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Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS), as a fully integrated set of practices and interventions directed to academics and behavior, with emerging applications to social and emotional learning in the teaching/learning process, is very much in its ascendency in schools across the United States and elsewhere. As a result, there is an emerging need to prepare teacher and administrator educators to enter the rapidly expanding number of implementing schools and districts. Requisite dispositions, skills, and knowledge germane to ensuring successful applications, sustainability, and resultant student outcomes from MTSS introduction into systems praxis are increasingly required. In this position paper, we discuss the origins of MTSS, its expansion into various areas of education in the United States, and its emerging contribution to the thorny issue of inclusion. We conclude with examination of Innovation Configuration, a heuristic to assist teacher and administrator educators in the development of course syllabi and other professional learning vehicles addressed to MTSS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Charter school legislation permits new actors to compete for public funds to provide education to K-12 students across the United States. Proponents of market-oriented policies predict that privatization cuts costs and improves service quality, by removing bureaucracy and boosting creativity. These schools were predicted to become laboratories of innovation that would use their flexibility from state and local requirements to improve public education. This study suggests that the less regulated service systems may have also propagated an environment susceptible to managerial and accountability inadequacies, if not outright integrity violations and corruption. Using systematic document review and the existing literature on corruption in education, a typology of integrity violations and corruption in the charter school sector is developed in this paper. A better understanding of the characteristics of the institutional environment that enable corrupt behavior is necessary to develop effective strategies to prevent corruption, protect children, and manage public funds effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many school districts across the United States have enacted one-to-one (1:1) programs to boost students' '21st Century Skills'. These programs provide a laptop or other personal digital device to every student, with the expectation that teachers will employ modern instructional processes and students will benefit from greater access to knowledge, tools, and both collaborative and individualized instruction. The transformative potential of 1:1, along with the varied contextual variables, makes program implementation difficult. This paper discusses the partial results of a year-long 1:1 laptop program evaluation in one Pennsylvania district. The study employs multiple methods to obtain an initial view of the programs' impact on students. The study found that, overall, students did not have positive perceptions of the 1:1 program or its impacts, and a significant decline was found for many indicators between semesters. Regression analysis of the collected data suggests that greater use of the 1:1 laptops, along with a robust IT infrastructure, significantly predicts the perceived level of impact a 1:1 program has on students. The information obtained from this case study provides further insight into how attitudes, behavior, and perceptions of students are impacted by these programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Policy Studies Journal is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine how test-based accountability has influenced school and district practices and explore how states and districts might consider creating expanded systems of measures to address the shortcomings of traditional accountability. It provides research-based guidance for entities that are developing or adopting new measures of school performance. Design/methodology/approach – The study relies on literature review, consultation with expert advisers, review of state and district documentation, and semi-structured interviews with staff at state and local education agencies and research institutions. Findings – The research shows mixed effects of test-based accountability on student achievement and demonstrates that teachers and administrators change their practices in ways that respond to the incentives provided by the system. The review of state and district measurement systems shows widespread use of additional measures of constructs, such as school climate and college readiness. Research limitations/implications – There is a clear need for additional research on the short- and long-term effects of expanded systems of measures. In particular, currently little is known about how the inclusion of input and process measures influences educators' practices or student outcomes. Practical implications – The research suggests several practical steps that can be taken to promote effective systems of measurement, including providing supports for high-quality teaching to accompany new measures, offering flexibility to respond to local needs, and conducting validity studies that address the various purposes of the measures. Originality/value – The paper provides new information about how states and districts are expanding their systems of measures for various purposes, and informs accountability policy by highlighting the benefits and limitations of current outcomes-based approaches to accountability and by clarifying the trade-offs and decisions that should be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present the author's commentary on the special issue of Journal of Educational Administration entitled "Systemwide reform: examining districts under pressure". Design/methodology/approach – The major thesis of this commentary and reflection on the preceding papers is that there is a need to recognize that "school districts" as known in the USA are examples of a more general phenomenon of intermediary organizational entities in education systems in North America and elsewhere in the world and that there is a need to problematize, not take for granted, the form, purpose, and influence of these mediating layers of the school system on the quality and improvement of schools, and on the implementation of government policies that are intended to regulate and support education in schools. Findings – This issue of the Journal of Educational Administration presents a series of papers that highlight different aspects and contemporary trends in school district practice and research – organizational characteristics associated with district effectiveness (see Trujillo this issue), how districts are responding to political and public demands for accountability (see Hamilton et al., this issue), the invention of school district authorities as portfolio managers of diverse school provider systems (see Marsh et al., this issue), and how social communication networks linking school and district staff interface with the use of evidence to support school improvement (see Finnigan and Daly, as well as Wohlstetter and Smith this issue). Originality/value – The simple thesis of this commentary is to argue that school districts function as an intermediate level of education governance, management, and support within national and state education systems, and that current research and discussion on the school district role in improving and sustaining the quality of education would be strengthened by broadening the scope of research and discussion to alternative kinds of intermediate level governance and support systems that exist in North America and in other regions of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe and explain an evolving management strategy in state and local levels of government in the USA that contributes to better productivity through greater responsiveness, governance, increased market-like competition and leveraging government resources. Design/methodology/approach – The paper is based on reviews and analysis of published reports about Charter Schools. Findings – This paper asserts that public private partnership (PPP) charter schools can be very conducive for the development and implementation of a public entrepreneurial strategy (PES) and contribute to local government productivity because: charter schools stretch resources utilization, leverage its ability to license as a mean for mobilizing new resources, improve service quality without expanding cost, reduce future financial obligations (i.e. pensions), diffuse accountability issues that have to do with elementary and secondary education – what the government needs to do in such eventuality is revoke or discontinue the license, induce market dynamics, i.e. consumer choice, effect continuing efforts to improve quality of all schools, become more responsive to demands of some elements of the purpose, describe and explain an evolving management strategy in polity without upsetting others, increase transparency, e.g. who is involved in the process of licensing and the rationale for the decision in each case, accommodate a higher level of community participation in governance, i.e. through opportunities to contribute to the developing of the licensing process, its implementation and the evaluation of its results. Research limitations/implications – A research limitation is that this approach is still evolving and no long-term data or evaluations are available. An implication is that this is an evolving management strategy that is geared to address shortage of resources, quality issues in education, governance and the role of government. Practical implications – This approach might be helpful to other state and local governments outside the USA. Social implications – The paper describes another way to become more responsive to the educational needs of subgroups. Originality/value – Knowing more about the context and attributes of Charter Schools in the USA may help others to assess the possible relevancy of this approach for dealing with their own issues of public education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of for-profit educational organizations in the predominantly public and not-for-profit K-12 US schooling system is being fiercely debated across our nation. Little empirical research is available to help policy-makers develop informed decisions regarding the educational value that for-profit schools provide to our students. This paper fills in part, for the first time in detail, this void. This paper uses a four-year panel of charter schools from the state of Michigan to estimate a school-level education production function and employ a random effects model that controls for student and district characteristics. The results find no evidence of a change in efficiency when a charter school is run by a for-profit company (versus a not-for-profit company). The analysis developed in this paper takes the debate one step further as well, and examines the role that the size of for-profit firms plays in the associated outcomes. There is some evidence that small for-profit companies are either less efficient or enroll a different type of cohort of students than not-for-profit schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excellent, democratic education that furthers each person's potential, success and happiness for her own and others' well-being is not yet widespread in the U.S. today. Dewey's The Public and Its Problems has much to say about the possibilities and challenges of achieving this goal. This paper examines Dewey's ideas about how a public for widespread, excellent education can form through the development of sound public opinion based on widely disseminated, accurate and relevant information and through the restructuring of associations among people. The crucial role of the educator in the formation of a public emerges through this examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, adult and workforce education (AE) seems to be located, simultaneously, both everywhere and nowhere in particular. Ongoing shifts in national economic demands and changes in requirements for training and education have brought learning in the adult years into the federal public policy arena. Sometimes referred to as lifelong learning, AE has proven to be a somewhat vague concept as a basis for federal policy formulation, but its existence signals an important federal locus of responsibility for learning in adulthood. This historical examination of the AE policy domain offers a review of the formulation, and more specifically how AE policy has been framed, where AE policy originated, and its progression over time. Primary U.S. legislative documents, federal agency reports, and federal white papers spanning the years 1862 to 2014 were reviewed to present a survey of the AE policy area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Over a decade ago, the first nationally representative probability survey concerning the teaching of evolution revealed disquieting facts about evolution education in the United States. This 2007 survey found that only about one in three public high school biology teachers presented evolution consistently with the recommendations of the nation's leading scientific authorities. And about 13% of the teachers emphasized to their students that creationism was a valid scientific alternative to modern evolutionary biology. In this paper, we investigate how the quality of evolution teaching, as measured by teachers' reports of their teaching practices with regard to evolution and creationism, has changed in the intervening 12 years. Results: We find substantial reductions in overtly creationist instruction and in the number of teachers who send mixed messages that legitimate creationism as a valid scientific alternative to evolutionary biology. We also report a substantial increase in the time that high school teachers devote to human evolution and general evolutionary processes. We show that these changes reflect both generational replacement—from teachers who are new to the profession—and changes in teaching practices among those who were teaching in the pre-Kitzmiller era. Conclusion: Adoption of the Next Generation Science Standards, along with improvements in pre-service teacher education and in-service teacher professional development, appears to have contributed to a large reduction in both creationist instruction and mixed messages that could lead students to think that creationism is a scientific perspective. Combined with teachers devoting more hours to evolution—including human evolution—instruction at the high school level has improved by these measures since the last national survey in 2007. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the effects of college tuition on student debt and human capital accumulation. We exploit data from a random sample of undergraduate students in the United States and implement a research design that instruments for tuition with relatively large changes to the tuition of students who enrolled at the same school in different cohorts. We find that $10,000 in higher tuition causally reduces the probability of graduating with a graduate degree by 6.2 percentage points and increases student debt by $2,961. Higher tuition also reduces the probability of obtaining an undergraduate degree among poorer, credit-constrained students. Thus, the relatively large increases in the price of education in the United States in the past decade can affect the accumulation of human capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of School Administrators is the property of School Administration Research Association, R.O.C. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to broadly describe and provide insight into the national dialogue in the USA concerning accountability for educational results in academic institutions. Design/methodology/approach - The approach takes the form of a thorough survey of the key questions, current issues, and organizational players in this national dialogue. Findings - Policy makers and educators should use the present opportunity to work together, focusing not on narrow one-size-fits-all measures but on the improvement of a new generation of complementary approaches. Originality/value - The paper presents a clear articulation and discussion of the key questions that are driving the national dialogue on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fairness is one of the most important quality criteria of assessments and a necessary condition for valid test score interpretations. In this paper, we describe findings related to an assessment of N = 7664 beginning business and economics students at 46 universities across Germany using a domain-specific higher education entry test. From the perspective of test fairness as defined by the internationally established validation standards outlined by AERA et al. (Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, AERA, Washington, DC, 2014), we identify which students had particular difficulty completing the test, taking into account gender- and language-related influence factors in the assessment of their test performance. Our results highlight the particular challenges in admissions testing in higher education. One of these challenges is finding a suitable way to address the disadvantages experienced by various groups of students to guarantee fairness and ethical integrity when developing and administering tests. Current migration developments and the overall internationalization of higher education have led to an increasing heterogeneity of student bodies. These challenges are therefore of particular relevance for education policy and practice when it comes to ensuring fairness when assessing learning outcomes for all student groups. This also applies in the context of commonly used standardized assessments and established examination practices in higher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the progress of educational programme evaluation over three decades through the lens of a group of evaluators primarily from the UK and the US who met periodically from 1972 to 2004 to review the state of the art of educational programme evaluation- what it could and could not do- in relation to the complexity of programme initiatives and the policy and political contexts of the times. These meetings came to be known as the Cambridge conferences as they were always held at a university college in Cambridge. They were sponsored in the main by the Nuffield Foundation and, in 2004, by the ESRC. The nucleus of original group membership was retained over the years for continuity with additional members joining as the specific focus of the conference changed and new ideas were sought. There have been six conferences. This paper first locates the contextual origin of and reason for the first conference and the manifesto that was written from it. Secondly it documents the revisiting of that manifesto at the sixth conference leading to the construction of a 'new' manifesto that reflects changes required in evaluation methodology in the socio/political context of the first decade of the twenty-first century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For more than three decades the education system in Singapore, based on the mantra of meritocracy, has been successful in steering the island state towards high achievement. A strong political will has framed the educational policy as an investment for a productive and cohesive society in an internationally competitive context. Education is considered to be a powerful tool by which the integration of culturally different racial groups is facilitated. In the education of children with special needs, Singapore currently shares similar provisions with countries such as the United States, Britain and Australia. Besides special schools, there is provision for inclusion in the mainstream schools. However, critics have pointed out that the expectation to adapt to the mainstream environment where the benchmark is scholastic achievements has made it difficult for children with special needs to be successful learners. This paper will explore the issue of including special education in the portfolio of social capital investment through an examination of the limitations of the current implementation of inclusion in Singapore. It will put forward the argument that inclusive education is not just about social justice, but it could be a means to forge connectedness and foster social wellbeing and character building in all students. The paper will call for an expansion of the role of special education in the light of nation building. It will argue that the pragmatism that has served Singapore so well in past decades of development might continue to ensure that special education is harnessed and viewed as an integral component of the social cohesion equation to meet the challenges ahead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) and the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA' 04) raise the achievement expectations of all students, including students with disabilities. These requirements place new responsibilities on institutions of higher education and state educational agencies to ensure that teachers are knowledgeable about state academic content and achievement standards and expectations. This paper puts forth competencies for teachers in this new era of standards-based education that were developed by the Educational Policy Reform Research Institute (EPRRI), in collaboration with the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO), and validated by participants at a national symposium on teacher quality. The paper also compares these competencies with Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) model standards and the state standards for beginning teachers of one state to see whether current standards contain the proposed competencies. In conclusion, these competencies are proposed as a supplement to existing standards and are envisioned as an aid in matching existing standards to federal and state requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an empirical analysis of education policy in England that is informed by recent developments in US critical theory. In particular, I draw on ‘whiteness studies’ and the application of critical race theory (CRT). These perspectives offer a new and radical way of conceptualizing the role of racism in education. Although the US literature has paid little or no regard to issues outside North America, I argue that a similar understanding of racism (as a multifaceted, deeply embedded, often taken-for-granted aspect of power relations) lies at the heart of recent attempts to understand institutional racism in the UK. Having set out the conceptual terrain in the first half of the paper, I then apply this approach to recent changes in the English education system to reveal the central role accorded the defence (and extension) of race inequity. Finally, the paper touches on the question of racism and intentionality: although race inequity may not be a planned and deliberate goal of education policy neither is it accidental. The patterning of racial advantage and inequity is structured in domination and its continuation represents a form of tacit intentionality on the part of white powerholders and policy-makers. It is in this sense that education policy is an act of white supremacy. Following others in the CRT tradition, therefore, the paper’s analysis concludes that the most dangerous form of ‘white supremacy’ is not the obvious and extreme fascistic posturing of small neo-nazi groups, but rather the taken-for-granted routine privileging of white interests that goes unremarked in the political mainstream. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper consists of the transcripts of a panel discussion focusing on athletic directors', chancellors', and presidents' experiences with academic reform. The panel participants discuss a number of topics, including recent and past academic retbrm efforts, the process of implementing those initiatives, and the effects of those policies on student athletes and intercollegiate sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Spanish Journal of Comparative Education / Revista Española de Educación Comparada is the property of Editorial UNED and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper investigates the impact of differing interpretation of federal education policy in three different states. The policy, the Workforce Investment Act Title II, has defined the services provided for adult English language learners (ELLs) enrolled in Adult Basic Education programs in the United States since it was passed in 1998. At the time the Act was legislated, ELL success in school and work did not depend on their capacity to use online technology; consequently, WIA II addressed neither limitations nor support for digital literacy instruction. This paper describes how over time this created a lack of fit between the policy and an increasingly technological reality. This misalignment resulted in de facto language policy that limited learner access to English language instruction differently in each of the states, at times negatively impacting ELL ability to prepare for full participation in civic and economic life in the US. The paper includes a discussion about key changes evident in new legislation, the Workforce Innovation and Opportunities Act passed in 2014, which supplants WIA II, and how it may mitigate the issue of inadequate digital literacy support for English language learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the use of critical policy analysis (CPA) in the fields of educational leadership and policy. In addition to exploring how CPA compares to traditional research approaches in educational leadership and policy, the authors consider the influence of long-established ways of knowing, why scholars choose to engage in CPA and how and why scholars who utilize this approach decide on specific methods. Design/methodology/approach – The exploration draws primarily on the use of CPA in the USA, though the authors also examine how scholars working within the UK utilize CPA. Findings – In the review of critical policy literature, the authors identified a number of assumptions common to traditional and critical policy research theories and approaches. For example, systems theory and analysis, structural analysis, cost-benefit analysis, technicist models, and political models were commonly used within traditional literature. In comparison, critical policy researchers relied on theoretical perspectives informed by critical theory, feminist theories, and critical race perspectives, among others. Critical policy researchers used these perspectives to engage in critique, interrogate policy processes, and epistemological roots of policy work, reveal policy constructions, and examine players involved in the policy development, interpretation, and implementation processes. Notably, the work of critical educational leadership and policy scholars also emphasizes the importance of context, the theory-method relationship and methodology. Originality/value – While there is a growing movement occurring in the education leadership and policy fields toward critical analyses of educational research, little is known about how scholars decide what methods to employ when conducting such analyses. The authors discuss the possibilities for scholars utilizing these methods in order to explore the complexities of education leadership and policy problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In countries around the world policy makers propose that parents should exercise more control over the choice of schools that their children attend. This paper considers the ways in which the introduction of new opportunities for school choice changes the education system. It argues that choice affects the education system as a whole by introducing new actors into the system, by changing the terms of relationships among existing actors, and by creating new pressures within the system that require new responses. The nature, magnitude, and consequences of these effects cannot be predicted in advance, as they depend on a number of factors including the social and economic context. The empirical basis for this paper derives from a case study of the implementation of choice policies in the state of Michigan in the US, but the conceptual issues raised have important implications for the study of school choice wherever such policies are adopted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduces a series of articles on federal education policy of U.S. published in the September 1982 issue of the journal 'Peabody Journal of Education.' Overview of federal activities in education since 1965; Strategies for the implementation of federal education policies; Criticism of federal purposes in education and the methods used to achieve them.

This paper explores the process of assessment in social work education programs throughout the United States. Following the guidelines of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) 2008 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS), social work education has switched from student learning outcomes to competency-based measures. Included in this study is a literature review on current assessment practices and results of a research project on assessment practices in social work education programs nationwide. The findings may be useful to social work educators in addressing programmatic changes and revisions based on the 2015 EPAS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we examine historically the onto-epistemological framework of mathematics education that generates cultural theses about modes of life. We pursue the idea of able bodies to think about schooling as producing kinds of people as well as their differences and divisions despite efforts for inclusion. Two historical moments in United States mathematics education are examined: pre-post WWII and contemporary reforms. We explore each moment as a set of cultural practices about who the child is and should be, and argue that making the body able embodies normalizing, and pathologizing qualities of being and acting. These practices change over time as we illustrate in these two historical moments. Shifting pedagogical practices reconfigure but never fully stabilize the desire to achieve a mathematically capable society through making up able bodies as inscriptions of the curriculum. Continual depiction of mathematical bodies on a differentially abled continuum in the so-called 'unity' of all children makes visible how inclusive curriculum practices in mathematics education simultaneously create unlivable lives that are seen and re-formed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between education policy and workforce policy has long been uneasy. It is widely believed in many quarters of American society that the U.S. education system is in decline and, what's more, that it bears significant responsibility for a wide range of social ills, including stagnant wages, increasing inequality, high unemployment, and overall economic lethargy. However, as analyzed in this paper, the preponderance of evidence suggests that the U.S. education system has produced ample supplies of students to respond to STEM labor market demand. The "pipeline" of STEM-potential students is similarly strong and expanding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparisons of US student achievement to other countries, conducted since the 1960s, have received extensive media coverage in the USA. Policy studies have cited these comparisons as evidence that the quality of US educational performance in mathematics and science requires federal intervention. Policy makers have been particularly concerned that the US economy would be impacted by inadequate student achievement levels especially in technology-related industries. This paper explores evidence about whether policy makers react to the citations of international student achievement rankings by changing funding levels for educational research and whether the studies have motivated the nation's educators to support a trend toward common educational standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the author discusses legacies of white supremacy in the United States of America and the effects on art education. Through personal reflection and resourcing the ongoing work to right the misinformation acquired through inherently white-privileged educational experiences, the author suggests the possibility of actively anti-racist arts pedagogies and pedagogies of justice in the arts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the period 1938-1980, the local administrative units of American education were transformed from small and informal community arrangements into large, professionally run bureaucratic organizations. This paper explores the causes of this structural change in American education by analyzing variation among states in the speed and extent of school district consolidation. It argues that the growth and formalization of district organizations through consolidation stemmed in large part from the expanding role of state bureaucracies. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of the numbers of school districts per state support this argument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the growing prominence of theoretical analysis of inequality of opportunity over the past twenty years, empirical work towards the normative evaluation of real-world policies has been minimal. This paper seeks to address this issue. It proposes a normative framework to model the influence of educational policy on health outcomes, grounded in Roemer's model of equality of opportunity. We apply this model to the National Child Development Study cohort, who, since their schooling lay within the transition period of the comprehensive education reform in England and Wales, attended different types of secondary school. We use this reform in two ways: first, to evaluate the health outcomes of different educational policies under different normative principles; second, to simulate counterfactual distributions of health outcomes by neutralising the different channels through which early life circumstances influence health. Evidence on the comparative performance of the two educational systems is mixed, suggesting that the opportunity-enhancing effects of the comprehensive reform were, at best, modest in terms of adult health. For some of the health outcomes considered, this leads to a convergence between the policy recommendations made by the two ethical principles of equality of opportunity and utilitarianism, while for others, the two principles diverge in their evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]