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Marine protected areas (MPAs) provide place-based management of marine ecosystems through various degrees and types of protective actions. Habitats such as coral reefs are especially susceptible to degradation resulting from climate change, as evidenced by mass bleaching events over the past two decades. Marine ecosystems are being altered by direct effects of climate change including ocean warming, ocean acidification, rising sea level, changing circulation patterns, increasing severity of storms, and changing freshwater influxes. As impacts of climate change strengthen they may exacerbate effects of existing stressors and require new or modified management approaches; MPA networks are generally accepted as an improvement over individual MPAs to address multiple threats to the marine environment. While MPA networks are considered a potentially effective management approach for conserving marine biodiversity, they should be established in conjunction with other management strategies, such as fisheries regulations and reductions of nutrients and other forms of land-based pollution. Information about interactions between climate change and more “traditional” stressors is limited. MPA managers are faced with high levels of uncertainty about likely outcomes of management actions because climate change impacts have strong interactions with existing stressors, such as land-based sources of pollution, overfishing and destructive fishing practices, invasive species, and diseases. Management options include ameliorating existing stressors, protecting potentially resilient areas, developing networks of MPAs, and integrating climate change into MPA planning, management, and evaluation.

Examines research literature and schematic models associated with the expert-novice model in cognitive psychology. Describes a model for rendering expertise in problem solving within economics. Reports that a preliminary study indicates that this model effectively rendered both expert and novice problem solving in economics. (CFR)

Premise: Mycoheterotrophic plants rely on fungi to obtain their carbon requirements. Recent experiments demonstrated the presence of endophytic bacteria associated with mycoheterotrophs. Although mycoheterotrophs show high specificity for their fungal partners, it is not known whether they also show high specificity for associated bacteria or whether the bacteria have a definite function in the symbiosis. Methods: Two 16S rRNA sequencing experiments were designed to explore endophytic microbial community composition and function in root ball fractions of the mycoheterotroph Pterospora andromedea (Ericaceae), and rhizosphere soil and control soil 5 m away from each plant. One experiment compared microbial assemblages in fractions of six plants to those in rhizosphere and control soil samples. Another experiment documented bacterial endophyte diversity in root balls of 97 plants from across North America. Results: Soil samples were similar in bacterial community structure but were significantly more diverse and less consistently structured than were bacterial communities within root balls. The proportion of endophytic bacterial species varied slightly but not their community composition despite differences in P. andromedea lineage, geography, conifer species, and fungi. Predictive metagenomic profiling of the endophytes in P. andromedea‐only root ball fractions showed many of the bacterial endophytes likely function in N‐metabolism and N‐fixation. Conclusions: Our results document a consistent and largely invariant community of endophytic bacteria in P. andromedea across biotic and abiotic environmental conditions at a continental scale. It is unknown what role these bacteria may play in the quad‐partite symbiotic network centered on P. andromedea; however, the predictive metagenomic profiling suggests a possible function in N‐metabolism or N‐fixation. Discovery of a ubiquitous community of endophytic bacteria with a putative function centered on N‐metabolism or N‐fixation could have a previously unrecognized impact on understanding of mycoheterotroph ecophysiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]