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The golden Alpine salamander Salamandra atra aurorae Trevisan, 1982 is an endemic subspecies found in Sette Comuni and Vezzena plateau in Veneto, Italy. We describe an aggressive interaction between two males which fought for four minutes, trying to go on top of each other and rubbing their chin on the antagonist’s head. This is the first documented case of aggressive behaviour in Salamandra atra aurorae.

SALAMANDRA GARSAULT, 1764 S p e c i e s: S a l a m a n d r a a t r a * L a u r e n t i, 1 7 6 8, Salamandra corsica, Salamandra lanzai * Nascetti, Andreone, Capula & Bullini, 1988 and Salamandra salamandra * (Linnaeus, 1758). Otic–occipitum complex (Fig. 4E) The prominentia semicircularis anterioris is covered by the high parietal crest, whereas the prominentiae semicircularis posterioris and lateralis are rounded and easily recognizable. Among the prominentiae, a deep middle depression shows no foramina in its floor. The prominentia semicircularis posterioris is not extended posteriorly and ventrally between the cotyle and the parotic process. The circular fenestra ovalis is almost perpendicular to the vertical, and its anterior edge is anterior to the mid-length of the complex. The high parietal crest begins from slightly posterior to the mid-length of the distal edge of the tectum synoticum and extends obliquely on the tectum synoticum and on the prominentia semicircularis anterioris until the anterior end of the otic process. It is higher anteriorly, with its anterior tip forming an angle of 70–90° with the vertical. The parotic crest starts from the dorsolateral edge of the cotyle, extends along the lateral edge of the prominentia lateralis and meets the parietal crest in the anterior part, forming a variable angle. The parotic process is represented by a small tip, although it can be absent in some cases. In more detail, the parotic crest can be interrupted or not, depending on the position of the fenestra ovalis; when the fenestra ovalis has a dorsal position, the parotic crest is interrupted in its middle part, and the parotic process is not present (e.g. in MNHN 1888.651). The parotic crest is developed variably between the parotic process and its anteriormost part and, in some specimens, it is absent in this area (e.g. in the left capsule of HNHM 2001.75.24). The tectum synoticum is enlarged distally, and its anterior edge in medial view is posterior to the midlength of the complex.The tectum synoticum is extended medially beyond the prefacial commissure, but a small concavity is visible between them. The tectum is almost as medially extended as the hypochordal commissure. The postoticum foramen is elliptical, with the vertical major axis being not much longer than the minor one, and surrounded posteriorly by the lamina of the tectum synoticum and the cotyle. The articular surfaces of the otic process and of the processus basalis are kidneyshaped and separated by a deep sulcus petrosus. The otic process is slightly more developed anteriorly than the processus basalis, forming a short, irregular anterior process. The basicapsular commissure is extended slightly medially beyond the prefacial one, and the foramen prooticum is not surrounded by bone. The auditory cavity is deep, with isolated foramina for the different branches of the acoustic nerve. In ventral view, a low medial crest runs along the medial side of the ventral surface of the complex. The crista retrosellaris between the basicapsular and hypochordal commissures occupies most of the fenestra basicranialis, leaving only a small triangular concavity close to the hypochordal commissure. The ventral surface is smooth or bearing a couple of foramina, with the sulcus carotis not reaching the low medial crest. Remarks: In the right complex of HNHM 2001.75.24, the parietal crest is less developed than in the other specimens. Atlas (Fig. 6G) The neural canal is generally triangular or subtriangular in anterior view and is as high as each occipital joint. In posterior view, the neural canal is slightly wider than the cotyle; the cotyle is elliptical, with the major axis being horizontal. The occipital joints are circular or elliptical, with the minor axis being horizontal (or sub-horizontal). The articular facets of the odontoid process are separated by a wide groove on the ventral surface. In ventral view, the base of the odontoid process is wider than each occipital joint. The neural crest is low and thick or blade-like, starts posterior to the anterior edge of the neural arch and is posteriorly forked, and in lateral view, it is horizontal or gently concave. The secondary crests are parallel to the anterior edge of the neural arch (running transversely across the neural arch roof), and their posterior end corresponds to the anterior margin of the neural crest. In lateral view, these crests can or cannot cover the anterior edge of the neural arch. The neural spine can be present or absent. The lateral surface of the atlas bears more than one foramen per side. The incisura vertebralis cranialis is wide and does not contact the occipital joints. In lateral view, the dorsal edge of the neural arch is strongly inclined, forming an angle of 50–60° relative to the horizontal axis. The neural arch between the incisura caudalis and the cotyle is inclined or concave. The maximum concavity of the incisura vertebralis caudalis lies almost in the horizontal plane containing the maximum concavity of the incisura vertebralis cranialis. The low lateral crests do not reach the elliptical postzygapophyses. The inferior crests are low. In posterior view, the neural arch is dorsally convex (inverted U-shaped). Less than one-third of the postzygapophyses extends posteriorly beyond the cotyle in lateral view. In dorsal view, the neural arch is anteriorly straight or concave (V-shaped concavity), and the incisura dorsalis (formed by the neural arch) can be observed posteriorly. The cotyle may or may not be visible in dorsal view. The ventral surface is smooth or bears more than two foramina. Remarks: The lateral crests are only slightly visible in HNHM 2001.78.4. The neural crest is thicker (and flat) in the anterior part (almost until the midlength of the spine) and thinner (and blade-like) in the posterior part in the specimens from MNHN. In MNHN 1888.651, the neural crest is not horizontal in lateral view, but a dorsal concavity is formed by a thick anterior tuberculum and a rounded, blade-like posterior lamina. In dorsal view for MDHC 227, the neural crest and secondary crests are hourglassshaped. In MDHC 234 (Salamandra salamandra) and MDHC 394 (Salamandra atra), in lateral view, the incisura cranialis is strongly ventral and contacts the occipital joint. In MDHC 394, the neural crest is not posteriorly bifurcated. In all specimens of Salamandra lanzai, the cotyle is ventral to the rest of the centrum. In MDHC 361 and MDHC 363, the lateral crests reach the postzygapophyses. Precaudal vertebrae (Fig. 10B–D) The precaudal vertebrae are opisthocoelous and not elongate (length approximately equal to width). Most of the height of the vertebra is formed by the centrum and neural arch ventral to the postzygapophyses (only one-fifth of the height of the vertebra is formed by the neural arch dorsal to the postzygapophyses). The neural canal is triangular, slightly higher or lower than the condyle. The condyle is elliptical, with a horizontal major axis. In lateral view, the anterior edge of the neural arch between the condyle and the elliptical prezygapophyses is weakly inclined. Diapophyses and parapophyses are distinguishable, connected by a smooth lamina that may or may not reach their distal ends. The transverse processes exhibit strong posterior orientation and may or may not cover parts of the incisura caudalis in lateral view. In the same view, the neural arch dorsal to the elliptical prezygapophyses is rarely visible and is, where visible, vertical. The neural crest starts posterior to the line connecting the posterior edge of the prezygapophyses. It is high in the first two or three vertebrae, then lower in subsequent vertebrae.The short neural spine is generally present. The vertebrae are dorsoventrally compressed and broad in dorsal view, but the anterior and posterior zygapophyseal crests are poorly distinguishable and only slightly visible in lateral view. The ventral crests are generally present and parallel. The posterior ventral crests are poorly developed, and they do not reach the posterior edges of the cotyle. The ventral lamina is, thus, triangular, trapezoidal or asymmetrically rhomboidal. The lateral surface of the vertebrae generally bears at least two concavities per side and foramina in variable numbers. In anterior view, a small foramen is visible at the base of the parapophyses. In lateral view, the dorsal edge of the neural arch is horizontal anteriorly or dorsally concave. The incisura vertebralis caudalis is deep and generally reaches the centrum.Alternatively, the incisura and the centrum can be separated by a posteriorly convex portion of the neural arch. In posterior view, the dorsal edge of the neural arch is horizontal or dorsally concave, in this case forming a small, V- or U-shaped incisura dorsalis. In lateral view, the neural arch dorsal to the postzygapophyses is vertical or sinusoidal in lateral view. Less than one-third of the postzygapophyses is extended posteriorly beyond the cotyle in lateral view. In dorsal view, the neural arch is anteriorly concave (U-shaped). Most of the length of the condyle is visible in dorsal view, whereas the cotyle is not visible (or only in part, through the incisura dorsalis). The ventral surface is generally perforated. Caudal vertebrae (Fig. 12F, G) The caudal vertebrae are not particularly high (height/ length ratio 130°. The anterior ventral crests do not project anteriorly beyond the haemal arch. The lateral surface has a single large foramen on the haemal arch or one additional foramen on the lateral surface of the neural arch. In lateral view, the anterior ventral crests are anteriorly close to the centrum, such that the anterior edge of the haemal arch between the centrum and the anterior ventral crest is not visible; ventral to the anterior ventral crests, the anterior edge of the haemal arch is inclined posteriorly. The posteroventral edge of the haemal arch forms a sharp tip in lateral view. The haemal arch is forked in ventral view. Remarks: In ventral view of the HNHM specimens and in some vertebrae of MDHC 234, the haemal crest posteriorly follows the bifurcation of the haemal arch, with two low crests, and shows a small foramen at the point where it is bifurcated; this is not the case in the other specimens. In MDHC 394 (Salamandra atra), the haemal crest is higher than the neural crest, and in some vertebrae it is as high as the posterior half of the haemal arch., Published as part of Macaluso, Loredana, Wencker, Lukardis C M, Castrovilli, Maria, Carnevale, Giorgio & Delfino, Massimo, 2023, A comparative atlas of selected skeletal elements of European urodeles (Amphibia: Urodela) for palaeontological investigations, pp. 569-619 in Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 197 (3) on pages 593-595, DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlac063, http://zenodo.org/record/7690954

Diverse communities of symbiotic microbes inhabit the digestive systems of vertebrates and play a crucial role in animal health, and host diet plays a major role in shaping the composition and diversity of these communities. Here, we characterized diet and gut microbiome of fire salamander populations from three Belgian forests. We carried out DNA metabarcoding on fecal samples, targeting eukaryotic 18S rRNA of potential dietary prey items, and bacterial 16S rRNA of the concomitant gut microbiome. Our results demonstrated an abundance of soft-bodied prey in the diet of fire salamanders, and a significant difference in the diet composition between males and females. This sex-dependent effect on diet was also reflected in the gut microbiome diversity, which is higher in males than female animals. Proximity to human activities was associated with increased intestinal pathogen loads. Collectively, the data supports a relationship between diet, environment and intestinal microbiome in fire salamanders, with potential health implications.

The pathogenic chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) was introduced from Asia to Europe, most likely via the pet trade. It is currently causing a severe local decline in populations of the European fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). Laboratory tests confirmed that all infected individuals succumbed to the disease within two weeks. Furthermore, mass mortality events in the wild were observed in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. Some newt species, including the Alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris), can also become infected with Bsal. However, they seem to be ‘tolerant’ and can often survive the disease, but maintain an infectious load, which they could spread among connected populations. It is, therefore, hypothesized that this species functions as a vector of the disease and threatens syntopic populations of susceptible species such as the European fire salamander. To assess the risk of Alpine newts as vectors for Bsal, we sampled 233 individuals from 50 sites in 2017 and performed a genetic population connectivity analysis using microsatellites. The results showed that populations of Alpine newts are not spatially structured, suggesting high gene flow across the study area. Tests for Bsal of all Alpine newts and 150 individuals of two other newt species confirmed five infected individuals. Infected newts can thus function as reservoirs and vectors of Bsal and spread it through dispersal. As a result, the risk of European fire salamander declines in this region is further exacerbated by the connectivity of syntopic Alpine newt populations.

Joint range of motion (RoM) analyses are fundamental to our understanding of how an animal moves throughout its ecosystem. Recent technological advances allow for more detailed quantification of this RoM (e.g. including interaction of degrees of freedom) both in ex vivo joints and in vivo experiments. Both types of data have been used to draw comparisons with fossils to reconstruct locomotion. Salamanders are often used as analogues for early tetrapod locomotion; testing such hypotheses requires an in-depth analysis of salamander joint RoM. Here, we provide a detailed dataset of the ex vivo ligamentous rotational joint RoM in the hindlimb of the fire salamander Salamandra salamandra, using a new method for collecting and visualising joint RoM. We also characterise in vivo joint RoM used during walking, via scientific rotoscoping and compare the in vivo and ex vivo data. In summary, we provide (1) a new method for joint RoM data experiments and (2) a detailed analysis of both in vivo and ex vivo data of salamander hindlimbs, which can be used for comparative studies.

The riverine barrier hypothesis (RBH) posits that rivers comprise geographical barriers to gene flow for terrestrial organisms, thus promoting genetic differentiation between populations. Here, we explored the RBH on larviparous and pueriparous populations of the live-bearing fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra). While larviparous fire salamanders exhibit a semi-aquatic life cycle (females deposit pre-metamorphic larvae on water), pueriparous salamanders present a fully terrestrial life cycle (females deliver terrestrial juveniles) and, therefore, a greater independence from water for survival and reproduction. We performed a fine-scale sampling of opposite transects in 11 rivers (six and five for larviparous and pueriparous populations, respectively) to test the hypothesis that rivers are more effective barriers for pueriparous salamanders due to their terrestrial life cycle. We carried out individual- and population-based genetic analyses using 14 microsatellites and a mitochondrial marker to examine the extent to which rivers hinder short- and long-term gene flow. We found that rivers are semi-permeable obstacles for both larviparous and pueriparous salamanders, although they appear to be more effective barriers for the latter when rivers with similar attributes are compared. We also found that river width and possibly the presence of crossing structures may influence the genetic barrier effects of rivers in fire salamanders. This is one of the very few studies in amphibians showing how different reproductive strategies influence the barrier effects imposed by rivers.

Explicitly accounting for phenotypic differentiation together with environmental heterogeneity is crucial to understand the evolutionary dynamics in hybrid zones. Species showing intra-specific variation in phenotypic traits that meet across environmentally heterogeneous regions constitute excellent natural settings to study the role of phenotypic differentiation and environmental factors in shaping the spatial extent and patterns of admixture in hybrid zones. We studied three environmentally distinct contact zones where morphologically and reproductively divergent subspecies of Salamandra salamandra co-occur: the pueriparous S. s. bernardezi that is mostly parapatric to its three larviparous subspecies neighbours. We used a landscape genetics framework to: (i) characterise the spatial location and extent of each contact zone; (ii) assess patterns of introgression and hybridization between subspecies pairs; and (iii) examine the role of environmental heterogeneity in the evolutionary dynamics of hybrid zones. We found high levels of introgression between parity modes, and between distinct phenotypes, thus demonstrating the evolution to pueriparity alone or morphological differentiation do not lead to reproductive isolation between these highly divergent S. salamandra morphotypes. However, we detected substantial variation in patterns of hybridization across contact zones, being lower in the contact zone located on a topographically complex area. We highlight the importance of accounting for spatial environmental heterogeneity when studying evolutionary dynamics of hybrid zones., This work was supported by National Funds through FCT – Foundation for Science and Technology (SALOMICS: PTDC/BIA-EVL/28475/2017); the authors also acknowledge funding from other FCT projects and FEDER funds through the Operational Programme for Competitiveness Factors – COMPETE (EVOVIV: PTDC/BIA-EVF/3036/2012; FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-028325 and UIDB/500027/2020); and by National/FEDER funds through Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (CGL2012-40246-C02-02). G.V.-A., A.L. and P.T. were supported by FCT (IF/01425/2014 and CEECIND/00937/2018, PD/BD/106060/2015, DL57/2016/CP1440/CT0008, respectively).

Este trabajo se centra en dos cuentos, “Mister Taylor” de Augusto Monterroso y “La salamandra” de Mercè Rodoreda, con el objetivo de analizar las peculiaridades del término “menos-que-humano”. Este concepto, argumento, es instrumento utilizado por el humanismo para la violencia y la explotación, sin embargo, refiere al hecho de que lo humano puede devenir en “otra cosa”, esto último ofreciendo una mirada crítica posthumanista a procesos como la violencia de género (como pasa en “La salamandra”) o el neocolonialismo (en “Mister Taylor”).

Environmental contamination influences the diversity of the resident skin microbial community of amphibians, ultimately affecting the individual's immune system. Wildfires are expected to impact the skin microbiome, since post-fire runoff typically transports hazardous substances, that can affect terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The present study is the first to assess the effects of Eucalypt and Pine wildfire ash on cultivable bacterial isolates from the skin microbiome of amphibians, in particular the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra), a common species in fire-prone Mediterranean ecosystems. To achieve this goal, samples of skin bacteria of adult individuals of S. salamandra were collected at a site without influence of wildfires. The bacterial isolates were tested against the pathogenic agent Aeromonas salmonicida for assessing their antimicrobial activity, before exposing them to a series of dilutions of aqueous extracts of Eucalypt and Pine ashes (AAEs) from high severity wildfires. From the 80 bacterial isolates collected, 48 (mostly Pseudomonas spp.) showed antimicrobial activity. Exposure of bacteria with antimicrobial activity to the Eucalypt and Pine AAEs at concentrations of 0, 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 75, and 100%, revealed that bacterial growth could be significantly inhibited, stimulated or unaffected by ash. Growth inhibition was found for Pine and Eucalypt AAEs at concentrations as low as 6.25% and 12.5%, respectively, but were more expressive at concentrations equal or above 50%. Eucalypt AAEs had a higher negative impact on bacterial growth than Pine AAEs, likely due to differences in metal concentrations between ash types. These findings raise concern about the future of amphibians in fire-prone regions since the foreseen increase in fire frequency and severity owing to climate changes are likely to alter the skin microbiome of amphibians, weaken the immune system and consequently increasing the incidence of infections or diseases, further contributing to the decline of the populations.

Amphibians produce defensive chemicals which provide protection against both predators and infections. Within species, populations can differ considerably in the composition and amount of these chemical defenses. Studying intraspecific variation in toxins and linking it to environmental variables may help us to identify the selective drivers of toxin evolution, such as predation pressure and infection risk. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in the unique toxins produced by salamanders from the genus Salamandra: the samandarines. Despite this attention, intraspecific variation has largely been ignored within Salamandra‐species. The aim of this study was to investigate whether geographic variation in profiles of samandarines exists, by sampling 4 populations of Salamandra atra over its range in the Dinaric Alps. In addition, we preliminary explored whether potential variation could be explained by predation (counting the number of snake species) and infection risk (cultivation and genomic analyses of collected soil samples). Salamanders from the 4 populations differed in toxin composition and in the size of their poison glands, although not in overall toxin quantity. Nor predation nor infection risk could explain this variation, as populations barely differed in these variables. Sampling over a much broader geographic range, using better estimators for predation and infection risk, will contribute to an improved understanding of how environment may shape variation in chemical defenses. Nevertheless, as the 4 populations of S. atra did differ in their toxin profiles, we propose that this species provides an interesting opportunity for further ecological and evolutionary studies on amphibian toxins.

While epizootics increasingly affect wildlife, it remains poorly understood how the environment shapes most host-pathogen systems. Here, we employ a three-step framework to study microclimate influence on ectotherm host thermal behaviour, focusing on amphibian chytridiomycosis in fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) infected with the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). Laboratory trials reveal that innate variation in thermal preference, rather than behavioural fever, can inhibit infection and facilitate salamander recovery under humidity-saturated conditions. Yet, a 3-year field study and a mesocosm experiment close to the invasive Bsal range show that microclimate constraints suppress host thermal behaviour favourable to disease control. A final mechanistic model, that estimates range-wide, year-round host body temperature relative to microclimate, suggests that these constraints are rule rather than exception. Our results demonstrate how innate host defences against epizootics may remain constrained in the wild, which predisposes to range-wide disease outbreaks and population declines.

Wildlife diseases are contributing to the current Earth’s sixth mass extinction; one disease, chytridiomycosis, has caused mass amphibian die-offs. While global spread of a hypervirulent lineage of the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (BdGPL) causes unprecedented loss of vertebrate diversity by decimating amphibian populations, its impact on amphibian communities is highly variable across regions. Here, we combine field data with in vitro and in vivo trials that demonstrate the presence of a markedly diverse variety of low virulence isolates of BdGPL in northern European amphibian communities. Pre-exposure to some of these low virulence isolates protects against disease following subsequent exposure to highly virulent BdGPL in midwife toads (Alytes obstetricans) and alters infection dynamics of its sister species B. salamandrivorans in newts (Triturus marmoratus), but not in salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). The key role of pathogen virulence in the complex host-pathogen-environment interaction supports efforts to limit pathogen pollution in a globalized world., The pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (BD) associated with widespread amphibian declines is present in Europe but has not consistently caused disease-induced declines in that region. Here, the authors suggest that an endemic strain of BD with low virulence may protect the hosts upon co-infection with more virulent strains.

This article studies the morphological remodeling of olfactory organs in the fire salamander (Salamandridae, Caudata), from the larval stages of ontogeny to the adult and throughout the course of the annual cycle. The fire salamander exhibits adaptations to the aquatic environment during premetamorphic life and terrestrial adaptations after metamorphosis. During adulthood, the annual activity of this species is divided into three seasonal periods: a breeding period, a nonbreeding period, and hibernation. We observed significant differences in morphology of olfactory organs between developmental stages as well as between each period within the annual cycle. For the first time in caudates, we examined the morphology of olfactory organs during the winter period (wintering larvae, hibernating adults). The results show that the remodeling of olfactory organs during the life of the fire salamander occurs both on macro- and micromorphological levels. Macromorphological ontogenetic variability includes the shape of the main olfactory chamber (MOC) and the distribution of olfactory epithelium (OE) in the MOC and in the vomeronasal organ (VNO). In larvae, the vomeronasal epithelium (VNE) is in a separate cavity, while in the post-metamorphic stages of ontogeny, the VNE occurs in the diverticulum of the MOC. In adult fire salamanders, both olfactory organs are most developed during the breeding season and reduced during hibernation. The VNE and OE in the MOC are also reduced during hibernation. Micro-morphological changes included different types/subtypes of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) in the OE in particular stages of ontogeny and periods within the annual cycle, for example, ciliate ORNs are present in the VNE only in the larval stages and giant ORNs occur only in nonbreeding adults. Also, there was a variable set of types of olfactory supporting cells in the VNO of the fire salamander during pre- and postmetamorphic life stages.

Individual life histories are strongly influenced by early environmental conditions and experiences. They shape morphology as well as behaviour and can promote adaptive divergence and phenotypic plasticity with regard to different habitat types. The fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) in the Kottenforst forest in Bonn, Germany, exhibits two genetically distinct ecotypes occurring in two larval habitats, either ponds or streams. In this study, we investigated whether both ecotypes differ in risk-taking behaviour, measured as the behavioural response during a shelter-emergence test and a shelter-seeking test, and whether larval habitat type and size impact these behaviours. Our results revealed an influence of size as well as habitat type. Larger larvae of both habitats appear to be more risk-prone, as they spent more time outside the starting shelter in the shelter-emergence test. Irrespective of size, pond larvae sought shelter more often in the shelter-seeking test and are thus considered to be less risk-prone. These results indicate that larvae conform to a given niche by adjusting their behaviour. Future studies are needed to disentangle the role of genetic adaptation or phenotypic plasticity and to investigate long-term consequences of the larval habitat for the adult phenotype. Thereby, efforts should be made to create a concise set of multiple tests assessing behavioural patterns.

The fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra and its relatives) is of increasing priority for ex situ conservation due to the spread of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in Europe. In captivity, the species may be maintained on a clinical paper-based or a naturalistic substrate, either of which has its own advantages and disadvantages. However, the impact of these two substrates on bacterial microbiotas within an enclosure and on the salamanders themselves is unknown. To investigate this, we maintained captive fire salamanders on either paper towels or a naturalistic substrate and quantified the culturable microbiotas of both substrates across the one-week lifespan of a paper towel and of the salamanders themselves over a six-month period. We found significant differences in the bacterial communities associated with the two substrates. Over a week-long period, there were major fluctuations in the community composition and abundance on paper towels while on the naturalistic substrate bacterial communities were relatively stable. The skin microbiota of salamanders were indistinguishable at the beginning of the study but after six months differed significantly between the two treatments, although the bacterial morphotypes present remained relatively similar compared with changes between substrates. These data show that husbandry protocols may have a strong influence on the culturable bacterial communities to which captive amphibians are exposed. Nevertheless, the animals were apparently able to maintain their own microbiota to a considerable degree. These findings should be borne in mind when determining husbandry protocols. Given the relative benefits of both types of enclosure, it is possible that a hybrid approach could be used whereby a small amount of naturalistic substrate is provided in a container within an otherwise clinical enclosure, to act as a bacterial reservoir.

Aposematic bright colors have a key role for animal defense and can be expressed through metabolic production or by acquiring pigments from diet. Aposematic coloration can be related to both local adaptations and availability of trophic resources. The European fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) shows significant color variability and occurs across a broad range of habitats. Here we combined field observations with common rearing experiments to disentangle the role of environmental conditions and local adaptations in determining aposematic coloration of salamander populations. We assessed color variation and measured habitat features and food availability in adults from 25 populations. Furthermore, we reared newborn larvae from 10 populations under different food availability and analyzed color of metamorphs. To assess color pattern, we measured the percentage of yellow covering the body, and the Hue, Saturation and Value of yellow coloration. Adult showed strong variation of color pattern; variation was strongly related to the individual's size, to habitat productivity and to food availability. Under common garden conditions, differences between populations were not anymore evident, and coloration was only affected by resource availability during larval development. Our results suggest that environmental conditions and food availability are more important than local adaptations in determining differences in aposematic color pattern.

A new subspecies within the Salamandra algira species complex from north-western Africa is described. Previous molecular analysis showed that the populations of S. algira splendens from north-western Morocco consisted of two well supported clades: clade 1 distributed in the Rif Mountains, from Chefchaouen (type locality) to Al Hoceima, and clade 2, located southern from clade 1 being isolated in the northern and central Middle Atlas Mountains. Clade 2 is herein described as a distinct subspecies: Salamandra algira atlanticassp. nov. based on morphological data, allopatric range and molecular divergence. This new subspecies shows an uncorrected pairwise distance of 0.0265 from clade 1 based on cytochrome b DNA sequences. Salamandra algira atlanticassp. nov. is a slender and large sized salamander with a highly variable colouration pattern. It can be distinguished from S. algira splendens by the greater proportion of coral red in the background colouration, being the only known subspecies of S. algira in which coral red can exceed the proportion of black. Variable number (0–5) of yellow to golden yellow dorsal blotches, but usually in lower numbers than the nominotypical subspecies. Salamandra algira atlanticassp. nov. inhabits subhumid to humid forests and karstic systems at mid to high elevations. We briefly discuss the phylogenetic and taxonomic issues among the genus Salamandra which encompasses more valid species than currently recognised.

Microplastics (MPs), a new class of pollutants that pose a threat to aquatic biodiversity, are of increasing global concern. In tandem, the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) causing the disease chytridiomycosis is emerging worldwide as a major stressor to amphibians. We here assess whether synergies exist between this infectious disease and MP pollution by mimicking natural contact of a highly susceptible species (midwife toads, Alytes obstetricans) with a Bd-infected reservoir species (fire salamanders, Salamandra salamandra) in the presence and absence of MPs. We found that MP ingestion increases the burden of infection by Bd in a dose‑dependent manner. However, MPs accumulated to a greater extent in amphibians that were not exposed to Bd, likely due to Bd‑damaged tadpole mouthparts interfering with MP ingestion. Our experimental approach showed compelling interactions between two emergent processes, chytridiomycosis and MP pollution, necessitating further research into potential synergies between these biotic and abiotic threats to amphibians., This study was funded by the Spanish Ministry for Science, Innovation and Universities (BioLoss project, Ref. RTI2018-095023-B-I00) and the Basque Government (Ref. IT951-16). MCF is funded by the UK Natural Envi- ronmental Research Council NERC NE/S000992/1 and is a fellow in the Canadian CIFAR program.

En un río muy bonito cerca de un lugar llamado Ahuano, nació una rana de nombre Yaku. Mientras crecía, veía cómo su cuerpo cambiaba de color, esto la asustó mucho. Un día vio que sus patas eran transparentes y rápidamente fue a esconderse entre las profundidades de aquel río. Desde ahí pudo observar que las otras ranas tenían muchos colores, en cambio él era transparente. No entendía por qué pasaba eso. Yaku se puso a llorar, pues se sentía diferente a los demás y no quería salir de su escondite. Un día, frente a Yaku apareció una hermosa salamandra de color rojo, llamada Tuti Azogues

The larval stage of the European fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) inhabits both lentic and lotic habitats. In the latter, they are constantly exposed to unidirectional water flow, which has been shown to cause downstream drift in a variety of taxa. In this study, a closed artificial creek, which allowed us to keep the water flow constant over time and, at the same time, to simulates with predefined water quantities and durations, was used to examine the individual movement patterns of marked larval fire salamanders exposed to unidirectional flow. Movements were tracked by marking the larvae with VIAlpha tags individually and by using downstream and upstream traps. Most individuals showed stationarity, while downstream drift dominated the overall movement pattern. Upstream movements were rare and occurred only on small distances of about 30 cm; downstream drift distances exceeded 10 m (until next downstream trap). The simulated flood events increased drift rates significantly, even several days after the flood simulation experiments. Drift probability increased with decreasing body size and decreasing nutritional status. Our results support the production hypothesis as an explanation for the movements of European fire salamander larvae within creeks.

Two evolutionary lineages of the fire salamander occur in central Europe: the typically striped subspecies Salamandra salamandra terrestris (Bonnaterre, 1789) and the typically spotted Salamandra salamandra salamandra (Linnaeus, 1758). In the Czech Republic, fire salamanders have traditionally been viewed as belonging to the S. s. salamandra evolutionary lineage. Nevertheless, the colour pattern of some individuals in the westernmost part of the Czech Republic resembles that of S. s. terrestris in having parallel continuous bands along the back. In this study, we investigated whether in the Czech Republic the presence of striped fire salamander phenotype could be associated with the genotype of S. s. terrestris. We sequenced the mitochondrial D-loop and two nuclear markers, Rag2 and PDGFRα, of 61 fire salamander individuals from the Czech Republic. To describe the geographical distribution pattern of the striped and spotted fire salamander phenotype in the Czech Republic, we evaluated colour phenotypes of 398 individuals from ten localities distributed so as to cover the whole country. We found no evidence of presence of genotypes corresponding to the S. s. terrestris lineage. We did, however, find that the striped phenotype is found mostly in the northwest of the Czech Republic, where both the striped and the intermediate phenotype occur significantly more frequently than in the rest of the country, where the spotted phenotype seems dominant. This finding indicates that Czech and Polish populations of S. salamandra show a degree of phenotypic pattern variation comparable to that observed in German populations, although at a local level the frequencies of the striped and spotted phenotype vary. It would be interesting to test whether a genetic toolkit responsible for the colour pattern is shared via genetic introgression between populations, or whether the striped phenotype of Czech fire salamanders evolved independently.

En un río muy bonito cerca de un lugar llamado Ahuano, nació una rana de nombre Yaku. Mientras crecía, veía cómo su cuerpo cambiaba de color, esto la asustó mucho. Un día vio que sus patas eran transparentes y rápidamente fue a esconderse entre las profundidades de aquel río. Desde ahí pudo observar que las otras ranas tenían muchos colores, en cambio él era transparente. No entendía por qué pasaba eso. Yaku se puso a llorar, pues se sentía diferente a los demás y no quería salir de su escondite. Un día, frente a Yaku apareció una hermosa salamandra de color rojo, llamada Tuti Azogues

Archeological sites usually provide important information about the past distribution of small vertebrate fauna, and by extension about past terrestrial environments and climate in which human activities took place. In this context, Belgium has an interesting location in northwestern Europe between the fully studied zooarcheological records of Germany and England. We present here the revision of the late Pleistocene (Marine Isotope Stages 3 and 2) collection of the “Caverne Marie-Jeanne” (Hastière-Lavaux, Namur), studied by Jean-Claude Rage in the 1970s and the revision of the whole “indeterminate” small vertebrate materials from the “Caverne Marie-Jeanne” stored in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (RBINS) Quaternary collections in search of more herpetofaunal remains. It is now by far the largest late Pleistocene collection at RBINS with more than 20,500 recognized bones of amphibians and reptiles and covering the last 60,000 years. The faunal list comprises two urodeles (Lissotriton gr. L. vulgaris and Salamandra salamandra), four anurans (Bufo gr. B. bufo-spinosus, Epidalea calamita, Rana temporaria and Rana cf. R. arvalis), three lizards (Lacerta cf. L. agilis, Zootoca vivipara and Anguis gr. A. fragilis), and three snakes (Natrix gr. N. natrix, Coronella austriaca, and Vipera berus). This study represents the first fossil record in Belgium for L. gr. L. vulgaris, R. arvalis, Z. vivipara, N. gr. N. natrix and C. austriaca. As a whole, this assemblage suggests a patchy humid landscape under colder and dryer climatic conditions in comparison with present ones. This study also underlines the necessity of a primary separation in larger taxonomical categories by the specialist itself., Les sites archéologiques fournissent généralement des informations importantes sur la distribution passée des faunes de petits vertébrés, et par extension sur les environnements terrestres et les climats passés dans lesquels les activités humaines se sont déroulées. Dans ce contexte, la Belgique jouit d’un emplacement intéressant dans le Nord-Ouest de l’Europe, entre les importants registres zooarchéologiques allemands et anglais. Nous présentons ici la révision de la collection du Pléistocène supérieur (stades isotopiques marins 3 et 2) de la caverne Marie-Jeanne (Hastière-Lavaux, Namur) étudiée par Jean-Claude Rage dans les années 1970 et la révision de l’ensemble des petits vertébrés « indéterminés » de la caverne Marie-Jeanne préservés dans les collections quaternaires de l’Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique (IRSNB) , en cherchant de plus amples restes d’herpétofaune. Il s’agit maintenant, et de loin, de la plus grande collection pour le Pléistocène supérieur à l’IRSNB, avec plus de 20 500 ossements reconnus d’amphibiens et de reptiles, couvrant les 60 000 dernières années. La liste faunique comprend deux urodèles (Lissotriton gr. L. vulgaris et Salamandra salamandra), quatre anoures (Bufo gr. B. bufo-spinosus, Epidalea calamita, Rana temporaria et Rana cf. R. arvalis), trois lézards (Lacerta cf. L. agilis, Zootoca vivipara et Anguis gr. A. fragilis) et trois serpents (Natrix gr. N. natrix, Coronella austriaca et Vipera berus). Cette étude représente la première mention fossile de L. gr. L. vulgaris, R. arvalis, Z. vivipara, N. gr. N. natrix et C. austriaca en Belgique. Dans son ensemble, cet assemblage suggère un paysage humide en mosaïque sous des conditions climatiques plus froides et plus sèches par rapport au présent. Cette étude souligne également la nécessité d’une séparation primaire en grandes catégories taxonomiques par le spécialiste lui-même.

Morphological observations (LM, TEM, SEM) of olfactory organs were conducted on three representatives of the family Salamandridae which differ in post-metamorphic habitat: the terrestrial fire salamander Salamandra salamandra, the semiaquatic alpine newt Ichthyosaura alpestris and the semiaquatic Himalayan newt Tylototriton verrucosus which exhibit increasing specialization towards life in water. We demonstrated variability in proportional size and shape of the main olfactory chamber (MOC), as well as in the degree of development of the vomeronasal organ (VNO) among the three species. In the fire salamander, the olfactory sensory epithelium was distributed throughout the MOC, while in the alpine and Himalayan newt the olfactory sensory epithelium was organized in strips. The presence of two types of olfactory receptor neurons (ciliated receptor neurons, microvillar receptor neurons) was confirmed in olfactory organs of all examined species. For the first time in amphibians, a subtype of ciliated receptor neuron – the giant neuron (rod-shape neuron), was detected in the MOC of all three salamandrids. The olfactory epithelium also consists of ciliated supporting cells and secretory supporting cells. The presence of goblet cells, mucociliary epithelial cells and squamous epithelial cells was demonstrated in the olfactory organs of all examined species. Our results indicate that the olfactory organs of salamandrids may differ in size, shape and distribution of olfactory epithelium depending on habitat type during the post-metamorphic stages of ontogeny.

Genetic studies on core versus peripheral populations have yielded many patterns. This diversity in genetic patterns may reflect diversity in the meaning of peripheral populations as defined by geography, gene flow patterns, historical effects, and ecological conditions. Populations at the lower latitude periphery of a species' range are of particular concern because they may be at increased risk for extinction due to global climate change. In this work we aim to understand the impact of landscape and ecological factors on different geographical types of peripheral populations with respect to levels of genetic diversity and patterns of local population differentiation. We examined three geographical types of peripheral populations of the endangered salamander, Salamandra infraimmaculata, in Northern Israel, in the southernmost periphery of the genus Salamandra, by analyzing the variability in 15 microsatellite loci from 32 sites. Our results showed that: (1) genetic diversity decreases towards the geographical periphery of the species' range; (2) genetic diversity in geographically disjunct peripheral areas is low compared to the core or peripheral populations that are contiguous to the core and most likely affected by a founder effect; (3) ecologically marginal conditions enhance population subdivision. The patterns we found lead to the conclusion that genetic diversity is influenced by a combination of geographical, historical, and ecological factors. These complex patterns should be addressed when prioritizing areas for conservation.

The different breeding sites of Salamandra infraimmaculata on the southern border of its distribution were examined and mapped in order to estimate the damage caused by water holes that could represent death traps for salamanders in xeric habitats. Among the various types of breeding sites (springs, streams, water holes, winter pools and reservoirs), the larvae of salamanders were detected in high numbers in springs and streams (503) and water holes (48), and in relatively low numbers in winter pools. Two water holes were examined in detail to estimate the damage caused to S. infraimmaculata where breeding places are limited. During the winter, both males and females enter a water hole for breeding. The percentage of males in and around the water hole was 42% and that of females 29%. After the salamanders’ oviposition in the water, they try to return to terrestrial habitats, but are unable to do so and lose weight and die. The body mass index (BMI) of salamanders decreases from winter (December) after they move to the water hole to spring (April), when they are found in the water hole. The estimation of potential damage is about 300 mature salamanders annually.