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Work is integral to human functioning, and all psychologists need to understand the role of work in people's lives. Understanding factors influencing work choices and helping individuals effectively make career decisions is the focus of vocational psychologists. However, external changes, such as shifts in the economy and labor force, as well as initiatives within the field are challenging the assumptions within vocational psychology. This chapter reviews the empirical work since 1995 in four areas: (a) what factors influence career choices, (b) how people make career decisions, (c) how context influences career choices, and (d) effective interventions for help with the first three questions. The review focuses first on vocational psychology's rich tradition of theoretically driven research, and then discusses research in career development that crosses a number of theoretical approaches, and finally identifies the assumptions in the field and questions for future examination.

This study investigated the influence of background variables (age, race/ethnicity, mother's work status outside of the home, and socioeconomic status), personal variables (anticipatory role conflict and academic self-efficacy), and environmental variables (parental attachment and parental support) on aspects of adolescent girls' career planning. Four hierarchical regression analyses were performed with a sample of 217 adolescent females in an urban high school. The dependent variables representing aspects of future career planning were (a) plans for the integration of work and family; (b) gender-traditionality of career choice; (c) career commitment; and (d) aspired education level. Personal variables made the greatest contribution to adolescent girls' plans for the integration of work and family and career commitment. Background variables contributed most to gender-traditionality of career choice and aspired education level. Environmental variables did not make significant contributions to any of the dependent variables. Results and implications for counselors and educators are discussed. (Contains 5 tables.)

This qualitative study examines factors that influence the career decisions of dislocated workers. The research focuses on individuals identified as working class, as this group has been relatively ignored in past research compared to individuals from higher socioeconomic statuses. Participants include 13 individuals (10 females and 3 males) ranging in age from 42 to 65 years. A total of 12 participants were identified as European American and 1 identified as African American. Participants' reported average incomes ranged from $21,000 to $60,000 per year. A consensual qualitative research approach was used to collect and analyze the data. Four major domains emerged, highlighting the importance of individual characteristics, the influence of others, developmental history, and decision-making processes in the career development of this particular sample. Results from the study highlighted the resilience and hopefulness of participants, despite the various barriers they encountered. (Contains 2 tables.)

Research on group differences in interests has often focused on structural hypotheses and mean-score differences in Holland's (1997) theory, with comparatively little research on basic interest measures. Group differences in interest profiles were examined using statistical methods for matching individuals with occupations, the C-index, Q correlations, and Euclidean distance measures. Profile similarity across U.S. racial-ethnic groups was evaluated with students and employed adults who completed the General Occupational Themes (GOT) and Basic interest scales (BIS) of the Strong Interest Inventory (SII). Obtained results suggest that profile shape varies systematically by gender and employment status, with the Euclidean distance measure being more effective than Q correlations for representing these differences and Q correlation more effective than the C-index. Group differences in interest profiles may lead to men and women receiving differential feedback on the fit between their interests and different careers, which may contribute to gender differences in the pursuit of careers in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

Individualism-collectivism (IC) constitutes a cultural variable thought to influence a wide variety of variables including career planning and decision making. To examine this possibility, college students (216 women, 106 men, 64% racial-ethnic minorities) responded to measures of IC, occupational plans, and work values. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results indicated significant main effects for gender and race. Men, more so than women, endorsed vertical individualism (VI)--a cultural pattern characterized by independence and dominance--and intrinsic work values. African Americans expressed more fit of their occupational plans with personal goals and endorsed extrinsic work values more than did European Americans. A hypothesized inverse relationship between collectivism and consistency of occupational plans with personal goals was not supported. Hypothesized positive relationships between collectivism and work values stressing relationship and interdependence were supported, whereas expected inverse relationships between collectivism and work values emphasizing independence and personal gain were not supported. Findings are discussed in terms of acculturation issues, career assessment implications, and future research directions. (Contains 1 table.)

Replicating previous research, this study examined differences in 677 diverse college students' career aspirations and expectations based on gender and ethnicity, and compared their career expectations to the U.S. workforce. This study extended the literature base by exploring discrepancies between occupational aspirations and expectations (aspiration-expectation discrepancy) in terms of Holland code congruence and complexity. Further, this study investigated how perceptions of career barriers, career decision self-efficacy, and differential status identity may be related to the aspiration-expectation discrepancy. Results revealed significant ethnic and gender differences in career aspirations and expectations. Furthermore, the careers college students expected to pursue were not entirely aligned with the current labor market. Discrepancies existed between the careers students aspired to and expected to pursue. Finally, our findings revealed that career barriers, career decision self-efficacy, and differential status identity are three factors that may be related to the aspiration-expectation discrepancy, which warrants more research. (Contains 4 tables.)

This study examined the effectiveness of a college career course designed to increase career decision-making confidence and facilitate career exploration. Participants were 73 students from a large Midwestern university (65.6% women, 34.4% men, mean age 18.56). Students were given questionnaires assessing career decision-making difficulties, career decision-making self-efficacy, and perception of career and educational barriers during the first and fifteenth weeks of the course. Repeated measures analyses were conducted to examine possible differences in students' responses before and after the course. Results indicated that on completion of the course students' career decision-making difficulties decreased, career self-efficacy increased, and perceptions of barriers did not change. (Contains 1 table.)

This study used a modified version of consensual qualitative research design to examine how contextual, cultural, and personal variables influence the career choices of a diverse group of 12 Asian Americans. Seven domains of influences on career choices emerged including family, culture, external factors, career goals, role models, work values, and self-identity. Furthermore, several overarching themes were discovered that expressed elements of many of these domains. These themes highlighted the pervasive and influential role that both culture and family of origin play in the construction of meaning that these Asian American participants made from their career choices. Implications of these domains and themes and suggestions for future research are discussed.

This article focuses on the construct of outcome expectations. It is argued that the construct has received relatively little attention in the vocational literature. The authors define outcome expectations, trace the precursors to the construct, provide a critique of the operationalization of the construct, and propose recommendations for future research.

This study examined whether university students were psychologically distressed or had difficulties with career decisions to indicate whether they needed career services, whether they were aware of the services offered by the campus counseling and career services, and finally, whether they had used the services. Findings indicated that students indicated difficulties with career decisions, high levels of psychological distress, and low levels of psychological well-being and that about half of students were aware of career services but much fewer had used those services. There were relationships among psychological distress and career-related variables for undecided students. Results are discussed with implications for career services on university campuses. (Contains 2 tables.)

The authors focus on career counseling from a cultural perspective, using the proxy construct of race/ethnicity. They briefly describe traditional career counseling and critique the degree to which the myriad cultural contexts that shape clients' career development are incorporated into vocational theories and practice. They conducted a meta-analysis of research that has investigated the relationship between culture and vocational choice variables and concluded (a) that race/ethnicity differences do not greatly affect career aspirations but (b) that there are differences among racial/ethnic groups in perceptions of career-related opportunities and barriers. (Contains 4 tables.)

This study examined racial/ethnic group differences on an interest inventory at the item level using differential bundle functioning (DBF) analyses. Specifically, responses of males and females from five different racial/ethnic groups (N=3750) on the General Occupational Themes of the Strong were examined. Items were grouped together based on substantive considerations to determine if they functioned differentially due to racial/ethnic group differences in role modeling, perceptions of opportunities/barriers, familiarity with activities, and cultural expectations, as opposed to true racial/ethnic group differences in interests. Very high levels of DBF were found for most of the item sets considered in this study, implying that diverse cultural groups have a different conditional probability of endorsing some sets of items due to the items measuring a secondary trait in addition to the main trait the scale was designed to measure.

In the present study, the authors investigated the academic subject matter domain specificity of the social-cognitive career choice model (R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, & G. Hackett, 1994). The relationships between self-efficacy, goals, outcome expectations, and interests were examined across the subject areas of art, social science, math/science, and English to see if the predicted relationships hold for subject domains other than math/science. Previously validated scales in each of the subject domains were used in a survey of undergraduates (N=952) in introductory psychology classes at 2 Midwestern universities. Structural equation modeling was used to test 4 different models. The results indicated support for the social-cognitive career model relationships in each of the 4 subject areas and revealed that these relationships are remarkably similar across subject areas. Some modifications in the model were made, including the use of 4 background variables examined in the study.

Causal modeling techniques applied to data from 791 college students showed that parental encouragement in math and science significantly influenced achievement, which in turn influenced self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Results supported the role of family context in Lent et al.'s social cognitive career choice model. (Contains 40 references.) (SK)

A study of influences on career choice for 187 Asian Americans supported a path model showing that acculturation, family background, and self-efficacy had the most significant effects on choosing an occupation. (71 references) (SK)

Provides validity evidence for a new instrument that assesses a career-related self-efficacy intervention for Hispanic and Latino students. Focuses on the broad area of career decision making and on math and science tasks. Results indicate adequate validity of the instrument, particularly for women and minority students. (RJM)

Investigated construct of career maturity in United States and Israel by assessing attitudes about career decision making among U.S. and Israeli ninth and twelfth grade students on the Career Maturity Inventory (CMI). Indicated differences across cultures in career maturity and sex differences on some individual subscales of the CMI. Showed grade differences for Israeli students. (Author/KS)

A study determined that women who choose a traditional career (1) do not differ in sex-role orientation; (2) do not differ in the importance they place on specific work values; and (3) show an interaction between sex-role orientation and work values such that some work values are clearly associated with different sex-role orientations. (JOW)

Individualism-collectivism (IC) constitutes a cultural variable thought to influence a wide variety of variables including career planning and decision making. To examine this possibility, college students (216 women, 106 men, 64% racial-ethnic minorities) responded to measures of IC, occupational plans, and work values. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results indicated significant main effects for gender and race. Men, more so than women, endorsed vertical individualism (VI)-a cultural pattern characterized by independence and dominance-and intrinsic work values. African Americans expressed more fit of their occupational plans with personal goals and endorsed extrinsic work values more than did European Americans. A hypothesized inverse relationship between collectivism and consistency of occupational plans with personal goals was not supported. Hypothesized positive relationships between collectivism and work values stressing relationship and interdependence were supported, whereas expected inverse relationships between collectivism and work values emphasizing independence and personal gain were not supported. Findings are discussed in terms of acculturation issues, career assessment implications, and future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]