0.11 kg respectivamente, de igual forma B. alicastrum presentó la mejor respuesta para las variables, numero de abejas (1021.64), celdas con cría (499.69) y celdas con néctar-miel (515.22), superando a C. aconitifolius (791.33 abejas, 125.88 cría y 299.88 néctar-miel) y M. oleifera (805.08 abejas, 240.11 cría y 305.45 néctar-miel); se concluye que el jarabe adicionado con 25 g de B. alicastrum fue la mejor combinación y puede ser utilizado como una alternativa eficiente en la alimentación suplementaria de las abejas melíferas durante la época de escasez.

Physiological changes in elderly individuals (EI) can contribute to nutritional deterioration and comorbidities that reduce their quality of life. Factors such as diet can modulate some of these effects. The aim was to evaluate the functionality of foods added with Brosimum alicastrum Sw. seed flour in EI. EI (n = 23) living in nursing home conditions agreed to participate. A control stage was carried out (30 days) and subsequently, an intervention stage (30 days) was realized in which a muffin and a beverage, designed for EI, were added to the participants’ their usual diet. In both stages, anthropometric parameters, body composition, nutritional status, dietary intake, sarcopenic status, cognitive and affective states, biometric parameters, and total phenolic compounds (TPC), and antioxidant capacity in foods and plasma of EI were determined. The results showed that the consumption of the foods improved the energy intake and preserved the muscle reserves of the EI. The EI gained body weight (+1.1 kg), increased their protein (+18.6 g/day; 1.5 g/kg BW/day), dietary fiber (+13.4 g/day), iron (+4.4 mg/day), zinc (+1.8 mg/day), folic acid (+83.4 µg/day) consumption while reducing their cholesterol (−66 mg/day) and sodium (−319.5 mg/day) consumption. LDL-C lipoproteins reduced (14.8%) and urea (33.1%) and BUN (33.3%) increased. The TPC increased (7.8%) in the plasma, particularly in women (10.7%). The foods improve the EI nutritional status, and this has a cardiovascular protective effect that can benefit the health of the EI.

Se midieron los flujos de materia orgánica aportados por la hojarasca al manantial de Cañaverales (La Guajira, Colombia), durante un período de seis meses (seco y lluvioso). La caída mensual fue de 0,17 t·ha-1·mes-1, que extrapolada a un año representó 2,08 t·ha-1·año-1, valor intermedio a los registrados en otros bosques secos tropicales. Se evidenció una correlación significativa entre la caída de hojarasca y la precipitación. Los aportes orgánicos fueron dominados por la fracción foliar (66,61 %), seguidos del material reproductivo (15,92 %), el material leñoso (11,12 %) y misceláneo (6,36 %). La mayor caída de hojarasca foliar se regis­tró para Prosopis juliflora (1,31 t·ha-1·año-1) y la menor caída la presentó Brosimum alicastrum (0,46 t·ha-1·año-1). Las especies P. juliflora y Anacardium excelsum presentaron los mayores aportes de hojarasca foliar, lo que sugiere que podrían ser especies potenciales para su inclusión en actividades de restauración de zonas con corrientes de agua. P. juliflora fue la especie que presentó mayores tasas de descomposición de hojarasca (0,242 año-1), mientras que la Sterculia apetala fue la más persistente (0,079 año-1). Los resultados indican que la caída de hojarasca está condicionada por la composición del bosque y las variaciones climáticas.

We analyzed the contribution of particulate organic matter to the spring Cañaverales (La Guajira, Colombia) over a period of six months (dry and rainy). The monthly litterfall was 0.17 t·ha-1·month-1, which represented 2.08 t·ha-1·year-1 when extrapolated to one year. This is an intermediate value with respect to others reported from tropical dry forests. The correlation between litter production and precipitation was statistically significant. Litterfall was dominated by the leaf fraction (66.61%), followed by the reproductive material (15.92%), the woody (11.12%) and miscellaneous materials (6.36%). The highest production of leaf litter was registered for Prosopis juliflora (1.31 t·ha-1·year-1) and the lowest for Brosimum alicastrum (0.46 t·ha-1·year-1). P. juliflora and Anacardium excelsum, presented the major contributions of foliar leaf litter, what suggests they could be potential species for inclusion in restoration activities in riparian areas. P. juliflora was the species that presented the highest rates of litter decomposition (0.242 year-1), while the Sterculia apetala was the most persistent (0.079 year-1). The results indicate that litterfall and litter decomposition rates depend on forest composition and climatic variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ramon (Brosimum alicastrum) is a forest tree native to the Mesoamerican region and the Caribbean. The flour obtained from Ramon seeds is 75% carbohydrate, of which 63% is starch, indicating its potential as a novel raw material for bioethanol production. The objective of this study was to produce ethanol from Ramon flour using a 90 °C thermic treatment for 30 min and a native yeast strain (Candida tropicalis) for the fermentation process. In addition, the structure of the flour and the effects of pretreatment were observed via scanning electron microscopy. The native yeast strain was superior to the commercial strain, fermenting 98.8% of the reducing sugar (RS) at 48 h and generating 31% more ethanol than commercial yeast. One ton of flour yielded 213 L of ethanol. These results suggest that Ramon flour is an excellent candidate for ethanol production. This is the first report on bioethanol production using the starch from Ramon seed flour and a native yeast strain isolated from this feedstock. This alternative material for bioethanol production minimizes the competition between food and energy production, a priority for Mexico that has led to significant changes in public policies to enhance the development of renewable energies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Se estudiaron las respuestas de crecimiento, supervivencia y los diferentes tipos de herbivoría sobre plántulas de B. alicastrum en una selva neotropical de México. Se seleccionaron 122 plántulas de una población las cuales se asignaron a tres tratamientos de defoliación: control o 0% (n=21), 50% (n=51) y 90% (n=50). Cada 4 meses durante dos años se midió su crecimiento (en términos de la tasa relativa de crecimiento en biomasa, área foliar, hojas producidas y altura) y supervivencia. Además cada 12 meses, mediante el uso de una cuadricula de 2mm-2, se evaluó la herbivoría causada por patógenos e insectos. También dentro de una parcela de 500 m largo x 10 m de ancho se evaluó en 1095 plántulas de 3 meses de edad la herbivoría por mamíferos. En la misma parcela pero en 113 plántulas se estimó la herbivoría por patógenos e insectos. Las plántulas defoliadas al 50% compensaron su crecimiento en todas las estructuras medidas, pero sólo la tasa relativa de crecimiento y altura lo hicieron con la defoliación al 90%. La tasa relativa de crecimiento y el área foliar disminuyeron gradualmente con el tiempo, contrario a la altura con un patrón opuesto. El número de hojas producidas no se afectó por el tiempo. La probabilidad estimada de supervivencia incrementó hasta un 95% con la defoliación y disminuyó hasta un 37% a los 24 meses. La herbivoría por mamíferos fue el más incidente y severo, en algunos casos hasta un 100% de defoliación. En tanto la causada por patógenos e insectos fue secundaria. El crecimiento compensatorio en área foliar, producción de hojas y altura sugieren un mecanismo compensatorio sinérgico expresado a nivel del crecimiento individual de la planta (tasa de crecimiento en biomasa). Al mismo tiempo junto con la supervivencia sugiere un posible compromiso entre las respuestas de crecimiento a nivel de la hoja - área foliar y hojas producidas - versus producción de defensas químicas.Growth, survival and herbivory of seedlings in Brosimum alicastrum (Moraceae), a species from the Neotropical undergrowth. Growth responses, survival, and herbivory, on seedlings of Brosimum alicastrum were studied in a neotropical Mexican forest. We selected 122 seedlings and divided them into three groups assigned to defoliation treatments: control or 0 (n=21), 50 (n=51) and 90% (n=50). Every 4 months during two years we measured seedling growth (in terms of relative growth rate in biomass, leaf area growth, produced leaves and height growth) and survival. In addition, we evaluated every 12 months pathogen damage and insect herbivory using a 2 mm-2 grid. Separately, we estimated mammal herbivory in 3-month old seedlings that were selected within a plot of 500 m x 10 m (N=1095). Pathogen damage and insect herbivory were evaluated within the same plot in 113 seedlings. We found that 50 % defoliated seedlings showed compensatory responses in all growth parameters. Relative growth rate and height growth also had a compensatory response in seedlings at 90% defoliation. Relative growth rate and leaf area growth gradually decreased with time although height growth seedling showed an opposite pattern. Leaves produced were not affected by time. Estimated seedling survival probability increased with defoliation to a maximum of 97%, decreasing at 24 month to 37%. Mammal herbivory was more frequent and severe than herbivory caused by pathogens and insects. In some cases, mammal herbivory produced total defoliation. Compensatory growth in leaf area growth, produced leaves and height growth seedling suggest a synergic compensatory mechanism expressed in a whole-plant growth biomass (relative growth rate). Compensation and survival results suggest trade-offs at the leaf level, such as leaf area growth and produced leaves versus chemical defenses, respectively. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56 (4): 2055-2067. Epub 2008 December 12.

Scarabaeinae are sensitive to structural habitat changes caused by disturbance. We compared copronecrophagous beetle (Scarabaeinae) community structure in three differently managed zones within an agroecosystem of the northern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. We placed dung and carrion traps once a month from June 2004 through May 2005. The beetle community included 17 species from the genera Canthon, Canthidium, Deltochilum, Pseudocanthon, Malagoniella, Onthophagus, Phanaeus, Copris, Uroxys, Sisyphus and Ateuchus. The secondary vegetation had a higher beetle diversity than the other two zones. Species richness was highest in the Brosimum alicastrum plantation. The pasture had the lowest species diversity and richness, but exhibited the highest abundance of Scarabaeinae in the dry season. The two zones with extensive tree cover were the most diverse. Roller beetles were dominant over burrower species and small-sized species outnumbered large species. Our data show two important issues: beetle species in the pasture extended their activity to the beginning of the dry season, while abundances dropped in the other, unirrigated zones; and the possibility that the Scarabaeinae living in neotropical forests are opportunistic saprophages and have specialized habits for resources other than dung. The B. alicastrum plantation is beneficial to the entire ranch production system because it functions as a dispersion and development area for stenotopic species limited to tree cover. Rev. Biol. Trop. 55 (1): 83-99. Epub 2007 March. 31.Este estudio describe y compara la estructura de la comunidad de escarabajos copronecrófagos (Scarabaeinae) en tres zonas con diferente manejo al interior de un agroecosistema localizado en el norte de la Península de Yucatán. A lo largo de un año de muestreo sistemático se encontraron 17 especies de los géneros Canthon, Canthidium, Deltochilum, Pseudocanthon, Malagoniella, Onthophagus, Phanaeus, Copris, Uroxys, Sisyphus y Ateuchus. El área de vegetación secundaria tuvo la comunidad más diversa. En la plantación de Brosimum alicastrum (ramón) se encontró la mayor riqueza de especies. El potrero tuvo la menor riqueza y diversidad, pero en él se observó la mayor abundancia de Scarabaeinae en la estación seca. Las áreas con mayor cobertura arbórea tuvieron mayor diversidad y se encontró dominancia de las especies rodadoras sobre las cavadoras y de las especies de talla pequeña sobre las de tamaño grande. Nuestros datos muestran dos aspectos importantes: en el potrero (con riego) las especies de escarabajos extienden su actividad hasta el inicio de la época seca, mientras que las abundancias decaen en las áreas que no reciben riego; la posibilidad de que los Scarabaeinae neotropicales sean saprófagos oportunistas y tengan hábitos alimenticios especializados para disponer de otros recursos además del excremento. El ramonal beneficia al sistema completo pues provee de un espacio para la dispersión y permanencia de varias especies estenoecas a la cobertura vegetal.

Ramon (Brosimum alicastrum) is a forest tree native to the Mesoamerican region and the Caribbean. The flour obtained from Ramon seeds is 75% carbohydrate, of which 63% is starch, indicating its potential as a novel raw material for bioethanol production. The objective of this study was to produce ethanol from Ramon flour using a 90 °C thermic treatment for 30 min and a native yeast strain (Candida tropicalis) for the fermentation process. In addition, the structure of the flour and the effects of pretreatment were observed via scanning electron microscopy. The native yeast strain was superior to the commercial strain, fermenting 98.8% of the reducing sugar (RS) at 48 h and generating 31% more ethanol than commercial yeast. One ton of flour yielded 213 L of ethanol. These results suggest that Ramon flour is an excellent candidate for ethanol production. This is the first report on bioethanol production using the starch from Ramon seed flour and a native yeast strain isolated from this feedstock. This alternative material for bioethanol production minimizes the competition between food and energy production, a priority for Mexico that has led to significant changes in public policies to enhance the development of renewable energies.

La Sierra de Otontepec carece de un programa de manejo razón por la cual no ha generado beneficios para sus poseedores. El pago por servicios ambientales, en particular la captura de carbono por especies arbóreas, es una opción que puede lograr ese propósito. Para ello es necesario cuantificar la biomasa maderable y estimar la cantidad de carbono fijado, lo cual fue el objetivo de este trabajo. Mediante un muestreo al azar y sobre una imagen satelital (1:50 mil) se trazó una cuadricula sobre la superficie del ejido San Nicolasillo, Chontla, Ver., ubicando 24 parcelas de muestreo de 400 m2, donde se midió diámetro normal y altura fustal y total del arbolado adulto para obtener el volumen fustal de las tres especies mas abundantes, con el cual se procesaron cuatro modelos matemáticos para predecir biomasa maderable mediante regresión no lineal con el programa Statistica®, seleccionando aquel con mayor coeficiente de determinación (r2). Se determinó que Brosimun alicastrum (Ojite), Persea schiedeana (Pagua) y Quercus lancifolia (Encino), tienen una biomasa fustal de 157.84, 95.2 y 149.48 m3, para un total de 402.5 m3. Los modelos de Schumacher (Y=β0*x1 β1*x2β2) y Fórmula Australiana (Y=β0+β1*x12+β2*x2+β2*x12*x2) tuvieron el mejor ajuste. Se estimó que en las 3000 ha de bosque en excelentes condiciones de conservación de la Sierra de Otontepec existen 628,906 ton de carbono almacenado en la biomasa fustal.

Microwave drying of plant specimens is a potentially useful alternative to chemical and traditional air drying pres-ervation techniques because microwave ovens are widely available, and the method is quick and inexpensive and kills pests without leaving toxic residue. We tested the hypotheses that (1) there would be a difference in the concentration of genomic DNA that could be extracted from microwave-dried compared to silica-dried specimens, (2) the effects of microwave treatment would be observable even when the specimen had been first dried in silica gel crystals, (3) the effects of microwave drying would continue to be observable in PCR product concentration using chloroplast, nuclear ribosomal, and nuclear markers, and (4) microwave drying would cause contamination of the nucleic acids by cell material, and this contamination would be reflected in the spectral absorbance of the extracted genomic DNA. In a paired comparison of silica-dried, microwave-dried, and silica+microwave-treated leaves of Brosimum alicastrum (Moraceae) we found that microwave drying produced spec-imens with bright leaf colour, which to date have not suffered from insect or fungal attack. However microwave treatment significantly reduced the concentration of extractable genomic DNA, even when the leaves had been previously dried in silica gel, and reduced the concentration of PCR product produced using chloroplast and nuclear ribosomal but not nuclear markers. The genomic DNA extracted from both the microwave-dried and silica+microwave-treated material appears to contain some cellular contaminant which absorbs at 230 nm, indicated by low 260/230 nm absorbance ratios. We suggest that microwave drying is a useful alternative to chemical preservation techniques which limit the capacity for DNA extraction from preserved material. However microwave drying is less desirable than traditional air- or oven drying or the combination of traditionally dried herbarium specimens plus companion samples dried in silica gel crystals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growth, survival and herbivory of seedlings in Brosimum alicastrum (Moraceae), a species from the Neotropical undergrowth. Growth responses, survival, and herbivory, on seedlings of Brosimum alicastrum were studied in a neotropical Mexican forest. We selected 122 seedlings and divided them into three groups assigned to defoliation treatments: control or 0 (n=21), 50 (n=51) and 90% (n=50). Every 4 months during two years we measured seedling growth (in terms of relative growth rate in biomass, leaf area growth, produced leaves and height growth) and survival. In addition, we evaluated every 12 months pathogen damage and insect herbivory using a 2 mm-2 grid. Separately, we estimated mammal herbivory in 3-month old seedlings that were selected within a plot of 500 m x 10 m (N=1095). Pathogen damage and insect herbivory were evaluated within the same plot in 113 seedlings. We found that 50 % defoliated seedlings showed compensatory responses in all growth parameters. Relative growth rate and height growth also had a compensatory response in seedlings at 90% defoliation. Relative growth rate and leaf area growth gradually decreased with time although height growth seedling showed an opposite pattern. Leaves produced were not affected by time. Estimated seedling survival probability increased with defoliation to a maximum of 97%, decreasing at 24 month to 37%. Mammal herbivory was more frequent and severe than herbivory caused by pathogens and insects. In some cases, mammal herbivory produced total defoliation. Compensatory growth in leaf area growth, produced leaves and height growth seedling suggest a synergic compensatory mechanism expressed in a whole-plant growth biomass (relative growth rate). Compensation and survival results suggest trade-offs at the leaf level, such as leaf area growth and produced leaves versus chemical defenses, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies conclude that light is the most important resource that determines plant performance of tree saplings in tropical rain forests, and implicitly suggest that soil resources are less important. To provide a quantitative test for soil versus light effects on sapling performance, we studied how saplings of the shade-tolerant tree species Brosimum alicastrum responded to contrasting levels of light availability and soil fertility in a Mexican tropical rain forest. Therefore saplings were selected from ten low-light exposure (crown position index <1.5) and ten high-light exposure (crown position index ≥2.5) sites either on productive alluvial soils, or on poor sandy soils on adjacent hills. Annual growth responses were scored for 58 saplings. The soil–light interaction had a strong positive effect on branching rate and leaf area production, rather than light or soil alone. Height growth only increased at higher light availability. Herbivore damage was higher on the more productive soil and, to a lesser extent, at higher light availability. Our results suggest that saplings (1) responded differently to soil and light availability, (2) expanded in overall size when both soil and light limitations are released, but only increased in height with increasing light intensity (3) and faced a trade-off between expansion and defence along both soil and light gradients. This study emphasizes the role of soil resources, in interaction with light availability, on the plastic responses in saplings living in a tropical forest understorey. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

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Scarabaeinae are sensitive to structural habitat changes caused by disturbance. We compared copronecrophagous beetle (Scarabaeinae) community structure in three differently managed zones within an agroecosystem of the northern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. We placed dung and carrion traps once a month from June 2004 through May 2005. The beetle community included 17 species from the genera Canthon, Canthidium, Deltochilum, Pseudocanthon, Malagoniella, Onthophagus, Phanaeus, Copris, Uroxys, Sisyphus and Ateuchus. The secondary vegetation had a higher beetle diversity than the other two zones. Species richness was highest in the Brosimum alicastrum plantation. The pasture had the lowest species diversity and richness, but exhibited the highest abundance of Scarabaeinae in the dry season. The two zones with extensive tree cover were the most diverse. Roller beetles were dominant over burrower species and small-sized species outnumbered large species. Our data show two important issues: beetle species in the pasture extended their activity to the beginning of the dry season, while abundances dropped in the other, unirrigated zones; and the possibility that the Scarabaeinae living in neotropical forests are opportunistic saprophages and have specialized habits for resources other than dung. The B. alicastrum plantation is beneficial to the entire ranch production system because it functions as a dispersion and development area for stenotopic species limited to tree cover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]