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South Africa participated in the electronic version of the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (ePIRLS) in 2016 but faced many challenges during implementation. Accurate databases on information and communication technologies (ICT) capacity of schools were not available for sampling in Gauteng, many schools had old and/or non-functional hardware and half of the schools had not used their computer laboratories in the last 3 years. Consequently, South Africa was excluded from the international report as the study requirements could not be met. In this paper we examine the implications of the problems experienced in the ePIRLS multiple case study, conducted in 9 schools (n = 277) in Gauteng. Multilevel models were built using data from the nationally representative Grade 4 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) data from 2011 (n = 15,744) and 2016 (n = 12,810). In the 2016 national study, principals and teachers reported fewer computers and libraries being available for learners than were reported in 2011. Computers and paper-based libraries being available were not significant predictors of reading literacy. Instead, the medium of instruction in the Foundation Phase, school location, gender, and socioeconomic composition of the school predicted reading literacy achievement. The ePIRLS results show no significant difference between paper-based and online reading. While issues of poverty, gender inequality, and historical disadvantage persist, Grade 4 learners may lack adequate opportunities to acquire paper and digital reading skills. We conclude that the most disadvantaged learners have increasingly insufficient opportunities and resources available to attain basic reading skills and this will have negative long-term consequences for South Africa's educational sector and economy.

This paper explored the factors influencing the leadership strategies of school principals in rural primary schools regarding the integration of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the process of teaching and learning in their schools. School principals are responsible for ensuring that there is ICTs integration in their schools' teaching and learning processes. Embedded within the theory of learning-centred leadership (LCL), school principals have a responsibility to lead, foster, manage, and support the learning process for teachers and learners in their schools. Thus, school principals need to be well acquainted with innovative technologies for teaching and learning amidst the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which is global, complex, and fast-paced, to lead learning through ICT integration. Underpinned by the interpretive qualitative approach and using a multiple case study as a research design, this study generated data from three selected South African rural primary schools through face-to-face interviews with the three school principals. Data were analysed thematically. Findings revealed that school principals' leadership strategies are influenced by their attitudes towards ICT integration into teaching and learning, their exposure to ICT workshops, and their own judgements of their abilities in using ICT. The paper recommends customised in-service training for school principals and teachers to alter and improve their exposure to, attitudes, perceptions toward ICT integration in teaching and learning.

This article critically examines how selected schools in Qwaqwa (a remote town in the eastern Free State province of South Africa) imagine and "image" schooling through mission and vision statements, mottos, and emblems. We use the word "image" to refer to the way in which schools often use images to represent particular views about schooling and what it entails. Visual architecture of schools in the forms of vision and mission statements, mottos, and emblems communicate specific ways of thinking about schooling that resonate with the cultures and beliefs of the communities where the schools are located. Therefore, a critical analysis of such symbolic representations can reveal philosophies and views about schooling held and promoted not only by schools but also by the communities in which they are located. How do specific communities come to associate education with certain symbols, catchphrases, and idiomatic expressions? Is there a correlation between the ways of imagining and imaging schooling and the sociocultural and ecological landscape of the surrounding communities? The article is based on empirical data collected from 20 primary schools in Qwaqwa. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews administered to 10 principals and 10 members of school governing bodies of selected schools. We also took photographs of visions and missions, mottos, and emblems of selected schools, which we later coded and themed for content analysis. Findings of the study revealed that schools in Qwaqwa viewed education as a public good and as a tool for individual and community development.

Promoting equal access to schools for researchers wishing to conduct educational research was one of the key tasks embedded in the educational transformation mandate of the new government of South Africa when it came to power in 1994. Drawing on data from five different research projects, this paper evaluates progress made by the democratic government of South Africa towards achieving that goal. Gaining access to schools to conduct classroom-based research was difficult and frustrating to researchers during the apartheid era. This paper finds that the government has succeeded in increasing access to schools and fair treatment of researchers who wish to conduct classroom-based research. This was achieved primarily through the government's nondiscriminatory policies and the pressure exerted by the issue of South Africa's poor performance in international learner achievement studies. The paper also finds that South Africa is still struggling to find effective strategies to address this issue.

This paper reports on a mid-point evaluation of the Gauteng Primary Language and Mathematics Strategy (GPLMS), an innovative large-scale reform designed to improve learning outcomes. Using data from universal testing of all learners in 2008 on a provincial systemic evaluation, and data from the 2011 and 2012 Annual National Assessment (ANA) test, this paper addresses the key research question, namely whether the GPLMS is effective in closing the gap between performing and underperforming schools. Given the evidence we have presented of an instrument effect, namely that various versions of the ANA may not be strictly comparable, no definitive conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of the GPLMS.

The paper examines the extent to which sub-national public officials are efficient in delivering basic education services and argues that technical inefficiencies, especially in the management of public funds for education, could potentially contribute to poor education service delivery in South Africa. A conceptual framework is proposed to show the underlying mechanisms by which these technical inefficiencies can adversely affect education outcomes. The analysis is based on two micro-level surveys that were applied at 175 public primary schools and 13 district education offices (DEOs) in two provinces in South Africa: the North-West Province and Gauteng. The analysis reveals that South Africa has a well-planned decentralised structure to administer education. However, districts have significant human resource constraints. Capacity is often lacking and record-keeping, particularly of financial information, is very poor. Lack of technical efficiency has resulted in misappropriation of funds (leakage) and extensive delays in remitting funds to schools. The paper concludes that these inefficiencies potentially affect education outcomes and therefore should be given due consideration when designing and implementing education policy reforms.

This paper investigates the capacity of primary school principals with regard to literacy instructional leadership. I argue that specific capacities related to literacy instructional leadership include principals' knowledge of the literacy curriculum, supervision of the literacy instructional programme, empowerment of literacy teachers through professional development activities, the manner in which principals promote print-rich literacy classrooms, and the importance of principals having a vision and mission for literacy instruction. This qualitative study was conducted at six schools in the Motheo district, Mangaung Municipality, Free State, South Africa. Embracing a multiple case study research design, data were collected through individual interviews with each principal. This data were subject to thematic and content analysis. The findings revealed that principals have a poor understanding of the literacy CAPS curriculum. They also lack an understanding of data-driven decision-making. Professional development activities to enhance literacy instruction are neglected and teachers receive little guidance regarding strategies to construct print-rich literacy classrooms. However, principals demonstrated some commendable practices in the monitoring of literacy practices. Furthermore, the findings indicate that measures that address the impact of the social context on literacy instruction are insufficient.

With the release of Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education--Building an Inclusive Education and Training System the issue of inclusive schooling has formed a growing part of the education debate in South Africa. There have been inclusive education pilot projects undertaken by the national and provincial education departments and various school-based initiatives that have engaged with inclusive education policy implementation. This study explored one school-based initiative that aimed to include children with disabilities and implement the imperatives of Education White Paper 6. The research participants were five teachers and the school principal. Data collection techniques included in-depth semi-structured interviews, non-participant observations in classrooms and document analysis. The findings in the study emphasize the importance of spatiality to understanding how ideological and structural forces impinge on a school that is grappling with the inclusion of students with disabilities. The study highlights how the everyday individual and cultural practices in the specific school spaces play out to reinforce dominant normalizing discourses of traditional forms of special education.

Although parent involvement is fundamental for school functioning, the nature and extent of such involvement is debatable and contested amongst stakeholders. A qualitative based study underpinned by the interpretive paradigm was undertaken to explore the voices of educators regarding parent non-involvement and its implications for learner experiences and performance in a disadvantaged community in South Africa. Data was gathered through individual and focus group interviews, involving 3 principals and 12 teachers respectively. The paper is buttressed by Epstein's model of school-family-community partnerships that advocates for genuine collaboration between stakeholders. The findings show that educators' perceptions concerning parent non-involvement do not take into consideration the contextual realities that restrict involvement, and this serves to alienate parents further. The paper also reveals the gap that exist between policy and practice in terms of school-parent relationships. Existing relations, especially in disadvantaged communities emphasizes the need for schools to initiate and implement strategies that are context friendly, taking into consideration challenges experienced by parents. In this regard, empowering teachers on school-parent relationships is a vital ingredient to ensure the initiation and implementation strategies towards a sustainable parent involvement.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explore the socialisation and leader identity development of school leaders in Southern African countries. Design/methodology/approach: The study utilised a survey of qualitative data where data collection primarily involved in-depth interviews with school principals and deputy principals of both primary and secondary schools. Findings: Findings revealed that early socialisation to leadership transpired during childhood and early schooling at which points in time the characteristics and values of leadership integral to the participants' leadership practice were acquired. Initial teacher training was found to be significant in introducing principalship role conception. Leader identity was also found to develop outside the context of school through pre-socialising agents long before the teaching and leading roles are assumed. Originality/value: The study presents an overview of the findings from four countries in Southern Africa, providing a complex process with overlapping stages of career socialisation. Existing research puts emphasis on formal leadership preparation as a significant part of socialisation -- this study suggests alternatives for poorly resourced countries. Significantly, the paper improves our understanding that school leader identity is both internal and external to the school environment.

This paper describes a process to develop and trial new metrics in South Africa to quantify school leadership and management practices or processes that are considered theoretically related to literacy outcomes. The predictive validity of these measures is assessed in challenging contexts, including 60 township and rural primary schools in South Africa. We observe a randomness to how better leadership and management practices are distributed across better and worse performing schools. Regression analyses confirm weak and inconsistent linkages between measured leadership and management dimensions and literacy outcomes across the sample. However, we find evidence of stronger linkages with intermediate outcomes, including monitoring curriculum coverage. This research contributes to a burgeoning, yet underdeveloped literature on educational management and leadership in Africa and the challenges of measurement in this context.

This paper explores how teachers in a poor township primary school in South Africa construct meaning regarding gender violence among children, and how they talk about addressing that violence. The paper argues that major influences on the endemic violence include complex societal structures that are inscribed with cultures of violent masculinities, extreme socio-economic conditions and gender inequality. It shows how primary school teachers recognise violent masculinities and gender power imbalances but simultaneously uphold the notion of children's innocence as a rationale for refuting the primary school as a site of violence. The paper explores contradictions embedded in some of the solutions which the teachers suggest as a way of addressing violence. For example, while they highlight the importance of teaching peace, respect and equality, they also advocate the use of corporal punishment as an effective means of dealing with violent conduct among school children.

In this paper the authors use the collaboration framework to explore the implementation of the School Feeding Scheme (SFS) in two primary schools within South Africa. The authors use a qualitative approach to gather data through individual and focus group interviews with two principals and eight teachers respectively. The feeding process was also observed. The authors found that despite recorded achievements, smooth implementation of the scheme was stifled by varied challenges. However, the current situation can be improved if principals initiate strategies that promote collaboration, while caterers and teachers are trained on collaboration and professional ethics. Monitoring and evaluation is encouraged to identify and resolve impending challenges.

This paper explores methodological insights from a mixed methods study that aims to understand how school leaders promote literacy development in their schools. The study findings consider both the complementarities and the challenges of the qualitative and quantitative approaches to measuring leadership practices and their linkages with learning across schools. We begin by identifying a conundrum in school leadership and management (SLM) research -- strong effects found in qualitative studies and weaker effects in quantitative studies. From the literature we identify some of the central challenges that account for these differences. We then show how these challenges were and were not addressed in the mixed method research we conducted in an SLM study of South African primary schools in challenging contexts. We consider why the central aim of the study -- to develop a scalable instrument for measuring SLM -- remains elusive.

Understanding the ways in which young boys and girls give meaning to gender and sexuality is vital, and is especially significant in the light of South Africa's commitment to gender equality. Yet the, gendered cultures of young children in the early years of South African primary schools remains a, marginal concern in debate, research and interventions around gender equality in education. This, paper addresses this caveat through a small-scale qualitative study of boys and girls between the ages, of 7 and 8 years in an African working class primary school. It focuses on friendships, games, and violent gendered interactions to show how gender features in the cultural world of young children. Given that both boys and girls invest heavily in dominant gender norms, the paper argues that greater, understanding of gender identity processes in the early years of formal schooling are important in, devising strategies to end inequalities and gender violence.

Leadership studies on principal succession show that new principals are required to address numerous challenges when adapting to a new school context. This paper, on a study that used a qualitative research design, reports on the professional and organisational socialisation of a new principal in a South African primary school during the first three years of the principal's appointment. Data were collected through a number of interviews and photographs and were presented in the form of a reflexive story. The principal's story illuminated the socialisation process and illustrated how he made sense of his role as a new principal of the school and the way in which he addressed the challenges in the school. The findings emphasised that socialisation in principal succession can be complex and varied, depending on factors such as the principal's personal characteristics and the school context.

Whenever gender violence and schooling have been the topic of South African research, the investigations focus on African boys in secondary schools. In contrast, this paper focuses on the ways in which violence is mobilized by African schoolgirls in a working-class primary school context. By drawing on selected elements of an ethnographic study of gender in the junior years of primary schooling, the paper examines young seven- and eight-year-old girls' use of violence as a significant resource in a context of massive social deprivation and economic instability. In such contexts, violence is an important means through which some girls define, create and consolidate their femininities. In the absence of research which focuses on the violent expressions of femininity, this paper argues that within the context of persistent social and economic inequalities which mark South African society, girl-on-girl violence is an important means to secure resources and claims to power. (Contains 6 notes.)

This paper emerges out of a larger qualitative study that aimed at mapping barriers to basic education experienced by children and adults in the context of the HIV and AIDS pandemic. The study was undertaken in Richmond district and involved a range of centres of learning (formal and informal) including three high schools, five primary schools, two adult basic education centres, a school for the deaf, two early childhood centres and their communities. The participants in the study were child and adult learners, parents and caregivers, school governing bodies, organizations working in the district, officials from the Departments of Health, Education and Social Welfare and members of a support group for people living with HIV or AIDS. The study attempted to capture the voices of participants and to obtain rich qualitative data through individual interviews and focus group interviews. In addition, various participatory research techniques such as transect walks, vulnerability matrices, ranking exercises, photo-voice and social mapping were used in the focus group interviews. This paper provides an understanding of a theme--that of oppression--that emerged from the data. The findings suggest that oppressions are systematically produced and reproduced in the processes of the everyday lives of learners, their families, teachers and the wider school community in this particular context. The paper juxtaposes Young's (1990) five categories of oppression: exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism and violence, with three post-structural constructs: discourse, hegemony and resistance to highlight the complex workings of oppression. These constructs are applied to the data from the study. The paper will provide examples of the forms of oppression and multiple ways in which oppression is played out in different situated spaces. (Contains 1 note.)

My purpose in this paper is to situate a university-school mathematics and science education partnership within a social justice perspective in education. The focus of the systemic intervention endeavour was school-based teacher professional development in which university-based facilitators embarked on class visits with the aim of identifying teacher needs, co-teaching and offering professional support over a three-year period. This was in contrast to evaluation (inspection visits) often undertaken by the subject advisors under the auspices of the Department of Education which, for historical reasons, tend to be viewed with suspicion by teachers and teacher unions. Five historically disadvantaged secondary schools and their 10 feeder primary schools were involved in this study with a view to providing equal opportunities to learners from marginalized communities in the Cape Winelands district of the Western Cape. Initial results suggest that an intervention programme that is responsive to local needs can go a long way in bringing about collaborative teacher professional development that leads to reflective practice in professional learning communities and can add value to the quality of student achievement in the gateway subjects of mathematics and science.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to give practical insights into the systemic approach to organizational learning "triple loop learning" (TLL; introduced in Part I) by reflecting on a facilitated research-and-intervention undertaken in South Africa as part of the "500 Schools Project". Design/methodology/approach: The authors reflect on one of the many researcher-assisted interventions in the "500 Schools Project" by retrospectively reflecting on the case through the principles of TLL. Findings: The authors show that researcher-assisted intervention can be genuinely transformative given two conditions: The principles of TLL are embraced, and researchers are committed to such principles and passionate about social transformation. In particular, the case study illustrates how we might address processes of power in processes of design and in processes of debate. The focus on power arguably helped to shift "power over" (power as domination) to "power to" enact empowering designs, "power to" co-develop responsible decision-making and "power to" transform relations with each other and with life on Earth. Originality/value: The authors introduce an original approach to TLL that directly addresses issues relating to processes of power. The value of the TLL is that it encourages researchers, learning facilitators and practitioners of the learning organization to engage with processes of power without neglecting other important organizational and environmental issues. [To view the first part of the series, "A Systemic Approach to Processes of Power in Learning Organizations: Part I - Literature, Theory, and Methodology of Triple Loop Learning," see EJ1196364.]

It has been claimed that homework is an effective means of developing good study habits (Cooper, 1994) and fostering positive attitudes (Marzano & Pickering, 2007) and self-responsibility (Brown, in Plato, 2000). If we are to believe this, then we need to ensure that all learners have equal or at least similar opportunities to gain these advantages. However, it seems unlikely in the Republic of South Africa, given the history of discrimination and deliberate under-funding of specific schools during apartheid. In order to discover in what ways and how schools in different socio-economic situations manage homework, we designed a multiple case study of three primary schools in the Eastern Cape. Since we could not assume that homework formed a regular part of the daily activities, we interviewed the principals and Grade 4 teachers of each school. This paper discusses the discourses of the teachers and principals and particularly the language used by them when discussing parents and homework. The study found that parents from the school situated in a more affluent area were ascribed agency and power, whereas parents from poorer socio-economic groups were positioned as disinterested and unable to assist their children. Such discourses reproduce deficit notions and practices resulting in further inequalities. (Contains 1 footnote and 3 tables.)

The "new sociology of childhood" has activated a growing interest in children as social actors and their level of involvement in activities that affect their lives. In the field of research, debate is underway regarding the consent processes and methodological activities that support child participation. This paper highlights methodological and ethical considerations that emerged while engaging in research with young boys (aged 9-11 years old) with a formal diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Key issues include recruitment, informed consent, and participatory activities for data production. Sociocultural theories of childhood and disability are applied to reflect on the power and privilege operating through the research process. Engaging in research that involves children with disabilities, in which discourses of risk, stigma, and protection are elevated, problematizes the researcher-researched relationship and expands considerations of what constitutes ethical practice and "valuable data".

This paper explores the effects of translanguaging on learners' ability to recall information when reading texts in isiXhosa as their home language and English as their first additional language. The study engaged a Solomon four quasi-experimental design with four groups of participants: two experimental groups and two control groups. Four rural Grade 4 schools comprising 215 learners aged between nine and 12 participated in the study. The results show a positive correlation between translanguaging techniques and learner performance on the ability to recall information in their home language. Regarding English, the results display a regressed but statistically non-significant performance. The study responds to concerns about the substandard reading abilities of African (Black) learners in elementary grades in South Africa and suggests an alternative multilingual approach, translanguaging, to enhance the reading abilities of multilingual learners. It demonstrates that substantial gains can be obtained in reading development in elementary grades when translanguaging techniques are exploited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In line with United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.2, South Africa's National Development Plan commits to providing high-quality early childhood education to all children by 2030 to drive improved child outcomes. Prior to 2016, South Africa lacked reliable, locally standardised, valid, and cross-culturally fair assessment tools for measuring preschool quality and child outcomes, suitable for use at scale within a resource-constrained context. In this paper we detail the development and evolution of a suite of early learning measurement (ELOM) tools designed to address this measurement gap. The development process included reviews of literature and other relevant assessment tools; a review of local curriculum standards and expected child outcomes; extensive consultation with government officials, child development experts, and early learning practitioners, iterative user testing; and assessment of linguistic, cultural, functional, and metric equivalence across all 11 official South African languages. To support use of the ELOM tools at scale, and by users with varying levels of research expertise, administration is digitised and embedded within an end-to-end data value chain. ELOM data collected since 2016 quantify the striking socio-economic gradient in early childhood development in South Africa, demonstrate the relationship between physical stunting, socio-emotional functioning and learning outcomes, and provide evidence of the positive impact of high-quality early learning programmes on preschool child outcomes. To promote secondary analyses, data from multiple studies are regularly collated into a shared dataset, which is made open access via an online data portal. We describe the services and support that make up the ELOM data value chain, noting several key challenges and enablers of data-driven change within this context. These include deep technical expertise within a multidisciplinary and collaborative team, patient and flexible capital from mission-aligned investors, a fit-for-purpose institutional home, the appropriate use of technology, a user-centred approach to development and testing, sensitivity to children's diverse linguistic and socio-economic circumstances, careful consideration of requirements for scale, appropriate training and support for a non-professional assessor base, and a commitment to ongoing learning and continuous enhancement. Practical examples are provided of ways in which the ELOM tools and data are used for programme monitoring and enhancement purposes, to evaluate the relative effectiveness of early learning interventions, to motivate for greater budget and inform more effective resource allocation, to support the development of enabling Government systems, and to track progress towards the attainment of national and global development goals. We share lessons learnt during the development of the tools and discuss the factors that have driven their uptake in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines the extent to which sub-national public officials are efficient in delivering basic education services and argues that technical inefficiencies, especially in the management of public funds for education, could potentially contribute to poor education service delivery in South Africa. A conceptual framework is proposed to show the underlying mechanisms by which these technical inefficiencies can adversely affect education outcomes. The analysis is based on two micro-level surveys that were applied at 175 public primary schools and 13 district education offices (DEOs) in two provinces in South Africa: the North-West Province and Gauteng. The analysis reveals that South Africa has a well-planned decentralised structure to administer education. However, districts have significant human resource constraints. Capacity is often lacking and record-keeping, particularly of financial information, is very poor. Lack of technical efficiency has resulted in misappropriation of funds (leakage) and extensive delays in remitting funds to schools. The paper concludes that these inefficiencies potentially affect education outcomes and therefore should be given due consideration when designing and implementing education policy reforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

My interest in critical leaderful educational practices emanated from my experiences as a researcher in a South African National Department of Education project that piloted the White Paper on Inclusive Education Policy from 2001-2003 and in 2006 when I worked as a volunteer consultant with Twenty30, an independent, not for profit organization that works with schools in disadvantaged communities in Johannesburg, South Africa. Based on my work with the National Department of Education and Twenty30, in this paper I briefly sketch the profiles of Sunshine Primary and Dullsville Primary, two schools which operate within similar contexts of social fragmentation but which display two very different sets of behaviours. I sketch the legacy of racial segregation in South African schools and the resource infrastructural climate that characterized apartheid South African education. The sketch is meant to serve as a contextual background to understand the behavioural patterns of Sunshine Primary and Dullsville Primary in terms of how they negotiate the discriminatory apartheid script: one school which has resisted the negative script conferred upon it by apartheid and its legacy and the other school which has habitualized and internalized the debilitating script of apartheid engineering. Through reflection on the ethos of these two schools I conceptualized a proposed research project that I will conduct with a group of principals in Johannesburg, South Africa. The proposed study aims to explore how women school principals navigate the complexities of educational leadership in disadvantaged communities ravaged by HIV/Aids, poverty and child and woman abuse while also negotiating their status within the education fraternity that has historically relegated them to second-class citizenship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most children in South Africa attending public schools are predisposed to malnutrition due to poor infrastructure and social inequality. This is despite the implementation of the National School Nutrition Programme to address barriers to learning associated with hunger and malnutrition and the National Development Plan to reduce child malnutrition through provision of social grants. In view of this, we compared malnutrition indicators and associated socio-demographic factors among children in rural Mpumalanga and urban Gauteng in South African public primary schools selected using a multistage cluster random sampling. A validated researcher-administered questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic data of caregivers, along with primary school children data collected on age, sex, learning grade, and anthropometric measures. Malnutrition indicators, which are stunting (low height-for-age z-scores), underweight (low weight-for-age z-scores), thinness (low body-mass-index-for-age z-scores), and overweight/obesity (high body mass index) were computed using WHO Anthro Plus 1.0.4 and data were analyzed using Stata 18. A total of 903 children (rural = 390 and urban = 513) with a mean age of 10 ± 2 years in the foundation phase (learning grades one to three) and the intermediate learning phase (learning grades four to seven) participated with their caregivers (mean age: 39 ± 8 years). Significant levels of poor socio-demographic status were observed among caregivers living in the rural setting compared to in the urban setting. Overall, thinness (18%), stunting (12%), underweight (10%), and overweight/obesity (24%) were observed among school children. Children in the rural schools had a significantly higher prevalence of stunting (20% vs. 3%; p < 0.0001), underweight (17% vs. 2%; p < 0.0001) and thinness (28% vs. 7%; p < 0.001) than their urban counterparts. In the urban, the odds of stunting, underweight and thinness were less among school children, while overweight/obesity was twice as likely in the urban setting. The multivariate final model showed lower odds of underweight [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.16; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.06–0.42] and stunting [AOR = 0.33; 95% CI: 0.13–0.87] in the urban compared to the rural schools. The association of stunting with sex [AOR =0.53; 95% CI: 0.30–0.94] and the intermediate learning phase [AOR = 7.87; 95% CI: 4.48–13.82] was observed in the rural setting, while thinness was associated with living in households with an income of USD 52.51 to USD 262.60/month [AOR = 2.89; 95% CI: 1.01–8.24] and receiving the child social grant [AOR = 2.49; 0.90–6.86] in the urban setting. Overweight/obesity was associated with living in a household with an income of USD 52.51 to USD 262.60/month [AOR = 1.80; 95% CI: 1.02–3.10]. The findings suggest nutritional intervention approaches that are accustomed to the context of settings to effectively tackle malnutrition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epilepsy is a disorder that disturbs nerve cell activity in the brain, resulting in seizures. It was noted that it occurs mostly in children, especially at the primary school level, and could result from a genetic condition. The aim of this study was to develop and validate life skills education guidelines for primary school learners of Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces in South Africa to educate them about epilepsy with the aim of reducing stigma and discrimination towards people with epilepsy. The guidelines were developed by adapting the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline development guide, which included the formulation of PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcome, study design) questions, conducting a systematic review of the literature, and using GRADE (grading of recommendations assessment, development, and evaluation) to develop evidence-based recommendations. The recommendations that informed the guideline development were that epilepsy education should be included in the primary school life skills curriculum to improve learners' understanding, attitudes, and skills related to epilepsy. This epilepsy education should be tailored to the needs of primary school learners and cover topics such as seizure recognition, management, medication, and coping strategies. Collaboration between healthcare providers, educators, and policymakers is crucial to developing culturally appropriate and evidence-based epilepsy education guidelines. Teachers and healthcare providers should also receive training on how to support learners living with epilepsy. The resulting guidelines provide clear and concise guidance on epilepsy education in life skills for primary school learners, caregivers, and teachers. The guidelines are expected to improve the quality of epilepsy life skills education and contribute to the overall well-being and inclusion of learners with epilepsy in Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces, South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa exhibits one of the largest pro-girl gaps in education, yet the reasons behind this gap are poorly understood. This paper analyses South Africa's pro-girl gap in Grade 4 reading and Grade 5 mathematics achievement. I make use of Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis to decompose the observed gender gaps into their explained and unexplained components, separately by school socio-economic quintile. This approach allows me to present new evidence that part of the country's pro-girl gaps in reading and mathematics are due to girls progressing through the early grades faster than boys. I also find that South African girls score higher on the constructs aimed at tapping student attitudes toward reading (reading self-efficacy and enjoyment, and engagement in reading lessons), and that these differences contribute significantly to the pro-girl gap in PIRLS reading achievement. Interestingly, despite outperforming boys in the TIMSS mathematics assessment, South African girls do not display more positive attitudes toward mathematics. The results suggest much more needs to be done to understand the reasons behind boys' disadvantage in the early grades, since much of the pro-girl achievement gap in Grade 4 reading and Grade 5 mathematics can be attributed the pro-girl advantage in grade completion in earlier grades. • South African girls outperform boys in both PIRLS and TIMSS. • This is partly due to girls progressing faster through the early grades. • Girls also display more positive attitudes toward reading than boys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to explore the contribution of psychosocial vulnerability and resilience to the academic achievement of primary school children attending a low‐fee, private, primary school in a township in Gauteng province, South Africa. In poorer communities, family and community challenges can be overwhelming, compromising the capacity of children to engage in education and achieve academically. The study draws on quantitative data from 116 primary school children, plus at least one family member (mostly mothers), including measures of family vulnerability and resilience, child resilience and reading and spelling scores. Vulnerability on its own had little impact on participants' academic achievement. However, the resilience of the child, as perceived by the family member, did impact academic achievement, but only for children with higher levels of vulnerability. This supports the buffering and differential impact theories in resilience. Implications for school social work practice are set out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aimed to describe and compare the performance of two screening protocols used for preschool hearing screening in resource-constrained settings. Method: Secondary data analysis was done to determine the performance of two protocols implemented during a preschool hearing screening program using mobile health technology in South Africa. Pure-tone audiometry screening at 25 dB HL for 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz in each ear was used by both protocols. The fail criterion for the first protocol (2,147 children screened) constituted a no-response on one or more frequencies in either ear. The second protocol required two or more no-responses (5,782 children). Multivariate logistic regression models were used to investigate associations between outcomes and protocol, age, gender, and duration. Results: Fail rates for the one-frequency fail protocol was 8.7% (n = 186) and 4.3% (n = 250) for the two-frequency fail protocol. Children screened with the two-frequency fail protocol were 52.9% less likely to fail (p < .001; OR = 0.471; 95% confidence interval [0.385, 0.575]). Gender (p = .251) and age (p = .570) had no significant effect on screening outcome. A percentage of cases screened (44.7%) exceeded permissible noise levels in at least one ear at 1000 Hz across both protocols. True- and false-positive cases did not differ significantly between protocols. Protocol type (p = .204), gender (p = .314), and age (p = .982) did not affect the odds of being a true-positive result. Average screening time was 72.8 s (78.66 SD) and 64.9 s (55.78 SD) for the onefrequency and two-frequency fail protocols, respectively. Conclusions: A two-frequency fail criterion and immediate rescreen of failed frequencies significantly reduced referral rate for follow-up services that are often overburdened in resourced-constrained settings. Future protocol adaptations can also consider increasing the screening levels at 1000 Hz to minimize the influence of environmental noise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parenting plays a determining role in the development of school readiness. Socio-economic adversity often has a detrimental effect on the quality of parenting, which in turn has a negative impact on the school readiness of children. Intervention research was done to develop and implement a parenting skills programme for parents of Grade R learners in two resource-poor communities in South Africa. The findings indicate that parents can improve in the important areas of parenting, namely, the quality of the parent-child relationship, parent-child interaction, and creating a home-learning environment that could enhance the school readiness of their Grade R children. Social workers are in the ideal position to implement such a parenting skills programme. It will be part of their preventive work to limit later psychosocial problems in clients linked to lack of schooling, behavioural problems and unemployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Towards the end of the 2017 school year, a prominent beverage company in South Africa pledged to remove their sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) and advertisements from primary schools in order to contribute to the realization of a healthy school environment. Objectives: To assess the availability and advertising of the company's beverages in public primary schools in Gauteng province following their voluntary pledge to remove the products, and to explore perceptions of school staff regarding SSB availability in schools and processes related to the implementation of the pledge. Methods: In 2019, we conducted a representative survey of public sector primary (elementary) schools in Gauteng province, South Africa. A random sample of schools was drawn, with schools stratified by whether or not they charge fees. This was a proxy for the socioeconomic status of the locale and student body. At each school, the availability of beverages and presence of advertising or not was assessed by an observational audit tool and differences across fee status assessed by Pearson χ 2 test. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of school officials. Data from the interviews were coded and thematic analysis conducted. Results: Two years following a voluntary pledge, the company's carbonated SSBs were available for sale in 54% (CI: 45–63%) of schools with tuck shops and advertised in 31% (CI: 25–39%). Qualitative interviews revealed a complex landscape of actors within schools, which, combined with indifference or resistance to the pledge, may have contributed to the continued availability of SSBs. Conclusions: Though we were unable to examine SSB availability before and after the pledge, our findings provide some preliminary evidence that voluntary pledges by commercial entities are not sufficient to remove SSBs and advertisements from schools. Mandatory regulations coupled with in-depth engagement with schools may be an avenue to pursue in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the psychometric properties of two primary domains in the Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (R-OBVQ) in a convenience sample of 272 Grade 6 and 7 primary school learners in Gauteng, South Africa. This appears to be the first study to explore the psychometric properties of the self-report scale among a South African sample of primary school learners in Grade 6 and 7. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed that two distinct factors lay beneath the surface of the items tested (i.e., 'being victimised' and 'bullying others'), and in combination explained 48.63% of the variance. Further results from the item analysis indicated that both factors were soundly reliable, yielding Cronbach Alpha values of.85 and.81, respectively. Notwithstanding the insight indicative in the results, the current study adopted only one technique to explore the factor solution in the data. As such, only modest support for the validity and reliability of the R-OBVQ is provided. Further research of the scale using (partial) confirmatory factor analysis among South African primary school learners is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The South African food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG) were developed and implemented to promote healthy lifestyles in the population along with preventing non-communicable diseases and other forms of diet-related illness. The FBDG were recommended for implementation within the national school curriculum. The objective of this study was to explore perceived challenges to successful implementation of these guidelines in the primary school curriculum. Design: This qualitative study gathered data via semi-structured individual interviews. Data were transcribed and analysed with ATLAS.ti software, using a thematic approach. Setting: Public primary schools located in three education districts in the Western Cape, South Africa. Subjects: Principals at twelve schools from communities with different socioeconomic statuses, and five curriculum advisors of relevant subjects from provincial and district levels. Outcomes measures: Perceived barriers to implementing FBDG in the primary school curriculum. Results: A lack of knowledge and/or expertise related to the FBDG by educators, time constraints within the teaching programme and lifestyle related factors of educators, parents and learners emerged as the three main challenge themes from the interviews. A lack of resources was identified as an additional theme. Conclusions: The principals and curriculum advisors anticipated many barriers to the success of implementing nutrition education using the FBDG in the primary school curriculum. Adequately addressing such barriers through improved awareness and knowledge of the FBDG by school staff could improve the potential of using the FBDG as a nutrition education tool in primary schools in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Poor motor performance and reduced physical fitness are characteristic of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). These features have also been identified more frequently among children living in low socio-economic circumstances. Aims: To evaluate the outcomes of a nine-week health promotion program (HPP) on the motor performance and fitness levels of children (6-10 years) with and without DCD attending a low-income primary school. Methods: The HPP was designed and implemented by undergraduate physiotherapy students using guidelines from the World Health Organization School Health Initiative and their physiotherapy curriculum. Children with DCD ( n = 22) and a control group without DCD ( n = 19) participated in the evaluation. Motor skill, functional strength, aerobic capacity, and anaerobic power were measured at baseline and after nine weeks. Results: Both groups of children improved on all measures at the conclusion of the HPP. Children with DCD showed greater improvement than the control group in motor performance and the control group showed greater improvement on one of the anaerobic fitness outcomes. Conclusions: A school-based HPP that focuses on increasing opportunities for physical activity may be effective in improving motor performance in children with DCD and can increase fitness levels in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A relatively large number of South African learners drop out of school during the last 2 years of high school. This has important negative consequences for the individual learners, as well as for the country as a whole since it contributes greatly to the high number of unskilled and unemployed people. This study was carried out to explore whether, aside from gender and school environment, learners' motivation can serve as a predictor of the (un)successful transition of learners from grades 11 to 12 in South Africa. A total of 1,355 grade 11 learners from previously advantaged, transition, and previously disadvantaged school environments in the Free State's Motheo district participated in the study. Self-determination theory and general theories of learner motivation were used as the underlying theoretical basis for the selection of the predictors. Results showed that the number of unsuccessful learners was much higher among boys and in previously disadvantaged schools. We did not find the importance attached to intrinsic and extrinsic goals to predict the (un)successful transition. We did, however, find that successful transition is associated with higher levels of learner motivation, a more positive attitude towards learning and lower levels of educational anxiety. Finally, in comparison with their unsuccessful peers, learners who were successful in the transition to grade 12 were significantly more autonomously motivated and showed significantly less controlled motivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: One hundred and twenty educators from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, underwent HIV/AIDS training. The educators were surveyed about their attitudes toward people with HIV. METHODS: The educators completed self-administered survey questionnaires both before and after 2 interventions. Measures included demographic characteristics, teachers' knowledge about HIV/AIDS, self-efficacy in handling HIV/AIDS situations, and attitudes (stigma and otherwise) toward HIV-related issues. The first intervention was a CD-ROM and the second intervention involved educators receiving a 2-day workshop on HIV transmission, risk factors, and actions that educators should know and undertake. The first step entailed testing the stigma instrument for its internal consistency and developing and testing potential subscales from the instrument. The second step entailed testing for the statistical associations between stigma (as measured by the stigma instrument and its subscales) and various demographic and HIV knowledge-related variables. RESULTS: The overall stigma scale had a Cronbach α coefficient of .66. Educators in the workshop generally had lower baseline levels of stigma than those in the CD-ROM intervention. Following both interventions, the stigma levels of both groups of educators were significantly reduced. Improvements in the general knowledge about HIV as a disease and in the specific knowledge about HIV transmission risks were both statistically significantly associated with reductions in stigma attitudes, having controlled for educators' baseline stigma levels and demographic profiles. CONCLUSIONS: The levels of teachers' stigma attitudes were statistically significantly lower after both types of HIV/AIDS training and were also statistically significantly associated with improvements in HIV knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to explore children’s representations and perceptions of natural spaces using photovoice and community mapping. The sample consisted of 28 children aged 12–14 years residing in urban and rural communities in the Western Cape, South Africa. Data were collected by means of a series of six focus groups interviews (three photovoice discussion groups and three community mapping discussion groups). For the photovoice missions, children were provided with a 28-exposure disposable camera and given 1 week to complete their missions. Thematic analysis was employed to analyse the data. Three key themes emerged, namely: safe spaces in nature, unsafe spaces in nature, and children’s favourite places in nature. Socio-economic status (SES) was found to be a determining factor in how children make sense of natural spaces. Children from low SES communities indicated being more constricted in their mobility, and were unable to access to safe natural spaces compared to the children from the middle SES community. It is recommended that an expedient starting point would be to work towards and build environmentally and child-friendly communities for children, with children as key contributors in the planning process using a child participation framework. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]