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Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), shares similarities with the former SARS outbreak, which was caused by SARS-CoV-1. SARS was characterized by severe lung injury due to virus-induced cytopathic effects and dysregulated hyperinflammatory state. COVID-19 has a higher mortality rate in men both inside and outside China. In this opinion paper, we describe how sex-specific immunobiological factors and differences in angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) expression may explain the increased severity and mortality of COVID-19 in males. We highlight that immunomodulatory treatment must be tailored to the underlying immunobiology at different stages of disease. Moreover, by investigating sex-based immunobiological differences, we may enhance our understanding of COVID-19 pathophysiology and facilitate improved immunomodulatory strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic has affected the daily lives of millions of people worldwide and had caused significant mortality; hence, the assessment of therapeutic options is of great interest. The leading cause of death among COVID‐19 patients is acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by hyperinflammation secondary to cytokine release syndrome (CRS). Cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor‐α, interleukin‐6, interferon‐γ and interleukin‐10, are the main mediators of CRS. Based on recent evidence, the angiotensin‐converting enzyme (ACE) II is known to be the target of the COVID‐19 spike protein, which enables the virus to penetrate human cells. ACE II also possesses an anti‐inflammatory role in many pathologies such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and other conditions, which are the main risk factors of poor prognosis in COVID‐19 infection. Changes in tissue ACE II levels are associated with many diseases and hyperinflammatory states, and it is assumed that elevated levels of ACE II could aggravate the course of COVID‐19 infection. Therefore, the use of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system inhibitors (RASis) in COVID‐19 patients could be hypothetically considered, though sufficient evidence is not presented by the scientific community. In this work, based on the most recent pieces of evidence, the roles of RAS and RASi in immunologic interactions are addressed. Furthermore, the molecular and immunologic aspects of RASi and their potential significance in COVID‐19 are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]