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Research indicates that values are useful in helping organizations perform effective resource planning. Findings are based on data obtained from studies on BC Gas Inc., in which executives, utilities commission members and other stakeholders were requested to list their values which were then incorporated into an overall resource planning strategy.

The Centre for Tomorrow's Company was established to inspire and enable businesses to apply the inclusive approach. A key focus is on sustainable success. There are eight propositions which lead to the inclusive approach. Business is subordinate to society and therefore needs to have its licence to operate and the licence is international. Human beings are ends and not means and businesses exist to meet human needs. Relationships are the foundation of every successful business and relationships overlap across the spectrum of businesses. A business which better understands the real needs of its customers will be more profitable than those which see themselves as a commodity business. A business is judged not only by the tangible services it delivers or the words it uses but what it is and how it behaves. Trust is established by being honest, fair, truthful, by good and consistent service and by being open. Success in relationships is about increasing the scope for mutual benefit and reducing the scope for conflict. The aim shoud be 'win-win'. Sustainable business success is dependent on leadership and values are essential in successful relationships. It is the task of leadership to ensure that the whole organisation knows how it is expected to behave as well as what it is expected to achieve. But there is no one formula which is right for all companies; every company is different. Business success cannot be predicted or explained by any approach which limits itself to economic concepts or motivations. Exclusive pre-occupations with shareholder value is not entrepreneurial. People set up businesses for all sorts of reasons. Five essential stages are involved in the inclusive approach definition of purpose and values, review of key relationships, defining success, measurement and communication of performance, reward and reinforcement. Experience shows that the tasks of defining purpose and values is an excellent opportunity to involve a wide range of people in the organisation. It is important to have a code of ethics. For all the basis is enlightened self interest which in turn provides a framework of measurement which in turn can lead to corrective action, communication and provide the basis of remuneration. Measurement can lead to meaningful reports, accountability and challenging dialogue. In promoting the inclusive approach, the Centre for Tomorrow's Company has developed a unique approach call Pathfinder. This involves companies coming together, using the Centre's checklist, learning from each other and developing their own inclusive approach. It takes persistence and integrity to be inclusive. Challenges have to be faced. But the rewards for persistence are real.

Scepticism about employing business methods and market criteria in the NHS was based on an often intuitive rejection of the assumptions which lay at the back of the reforms of the late 80s'. Even if the 'goods' provided by both the public and private sectors are not identical, the public sector must still to achieve its objective be run efficiently. The ethical values of the NHS are broadly understood by most. The Health Service can be called a high ethics organisation; the commitment to which can result in an unwillingness to change. It has been difficult in the NHS to encourage people to treat complaints positively. Compared with the public sector the values of business seems rather ambiguous. There is some scepticism about the idea of ethics being centrally important to business. St George's has adopted a set of values called 'The way we work'. Initially some people were uncertain about the inclusion of any contribution from patients. The Health Service is not a business when defined as the pursuit of profit. But organisations, private as well as public, need to be aware of their various stakeholders. The Health Service is not a commercial concern but must have a real interest in financial viability. The public and private sectors can learn from each other. For example, the public sector value of service to the patient can be translated into the Quality Management concept of the 'customer as king'. The public sector concern with financial probity has to a large extent also been adopted by the private sector. Where business has been better is in operationalising its values and in linking them directly to the delivery of their product or service. Linking the professed values to the operation of the service can present real management choices and sometimes with real ethical dilemmas. The NHS operates in a world of inevitably scare financial resoures. No government is going to finance a perfect health service. It is not unethical to institute proper financial controls and to ensure as far as possible the delivery of value for money. At times it is not easy to convince professional people (e.g. doctors) that a limitation of their freedom of choices is worth the sacrifice. Financing the NHS does raise ethical problems and so does the culture of changes in which it exists. It is nonetheless essential to grasp the nettle now. Within the present framework, a crucial clinical and management task exists to ensure the implementation of standards. The culture of commitment in the NHS is potentially its enormous strength in the change process. Its values are its ethical core which must be protected, developed and used in the constant improvement of services offered to the public.

It is not surprising that corporations have found difficulty regarding the formulation of company values. Academics are ambivalent, business organisations avoid the topics and governments seem uninterested. Business schools delegate the subject to philosophy departments. National and international business associations have provided guidance the UK Institute of Management, the Institute of Directors, the International Chamber of Commerce are some examples. Others, such as the Caux Round Table's Principles for Business and the Interfaith Declaration on International Business Ethics, have gained support among business leaders. While governments have legislated on corrupt practices, health and safety, and the environment, little general guidance had been provided on business ethics. Non-governmental organisations have challenged companies about their policies on environmental conservation and human rights. The Brent Spa case brought environmental concern to public attention in 1995. Shell's reaction was to update and reissue its Statement of General Business Principles and to set up a board level Social Responsibility Committee. Shell and the Rio Tinto Group now include human rights in their Codes; this is in response to experience that have led to loss of reputation. Non-government organisations have focused on subsidiaries and partners of large competitors, examining purchasing policies, for example, of clothing manufacturers. The UK Department for International Development looked at labour practices in eighteen companies and found a wide variety of statements. Five 'top priority values' were identified by UK corporate managers in a MORI study; these were people, competitiveness, customers, quality and productivity. The two lowest were social responsibility and short-term profitability. A 1992 survey by the Institute of Business Ethics indicated that UK companies were generally reticent about using value-based terms, Codes of US Corporation are more expansive. The most frequently used words were shown in a study to be integrity, highest ethical standard, responsibility, reputation and honesty. Truth comes last. Another more recent survey by the Institute of Business Ethics showed that 70% of large UK companies with codes have a means for staff to raise ethical issues and 80% of these protect the anonymity of the caller. Sources of values in business life are varied. They can be generated as the result of a crisis or stem from a well established tradition. The question arises whether these values are translated into practice in all parts of the business. More energy should perhaps be spent integrating codes into corporate activity.

Companies today find it important to have clearly articulated values related to business ethics. Values are closely linked to business ethics and can be used as part of corporate strategy. But values are also important in the day-to-day management of the firm and putting values into actions may be more a problem than defining the issues. Values should lead to consistent and well-articulated business ethics. This theme is reflected in the following articles. Ciulla's paper emphasises that leaders need to be morally good and effective to be successful and gives the example of Merck's CEO. Webley discusses the sources of corporate values with reference to codes of ethics, Driscoll and Hoffman look at how managers should go about implementing systems which encourage ethical conduct; but these need updating. The first of three case studies looks at the implementation of an 'integrity' value at SmithKline Beecham. The second examines the role of values within the public sector with the focus on a large London NHS hospital. A decision making framework for use by the managing partner in a law practice forms the third case. The argument put forward by Goyder in concluding section is that firms need to use the results of their actions to provide feedback. Several conclusions can be drawn. Leaders need to be both morally good and effective to be successful. Different values and managerial skills lead to differing ethical decisions. Organisations need to coordinate decisionsmaking between individuals with differing values. Putting values into practice is dynamic and not the same as putting an effective compliance programme in place.

Value congruence is believed to be an important determinant of job-related outcomes. The extent to which ethical conflict, resulting from incongruence in ethical values between salespeople and their organizations, affects given job related outcomes is not well understood. This study empirically examines the influence of ethical conflict on salespeople's organizational commitment and turnover intentions. Results suggest that ethical conflict is negatively associated with organizational commitment and positively associated with turnover intentions. Implications and directions for future research are provided. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Values influence the design of an organization's incentive compensation plan and its successful implementation. Mutual reinforcement ensues when an incentive plan fits the value system of its participants. Specifically, even seemingly modest incentives may produce significant results in desired behaviors and satisfaction with the scheme. When there is a conflict between values and incentives, however, there are two possible but dissenting outcomes, namely, the 'carrot effect' and the 'snubbed carrot effect.' While incentives be chosen by participants over their enduring values, human resource specialists should expect this to take a longer time and greater resources. Under the 'snubbed carrot effect,' their values will prompt them to reject the incentives, but they will manipulate the plan's implementation so that it will either be abolished or adjusted to fit their values.

Protected values, which are defined as standards which exhibit non-compliance to compromise with other values of economic nature, are hypothesized to also show quantity insensitivity, agent relativity, and moral obligation. Individuals are also said to encounter anger and denial of the need for trade-offs in the consideration making compromises. A correlation of these five factors with trade-off resistance was revealed in subjects despite the individuals' inability to distinguish which values they were being subjected to. Results may have significant value to policy makers in the consideration of maximizing utility.

In the current climate of increasing concern for diversity in the workforce (Adler & Ghadar, 1990), complexity of jobs, and the need for individual discretion on the part of employees [...]

Measuring advertising effectiveness is an issue of increasing relevance in today's business climate where accountability is a central goal of managers (Ellis and Johnson, 1993). The Advertising Research Foundation has [...]

Most executives are nervous about discussing organizational values. Many are downright cynical, and believe that shared values are something that managers talk about to make their staff feel good but [...]

Introduction Two parallel areas of research have been of particular interest in the organizational literature in recent years: the study of work values and the analysis of commitment in its [...]

The Americans and the British have similar agency self-efficacy and competence because of their high degree of similarity in work-related attitudes, values and behavior. The similarities are in their perception of power, avoidance of uncertainty, individualism and perception of material things as opposed to meaningful relationships. Based on these dominant cultural dimensions, studies on work-related behavior of Americans can also be applied to UK settings., Introduction Previous research has demonstrated the applicability of various constructs emerging from social cognitive theory to the study of various work-related and vocational behaviours in the USA[1-6]. One shortcoming of [...]

A study was conducted to examine the structure of personal values. A multifaceted definition of values from different life areas or domains was developed. Data from two samples of Israeli respondents were used to test structural hypotheses regarding the link between the definitional framework and empirical observations. Through factory analysis and smallest space analysis, value modality and life area were verified to be basic facets of the values domain. A three-dimensional conical representation of the personal values domain was identified.

Most Arab managersuse the consultative style of leadership, according to a multiple regression analysis conducted to determine the relationship between management values and decision styles among Arab executives. This decision style is positively related to the existential value system, which makes use of experience to solveproblems and elicit questions from followers. Managers who follow the consultative style clarify problems with and consult their subordinates on issues regarding the objectives of the organization and the employees.

The relationship between personality and values and the existence of a 'Jingle Fallacy' are investigated. Results indicate that only a few relationships between personality and individual values support the existence of a 'Jingle Fallacy', and that these relationships may be more complex and interactive.

A study to investigate how personal values operate in higher education services' evaluation is presented. The survey measured student personal values, satisfaction, service quality, and behavioral outcomes between USA and India. The results explain the impact of personal values on satisfaction and behavioral outcomes, while differences between India and the USA were shown.

Values are essential to setting and achieving goals. Once an organization identifies its values, it must determine the priorities of its values. A survey of senior management of Fortune 1000 companies was conducted to ascertain the priority of their corporate value systems. The survey revealed that the executives believed that the most important value systems included, in descending order, trust, excellence, and management skills. These three values were linked with the development, retention, and treatment of employees and are directly related to organizational effectiveness and productivity. Trust is essential to employer-employee relationships. Employees must see that the actions and words of management coincide in order for management to have credibility.

When you're hiring, keep in mind that values occur in bundles. In a study on honesty tests conducted by Ohio University, there was found to be a strong correlation between [...]

Increasing interest is being shown in management behavior cross-culturally. Additionally, considerable research has been directed toward the study of values and managerial behavior. This paper reconsiders earlier research of England et al. regarding personal values of managers. The paper first considers the issue of culture, followed by the nature of values, attitudes, and behavior. The study then discusses, in detail, the theory and methodology of value measurement paying particular attention to the work of George W. England and his associates. The paper concludes with implications for devising culturally consistent managerial styles. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The technique of laddering is a type of advertising research that is useful determining the attributes of products with regard to their inferential attitudes and values. The means-ends theory underlies the laddering method, as well as the means-ends chains depicting cognitive levels of abstraction: attributes, consequences, and values. The environment and technique required in laddering are discussed, along with interviewing methods such as the use of triads. Analysis of laddering data is provided with reference to more traditional methods, such as the hierarchical value map (HVM). The HVM is described in some detail, followed by an exposition of dominant perceptual orientations. Perceptual segmentation is discussed, which determines the weights of ladder components, and helps to develop and assess advertising from the viewpoint of values.

The 'nine nations of North America', namely: New England, Quebec, 'The Foundry' (Detroit), Dixie (the South), 'The Islands' (Miami), 'The Empty Quarter' (Rocky Mountains area), 'The Breadbasket' (Kansas City), 'Mex America' (Los Angeles) and 'Ecotopia' (the Pacific Northwest) are viewed on a value basis. This geographic segmentation is then further broken down into explanations of each of the nine individual areas and their values, and placed into tables that illustrate the point that the research gathered, that the 'nine nation' method is not necessarily a better classification system than the regions defined by the Census Bureau.

Two case studies describe common business decisions faced by many law firms, illustrating ethical issues inherent most business decisions. The decision making framework suggests that the process is carried out in three steps; identify the options, evaluate the options and create a course of action. Each option needs to be assessed against the firm's value and beliefs, its purpose and objectives, its constituencies, the time horizon and the competency of the management team. The first case study involved the distribution of profits. Though the draft accounts show a higher profit than forecast, future business is less certain, and if the usual formula for distribution were followed, the overdraft would have to be increased. Option one was to make the distribution on time and increase the overdraft. This would demonstrate trust that the clients would pay quickly. Distribution could be delayed for three months. This option is the most honest but the partner in financial difficulties would suffer. Option three is to change the draft accounts to show a lower profit. This could create problems. It is in fact a case of truth versus loyalty, the individual or the community, short versus long term and justice versus mercy. In this case study the best course of action depends on the firm's values, attitude to financial risk and it competence in managing the consequences of its decision. In the second case study the managing partner of the law firm is faced with a decision whether to keep the legal aid practice in the firm. The internal culture of the legal aid group is very different to the rest of the work. They value their hierarchy and procedures whereas the rest of the firm are entrepreneurial. The common values are loyalty and teamwork. There are clashes between the two groups about profit sharing and expenditure. The overwhelming argument has been that firm has a duty to provide a first class legal aid practice. There are four options. One is to keep the legal aid team and resist pressure to change and thus keeping the firm true to its values. Or the legal aid team could be kept but the profit sharing system changed. The third option is to persuade the legal aid team to join another firm but this could undermine the values Of loyalty and teamwork. The fourth option is to give the legal aid team a year's notice of redundancy. The balance of the arguments for and against the last two compared with the first two is about who and what is valued more. The success of any option depends on the skill of the Managing Partner. Decision making in law firms is highly conditioned by values. An agreed decision making framework can make explicit the values underlying the choice and assist the choosing the option most consistent with the firm's values.

Forward looking organisations realise that many of the world's best companies have made a commitment to ethical business conduct. Four factors in the US have been influential. The first was the adoption in 1991 of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organisations. The Caremark case in 1996 caught the attention of boards of directors. Third, as a result of investigative journalism, many industry groups have taken the lead in designing programmes of ethical behaviour. A fourth major factor is the growth of the business ethics movement in general and the creation of the new practices of ethics officers in particular. Scenarios, vision and motivations are not enough; and an action programme is needed. A first step is the self assessment to identify what needs to change or be introduced. The most senior levels of management must make an explicit commitment to long-term success. An ethics manager should be appointed to monitor and audit the practice. A blue print for building a moral culture within a company must include a written code of ethics with clear objectives, and written in simple language. Communication is clearly essential; the mission cannot be over-emphasised. It has to be continuous. Ethics training seminars are critical in allowing employees to exchange views and discuss issues that specifically relate to their daily work. Ethics training seminars should help participants to see or recognise ethical issues especially those that are not self-evident. They should also help transfer ethical awareness into action. Resources such as toll-free telephone lines or 'open door' system should be provided to make it easy for employees to make difficult ethical choices. Multidepartmental committees can provide an effective supporting structure to any ethics initiative. Careful coordination with human resource personnel or an ethics co-ordinating committee that can review or hear appeals are useful tools for ethics officers and managers. Ethics initiatives, training programmes and other infrastructure should not be put in place without constant measurement of their effectiveness. The programme to instil value into an organisation must not be a one-time event. It should be constantly re-evaluated and changes made to make it live and relevant. There are clues to indicate whether or not the programme is working. Employees will be motivated. Unethical behaviour will prove costly. The company should strive to be one of the most ethical organisations, at the same time acknowledging that perfection is beyond reach. Managers should be praised for values put into action as a result of the procedures that have been developed.

Psychographics, which uses psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors to define how the segmentation of market groups affects the reasons for making a decision about a ideology, person, or product, was created in an attempt to improve decision making research when demographics do not give enough information. The first psychographics survey was done in 1965. Psychographics enables researchers to use large samples of people for study. Media content analysis is currently being done with a new psychographics technique. Using pragmatic psychological, sociological, and anthropological elements. Q analysis is utilized, and the result is a segmented media. Possible audience size can be predicted, along with the qualities of the audience. The technique can also discover which media will be effective.