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Stock (Matthiola incana) is a cool-season annual in Utah with the highest quality stems being produced in spring and fall. Plants produce a single stem with either single or double florets that are known for their sweet and strong clove-like scent. Stock can be transplanted in the high tunnel and field in early spring and is tolerant of light frosts. Stems require a trellis to promote straight growth and can reach 36 inches tall. In North Logan, UT, stock grown in a high tunnel began blooming 5-10 weeks earlier, had 55% greater marketability, and stems averaged 4-8 inches longer than field-grown stock.

The allocation of new water resources to grow ornamental plants, especially in arid and semi-arid areas has usually faced numerous problems. Therefore, it is essential to study and select tolerant ornamental plants for use in these areas. This study was carried out in a completely randomized block design with five irrigation levels; 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100% of field capacity, using a surface irrigation system for two cultivars of stock flower (Matthiola incana L.), i.e., PanAmerican and Cinderella. The results showed that, although the number of flowers in Cinderella cultivar and relative water content in PanAmerican did not change significantly with increasing drought stress, plant height, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root fresh weight, and root dry weight significantly decreased in both cultivars (P

Garden stock (Matthiola incana R. Br.) is a commercially important horticultural crop owing to its ornamental effect. There are different stock cultivars varied in color and shape, especially flowered phenotype is an essential index evaluating its commercial value, because double flowered cultivars have more brilliant flowers compared to single flowered one. The present work aimed: (1) to make superior cultivars with different colors, high fertility, being capable of early selecting only double flowered seedlings by leaf color and to investigate morphological characteristics and (2) to select RAPD and ISSR primers for the cultivar certification and identification to culture and produce good commercial stock cultivars. Here we obtained new double flowered stock cultivars with different colors including pink, pale pink and white, through outcrossing between “white” cultivar (high fertile but unable to select double flower phenotype) and “pink” cultivar (vice. versa). Among newly obtained stock cultivars, single and double flower seedlings are distinguishable from each other by leaf color, having about 70% of fertility. Moreover RAPD and ISSR markers selected in this study can be applied to identify different stock cultivars in seed production, culture and to establish cultivar certification system.

Cut flower Matthiola incana were raised by local commercial cultivators in a polytunnel. The field soil beds were either left uncovered as normal or covered with polythene sheets (except a hole for plant plug space). Average temperatures in the top 5 cm soil under cover dropped from 28 oC to 18 oC compared to its spiking up to 37 oC in uncovered counterparts. Microbiological analyses indicated that soil covering induced two log10 folds reduction of the wilt causal fungi Fusarium oxysporum and concomitantly increased one log10 fold wilt antagonistic natural soil inhabiting fungi populations. Standard dip/drench mixtures of commercial and local isolates microbiocides (bacteria) applied to M. incana plug roots improved plant health assessed by visible scores of the level of damage or wilt symptoms under soil covered treatments. Scanning electron microscopy, cultural and 16S rRNA PCR analyses revealed potent antifungal bacteria attached to the hyphal surfaces of F. oxysporum as ectosymbionts that may have implications for virulence regulation and host plants’ wilt disease control. Our microbiological data support the prospects of combining physiological and microbiological interventions upon covering the soil surface that offers the local horticulturists an evidence based sustainable means of Fusarium wilt control suppression in polytunnel crops.

Objetivo: Describir los atributos morfologicos y etapas de imbibición en semillas de tres accesiones de Matthiola incana. Diseño/metodología/aproximación: Fueron analizadas semillas de los genotipos Nieve, Rosita y Uva correspondientes genero Matthiola especie incana. En una primera evaluación se calculó el peso de mil semillas y, determino el color de las mismas. A través del procesamiento de imágenes digitales se determinó el área, perímetro, longitud (eje mayor), ancho, ángulo, elongación (longitud/ancho) y el grado de redondez; datos que fueron analizados en una prueba de comparación de medias por Tukey. En la imbibición se colocaron en remojo muestras de cincuenta semillas de cada genotipo y fueron evaluadas cada 24, 48, 72 y 164 h para conocer su dinámica de absorción y poder determinar el tiempo en que transcurren las sub y fases de imbibición. Resultados: La descripción física en semillas de Nieve muestra que son de color naranja moderado y el peso de mil semillas es de 0.218 g; en Rosita la semilla es de color amarillo anaranjado moderado y mil semillas pesan 0.1902; el color en semillas de Uva es grisáceo a café obscuro con un peso de 0.1272 g a mil semillas. En las dimensiones morfológicas Nieve muestra mayores dimensiones respecto a Rosita y Uva; pero entre los tres genotipos muestran semejanzas en el tipo de forma. Durante la prueba de imbibición cada genotipo sigue su ritmo hasta la fase tres, donde el comportamiento se sincroniza en la visión de la protuberancia radicular a las 164 h de iniciada la prueba. Limitaciones del estudio/implicaciones: Las semillas muestran diferente tamaño, por lo cual manipular muestras grandes se complica al momento de la imbibición. Hallazgos/conclusiones: De las tres accesiones se determina que semillas correspondientes a la especie incana, son de mayores atributos morfológicos que otras especies del mismo género. En la fase dos, se identificaron dos subfases, la primera reconocida como el momento de expulsión de solutos y la segunda como recuperación a los solutos perdidos.

The paper industry generates significant quantities of waste. The recycling of paper waste (PW) for peat replacement in growing media for ornamental plants cultivation was studied. Five ratios of PW–peat (0%, 10%, 30%, 50% or 100% v/v) were evaluated for marigold (Calendula officinalis L.), petunia (Petunia × hybrita L.) and matthiola (Matthiola incana L.) plants. Addition of PW increased the substrate pH and mineral content but decreased the air-filled porosity. In marigold, the use of 100% PW reduced plant height, plant diameter, fresh weight for both leaves and flowers and the total number of flowers produced compared to the control (100% peat). In matthiola, 100% PW reduced plant height, whereas the addition of PW even at 10% decreased plant diameter and fresh weight (biomass) but increased dry matter content. Petunia plants grown in 100% PW exhibited lower growth (plant height and diameter), whereas adding ≥ 50% of PW decreased plant fresh weight. The total number of flower buds and open flowers increased (more than twofold) on plants grown in 30% PW compared to the control substrate, indicating flower earliness. Plant leaf chlorophyll content (Chl a, Chl b, total Chl) decreased as the PW ratio increased. Total phenolics and antioxidant capacity as well as plant damage index and enzymes scavenging activities varied among species. Mineral content fluctuated among species with decreases of N and P in plants grown in PW mixtures while matthiola showed phytotoxicity symptoms. The present study suggests that peat can be substituted by up to 30% of PW for marigold and petunia for potting culture, but not for matthiola, as the physicochemical properties of the substrate need further improvement.

Petal is not only the target for selection by horticulturist to enhance the ornamental value but also a perfect model system for plant metabolome studies. Petals produce a large number of secondary metabolites that provide petals a variety of colors and fragrance to attract pollinators. Here, we studied petal transcriptome and metabolome of two garden species having various color flowers in Brassicaceae, Erysimum cheiri and Matthiola incana. De novo transcriptome assembly and protein homology analysis between two species and those sequenced species in Brassicaceae generally confirmed their known phylogenetic relationships. Identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) indicated that homologs of PAP1 in Arabidopsis might be one of the key gene leaded to the red color formation in bronzing petals of E. cheiri compared to the yellow petals. Metabolome analysis revealed significant difference of metabolites existed in petals of two species or with different color and specific anthocyanin accumulated in E. cheiri. Present data sets will be a great enrichment of the genetic information for two species and provide genetic and metabolomic clue for further mechanism analysis of flower color variation.

Morpho-phenological and meiotic studies were performed in twelve cultivars of Matthiola incana. All of the cultivars were diploid (2n = 2x = 14) with basic chromosome number x = 7. A number of aneuploid PMCs (n + 1) were observed in plants of two cultivars, named ‘Nobel’ (NB) and ‘Goddess’ (GD), at the diakinesis stage. Trisomic individuals with the frequency of 20% and 5% and (2n + 1 = 15) somatic chromosomes were observed in seeds obtained from single-flowered plants of the cultivars NB and GD, respectively. An additional chromosome was mostly observed in the form of a chain trivalent or a rod univalent. Various meiotic abnormalities were found in all the cultivars to different degrees. In these cultivars, the percentage of cells with meiotic abnormalities was higher in anaphase I. Cytomixis was observed for the first time in Matthiola incana. ANOVA tests revealed significant differences in morpho-phenological characteristics. ‘Nobel’ differs from the others in all of the vegetative features investigated in this study. All the cultivars studied except ‘Nobel’ and ‘Pacific Crimson’ possessed high pollen fertility (> 90%). Five groups of the cultivars based on morpho-phenological features disagree with the clustering of cultivars based on meiotic traits. It is thought that the various morpho-phenological features observed among the cultivars could be due to their different genetic background and not only to meiotic anomalies.

In 2014, glasshouse-grown wasabi (Eutrema japonica) grown in a compost based media displayed symptoms of poor growth and wilting. Visual assessment of the roots showed that 25% of the symptomatic plants sampled had raised black lesions on the roots affecting between 5 and 20% of the total root area. To isolate the causal agent, affected material (approximately 5 mm3) was surface disinfested in sodium hypochlorite (2%) for 30 s, rinsed twice in sterile water and plated on to water agar medium amended with penicillin G (0.2 g/liter) and streptomycin sulfate (0.8 g/liter). Plates were incubated at 20oC until fungal colonies were visible. After three days, colonies of Rhizoctonia solani were identified based on the presence of septate hyphae with right-angle branching, a pure culture was obtained through hyphal tip transfer onto a new plate of PDA. DNA was extracted from a 7-day old plate of the isolate (WAS1) as described previously (Woodhall et al., 2013). The AG of WAS1 was determined as AG2-1 using a subgroup specific real-time PCR assay (Budge et al., 2009b) and confirmed by DNA sequencing as described previously (Lekuona Gomez et al., 2015). The sequence was 100% identical (587/587bp) to a previously identified AG2-1 isolate 1971 (GenBank accession FJ435126) (Budge et al., (2009a). Pathogenicity of the isolate was confirmed by inoculating three healthy one-year-old wasabi plants grown in loam based compost (John Innes No.3) each with four 5 mm fully colonised PDA plugs of isolate WAS1 placed at approx. 40 mm depth in the soil. Four sterile PDA plugs were place in each of three control plants. All six plants were placed in a greenhouse at 21°C, 18h:6h light: dark and watered as required. After 21 days, multiple black root lesions typically 3-5mm in length were observed on the roots of all inoculated plants. No lesions were observed on the control plants. From three lesions per plant, isolations were attempted as described above. Rhizoctonia solani was recovered from all isolations and the resulting cultures all tested positive for AG2-1 using the real-time PCR assay. Isolations were attempted from the roots of healthy control plants but Rhizoctonia was not recovered. Here we demonstrate that R. solani AG2-1 is associated with root necrosis of Eutrema japonica. Rhizoctonia solani AG2-1 has been reported previously in various Brassica crops in the UK (Budge et al., 2009a) and on Matthiola incana (Lekuona Gomez et al., 2015). It has also been reported causing disease in potatoes and as widely present in UK field soils (Woodhall et al., 2013). Although R. solani AG1 and AG4 of R. solani have been reported to infect Eutrema japonica in Japan (Takeuchi et al., 2003; 2008), this is the first finding that identifies AG2-1 as the causal agent. The potential presence of AG2-1 in soil and/or as plant debris should be considered prior to planting susceptible hosts.

Matthiola incana R. Br. (Fam: Brassicaceae) is an ornamental, commonly known as hoary stock has an extremely fragrant flowers, which blooms in dense clusters in a large variety of colors. During a survey of flower nurseries in March 2019 at Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research campus, Lucknow, floral virescence (MiV) symptoms (Fig. 1 A, B) were observed in M. incana pots with an incidence of over 40%. Leaf yellows symptoms were also observed on a weed Acalypha indica (AiLY) in Matthiola nursery (Fig. 1 C). Nested PCR assays were carried out to detect and identify the possible association of phytoplasmas with MiV and AiLY symptoms. Three each of symptomatic MiV and AiLY samples and two non-symptomatic samples were collected and processed for DNA extraction from the leaf midrib by CTAB method. Hishimonus phycitis (HP) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) leafhopper feeding on MiV symptomatic plants was also collected and DNA was extracted. The DNA of 8 symptomatic and 4 non-symptomatic plants and from the 10 leafhopper was used as a template for PCR assays. Phytoplasma specific 16Sr RNA gene specific primers (P1/P7 and 3Far/3Rev; Schneider et al. 1995; Manimekalai et al. 2010) and multilocus genes' specific primer pairs for secA (SecAfor1/SecArev3;SecAfo5r/SecARev2; Bekele et al. 2011), secY (SecYF1(VI)/SecYR1(VI);SecYF2(VI)/SecYR1(VI); Lee et al. 2010) and rp genes (rpFIC/rp(I)R1A; rp(VI)F2/ rp(VI)R2; Martini et al. 2007) were employed as previously described. Amplified products of ~1.3kb, ~600bp, ~1.7kb and ~1.0kb of 16S rRNA, secA, secY and rp genes of phytoplasma were consistently amplified in all the MiV and AiLY samples and in the HP leafhopper. No amplifications were achieved in any of the asymptomatic plant samples. Amplified products of all the four genes of MiV, AiLY and HP isolates were purified, sequenced and submitted in GenBank. Sequence comparison and phylogeny analysis of the sequences of the four genes of MiV, AiLY and HP isolates revealed 99% - 100% sequence identity and clustering with clover proliferation phytoplasma related strains (16SrVI group)(Fig.2 A,B,C and D). The virtual RFLP analysis of 17 restriction endonucleases corresponding to the 16S rDNA sequence of MiV, AiLY and HP phytoplasma strains by pDraw program, assigned them into a novel phytoplasma subgroup strain under 16SrVI group, since its HpaII restriction profile was different to earlier classified 16SrVI subgroups but was very close to16SrVI-E subgroup (GenBank acc. no. AY270156) (Fig 3). Earlier, peanut witches' broom (16SrII-A) phytoplasma was identified associated with M. incana from Italy (Davino et al. 2007). However, the association of clover proliferation phytoplasma (16SrVI) related strain associated with virescence symptom of M. incana is the first report in world. The weed (A. indica) and HP leafhopper were also reported as additional hosts of 16SrVI subgroup related new strain in India, which needs further investigation. The report of a new host and new subgroup of clover proliferation phytoplasma related strain in India is having an epidemiological significance and warrants attention.

This study aimed to characterize the phenolic and the volatile constituents and to establish the antioxidant potential and the toxicity of a hydroalcoholic extract obtained from the leaves and flower buds of Matthiola incana (L.) R.Br. subsp. incana growing wild in Sicily (Italy). By HPLC-PDA/ESI-MS analysis, 12 phenolics (two phenolic acid derivatives and ten flavonoids) were identified, and eight of them were reported for the first time; luteolin-glucoside was the main component (57.07 mg/g±0.87 % RSD). By SPME-GC/MS, 47 volatile constituents were fully characterized, and dimethyl trisulfide turned out to be the most abundant one (33.24 %). The extract showed moderate activity both in the DPPH and in the reducing power assays (IC50 =2.32±0.24 mg/mL; ASE/mL=12.29±0.42); it did not inhibit the lipid peroxidation, whereas it was found to possess good chelating properties reaching approximately 90 % activity at the highest tested dose. Moreover, the extract protected growth and survival from H2 O2 -induced oxidative stress in Escherichia coli. Finally, the extract was non-toxic against Artemia salina (LC50 >1000 μg/mL). These findings increase the knowledge of M. incana subsp. incana and they could be helpful to a chemosystematic distinguishing of this subspecies also demonstrating that the aerial parts represent a safe source of antioxidants.

Peat-based growing media are not ecologically sustainable and peat extraction threatens sensitive peatland ecosystem. In this study, olive-stone waste (OSW) and paper waste (PW) were used in different ratios—as growing media—for ornamental crop production, as peat (P) substitutes. Marigold (Calendula officinalis L.), petunia (Petunia x hybrita L.) and matthiola (Matthiola incana L.) plants were grown in (1) P (100%), (2) P:OSW (90%:10%), (3) P:OSW (70%:30%), and (4) P:OSW:PW (60%:20%:20%). The physicochemical properties of these substrates and the effects on plant growth were determined. The addition of 10–30% OSW into the substrate increased marigold height compared to plants grown in 100% peat. No differences in plant size, plant biomass (leaves and flowers), and dry matter content were found. Adding PW, in combination with OSW, maintained marigold height and total number of flowers produced to similar levels as in plants grown in 100% peat. In matthiola, adding 30% OSW into the substrate reduced plant size and fresh weight, but not plant height. No differences were observed when plants grew in lower OSW (i.e., 10%) content. Petunia’s height, its total number of flowers and flower earliness (flower opening) were increased in the presence of OSW compared to the plants grown in 100% peat. The addition of OSW did not affect petunia’s size and fresh weight among treatments. The addition of PW suppressed several plant growth-related parameters for both matthiola and petunia. The insertion of OSW did not change leaf chlorophyll content whereas the presence of PW decreased chlorophylls for marigold, petunia, and matthiola. Both OSW and PW altered the content of total phenolics and antioxidant capacity of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) in leaves and flowers for marigold and petunia. Both 30% OSW and PW increased antioxidative enzyme metabolism due to the increased damage index and lipid peroxidation observed in plants. Leaf N and P content decreased in PW-based media, while matthiola displayed visual phytotoxicity symptoms when PW was added into the substrate. The present work indicates that up to 30% of OSW can replace peat for marigold and petunia growing and only up to 10% of OSW for matthiola, while the addition of PW on top of OSW is not recommended, so further research is needed.

This pot experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions to evaluate the effects of different levels and forms of phosphorus fertilizers on quantitative and qualitative traits of two cultivars of Mathiola incana, based on a completely randomized design with eight treatments and four replications. Treatments were application of granular and liquid forms of triple superphosphate, both at three levels (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg soil), a biofertilizer (100g/2000ml Barvar-2) and control (without any fertilizer application). Results showed that application of 200 mg/kg soil of liquid phosphorus (PL3 treatment), granular form (PG3 treatment), and biofertilizer (PB treatment) significantly increased all plant growth characteristics (morphologic and physiologic), compared to control plants. The highest chlorophyll a and b contents in both cultivars were obtained in 200 mg/kg of liquid fertilizer treatment (PL3) and 200 mg/kg of granular form (PG3). The highest leaf phosphorus concentration was measured in PL3, PG3 and PB treatments. In both cultivars, the highest shoot fresh and dry weights, length of flowering stem, inflorescence length and number of flowering buds in inflorescence were obtained in PL3, PG3 and PB treatments. The highest root fresh and dry weights were obtained in PB and then PL3 treatments, showing significant difference with other treatments (P≤0.01). In this study, the highest values of measured traits were observed in higher concentrations of liquid phosphorous treatments, compared to granular form. However, the Barvar2 biophosphate treatment (PB) has also led to significant growth improvement and highest fresh and dry weight of root, and therefore is recommended for production of Mathiola incana.

Typical symptoms of Sclerotinia stem rot were observed in commercial crops of stock in several districts in Korea during the 2012–2013 and 2013–2014 winters. Based on morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of internal transcribed spacer sequences, the pathogen was identified as Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. This is the first report of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum infection of stock in Korea.

A field study was conducted on selected cultivars of Antirrhinum majus L. and Matthiola incana L. at University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, to determine the best planting time and density to develop optimal planting protocols to grow these species as cut flowers in the sub-tropics. Antirrhinum and Matthiola seeds were sown five times at 15 or 16 d intervals on 15 Sept., 01 Oct., 15 Oct., 01 Nov. or 15 Nov. In a separate study, the optimum planting density was determined by transplanting seedlings at 15 × 15, 15 × 22.5, 22.5 × 22.5, 22.5 × 30 or 30 × 30 cm apart. For planting time, both species demonstrated shorter crop time with delayed sowings, but delayed sowing reduced stem quality. Cultivars of both species sown on 15 Sept. had the tallest plant height, 104.2 and 58.6 cm for Antirrhinum and Matthiola, respectively, along with the greatest number of leaves (176.7 and 28.9), leaf area (13.7 and 35.0 cm2), number of florets (32.8 and 14.8), floret diameter (41.3 and 47.3 mm), raceme length (27.2 and 14.6 cm) and stem diameter 14.8 and 9.9 mm for Antirrhinum and Matthiola, respectively, compared to those sown on 15 Nov. Moreover, vase life of stems of both species decreased (4.0 d for Antirrhinum and 5.5 d for Matthiola) with delayed sowing time. Among all tested cultivars of Antirrhinum, ‘Admiral White’ flowered the earliest, ‘Potomac Orange’ and ‘Potomac Yellow’ flowered mid season, and ‘Potomac Rose’ and ‘Potomac White’ took longest to produce flowers, while all Matthiola cultivars produced flowers at similar times for each sowing date. Antirrhinum and Matthiola planted at 30 × 30 cm spacing had greatest number of leaves (198.1 and 31.4 for Antirrhinum and Matthiola, respectively), leaf area (14.3 and 40.1 cm2), number of florets (32.4 and 15.4), floret diameter (36.1 and 47.7 mm), raceme length (26.2 cm of Antirrhinum only) and stem diameter (14.1 and 14.7 mm for Antirrhinum and Matthiola, respectively) compared to those planted at 15 cm × 15 cm. In summary, for extending harvest season, Antirrhinum cultivars may be sown at same time, but Matthiola cultivars should be grown using staggered sowing times. Antirrhinum and Matthiola cultivars may be sown on 15th September to 1st October and transplanted at 22.5 × 22.5 cm spacing for best cut stem quality.

Fusarium oxysporum is the causal agent for wilt diseases of many major ornamental and horticultural crops. In this study, we plated a local cut flower grower’s soil, with a persistent history of Fusarium wilt of scented stock, Matthiola incana but not the lettuce rotational crop. This yielded culture plates with characteristic pink to carmine red fungi, together with a mixed bacterial population, a percentage of which was visibly antagonistic to the Fusarium. Using molecular analyses via Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assays, we identified that Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium equiseti and Fusarium venenatum were prevalent in the soil. The co-habiting bacterial colonies that exhibited strong antagonistic activity (zone of clearance) towards the soil fungi corresponded to Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and Paenibacillus polymyxa species. Our results arising from an in vitro study involving Kirby-Bauer disc-diffusion agar assays, coupled with bio-imaging software techniques demonstrated that the three native soil bacteria were effective inhibitors of all Fusarium species tested, while Bacillus subtilis exhibited the highest antagonism towards the Fusarium oxysporum. Bioassay tests of micro-biocides Prestop (Gliocadium catenulatum), Serenade Max (Bacillus subtilis QST713) and commercial seaweed extract, AlgiVyt suppressed in vitro growth of Fusarium oxysporum infecting the scented stock flower to a greater extent, whilst fresh aqueous extracts of garlic (Allium sativum) and meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) flowers were ineffective towards soil pathogen suppression. This scoping study offers cut flower growers additional options of tapping into populations of antagonistic bacteria found in soil persistently infected with the opportunistic soil phytopathogen Fusarium oxysporum, affecting cut flower crops, such as M. incana.

The effect of inoculation of two root-colonizing basidiomycete fungi Piriformospora indica and Sebacina vermifera on the host plants from the family Brassicaceae (Brassica oleracea, B. napus, B. nigra, Lepidium sativum, Descurainia sophia and Matthiola incana) was studied in a pot experiment. Both fungi were able to colonize all plant species tested but with different efficiency. Colonized plants reacted with increase of fitness, bigger leaves and more side shoots. Plant heights of five inoculated species were higher than of uninoculated controls. Five species had higher dry weight of shoots and four had higher dry weights of roots. The highest stimulation was stated for B. oleracea and the lowest for L. sativum. It can be connected with the intensity of root colonization, which was greater in B. oleracea. In most cases both fungi influenced growth and dry weight of plants similarly but B. nigra and D. sophia were stimulated more by P. indica and B. napus by S. vermifera.

In relation to the favorable winter conditions in the Mediterranean areas, it could be possible to expand the production season of the stock (Matthiola incana L.), a very interesting specialty cut flower, through the use of unheated greenhouses. In this frame, the aim of this study was to evaluate the response of different stock cultivars grown in unheated greenhouse. Two different experimental trials were carried out. In the first trial the response of stock 'Maria' in relation to five sowing periods (February, April, June, August and November) was evaluated; in the second experiment the response of four cultivars ('Prousse Pink', 'Maria', 'Prousse White' and 'Prousse Red') sown in November was analyzed. In the first trial the production time ranged from 100 days in April sowing to 187 days in August one. However the production time affected the stem characteristics: in particular the fresh weight ranged from 71.1 to 308.1 g respectively for the sowing periods of April and August, while the robustness index was higher in the stems of August and November sowings. In the second trial the genotype affected stem characteristics and production time. The flowering time for ‘Prousse White’ and 'Prousse Pink' was in the early days of January while for 'Maria' and 'rousse Red' in March. The cultivar affected the fresh weight (from 141.3 g in 'Prousse Red' to 227.9 g in ‘Maria’) and length of the stem (from 85.2 cm in 'Prousse Pink' to 96.7 cm in ‘Maria’). Results showed that the unheated greenhouse is profitable to expand the production season of the stock but the choice of most suitable cultivar should be considered, to improve the yield and the quality characteristics of the stems.

The present research project was aimed to study the effect of foliar application of zinc and NPK on growth of Stock (Matthiola incana.L. The study was carried out at Floriculture Research Area, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, during the year 2011-2012. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. There were twelve treatment combinations comprising four levels of NPK (0, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5%) and three level of Zn (0%,0.5% and 1%,) which were applied on Stock (Matthiola incana.L). The results regarding growth of stock were found significant. The treatments comprising both zinc and NPK as T11 (1% Zn + 1.5% NPK) was ranked first in plant height (91.66 cm), number of leaves per plant (65.33 leaves/plant) and leaf chlorophyll contents (85.53 spade). T7 (0.5% Zn + 1% NPK) was ranked first in leaf area (36.10 cm 2 ) and minimum days to flowering were recorded in T11 (1% Zn + 1.5% NPK), 42.60 days. T11 (1% Zn + 1.5% NPK) got the first position in stalk length (87.63 cm) and floret diameter (4.93 mm). Foliar application of zinc and NPK increased nutrient accumulation in leaves of stock. The nitrogen contents (6.0 %) phosphorus contents (0.46 ppm) and potassium contents (38.10 ppm) increased in response to treatment comprising both zinc and NPK.

Selection of double-flowered plants at the seedling stage is one of the main purposes of stock breeding programs. Eight stock cultivars of Matthiola incana L. named ‘Nobel’, ‘Cinderella’, ‘Pacific’, ‘Avalanche’, ‘Midblue’, ‘Lavender’, ‘Goddess’ and ‘Esfahan’, with different percentage of double-flowered plants were used for examining the relationship with three morphological types of cotyledons. The results of a chi-square test indicated that in heartshaped (HC) and cup-shaped cotyledon (CC) populations, the number of plants with double flowers was much more than that of single flowers and CC seedlings rarely produced single flowers. Therefore, increasing the number of CC seedlings can improve the percentage of double flowers. The highest and lowest numbers of CC seedling were observed in high double and single flower cultivars, respectively. Single flower cultivars showed the maximum count of dumbbell-shaped cotyledons. Chromosome pairing of these cultivars was evaluated using the squash technique. Aneuploid cells were found in ‘Nobel’ and ‘Goddess’ cultivars, which showed the highest percentage of CC seedling. Based on morphological measurements, the highest value of inflorescence size was observed in the seedlings with cup-shaped cotyledons.

The U.S. specialty cut flower market has grown over the last several years because stems of many specialty cut flower species cannot be transported long distances and therefore need to be grown regionally. High tunnel production of cut flowers is an alternative to field and greenhouse production that has several benefits. Specialty cut flower species Antirrhinum majus L. ‘Potomac Orange’ and ‘Rocket Red’, Celosia argentea L. var. cristata Kuntze ‘Chief Red’, Dahlia ×hybrida Cav. ‘Karma Thalia Dark Fuchsia’, Dianthus barbatus L. ‘Amazon Neon Cherry’, Eustoma russellianum Salisb. ‘Mariachi Blue’, Helianthus annuus L. ‘Premier Lemon’ and ‘Sunrich Yellow’, Matthiola incana (L.) W.T. Aiton ‘Katz Lavender Blue’, and Zinnia elegans Jacq. ‘Benary Giant Scarlet’ were grown in both field and high tunnel environments in the midwestern United States. High tunnel production resulted in a first week’s harvest of 44.8 (46%), 115, and 21.1 (110%) more stems for Antirrhinum ‘Rocket Red’, Dianthus, and Zinnia, respectively. Compared with field production, high tunnel production yielded a greater number of stems/m2 for Antirrhinum ‘Potomac Orange’, Celosia, Dianthus, and Zinnia and longer stems for Antirrhinum ‘Potomac Orange’ and ‘Rocket’, Eustoma, Matthiola, and Zinnia. For example, high tunnel production yielded 185 (39%) and 192 (59%) more stems/m2 and 12.6 (34%) and 8.9 (32%) cm longer stems for Mathiola and Zinnia, respectively. Other stem characteristics such as inflorescence length and flower width showed more variation among cultivars. Our results indicate that cut flower yield and/or quality of Antirrhinum ‘Rocket Red’, Dianthus, Matthiola, Zinnia, Dahlia, Eustoma, and Helianthus ‘Sunrich Yellow’ and ‘Premier Lemon’ significantly increases when produced in high tunnels located in the Midwest.

Cut stems of stock [Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br.] ‘Vivas Blue’, a new cultivar, were harvested when at least one floret was open for postharvest testing. Stems were unaffected by exogenous ethylene or by the application of the anti-ethylene agents silver thiosulfate and 1-methylcyclopropene. Stems had a longer vase life when stored dry, as compared to being stored in water, for no more than 2 weeks. Stems held at 2 °C had a significantly longer vase life, 13.3 d, than stems that were not stored in the cold, 9.9 d. No significant differences in vase life, number of open buds, or termination criteria occurred when stems were pulsed with 0, 10, or 20% sucrose. Stems had a longer vase life, 20.3 d, when placed in foam and a 2% sucrose solution with a bactericide as compared to 0 or 4% sucrose in water with a bactericide. Additionally, stems held in foam and 2% sucrose or in 4% sucrose without foam, but with a bactericide, developed a deep purple color over time. Bud opening increased as sucrose concentration increased regardless of floral foam use. Various commercial preservatives did not result in significant differences in vase life, number of open buds, or termination criteria. Vase life was longer, 12.1–13.0 d, when solutions were made from deionized water than when the solutions were made from tap water, 11.3 d.

The accumulation of bacteria in vase water is often associated with premature senescence in many cut flower species. In the present study, we tested the efficacy of aqueous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) to extend flower display life by preventing the build-up of bacteria in vase solutions. The addition of 2 or 10 μL L−1 ClO2 to clean deionized water extended the vase life of Alstroemeria peruviana ‘Senna’, Antirrhinum majus ‘Potomic Pink’, Dianthus caryophyllus ‘Pasha’, Gerbera jamesonii ‘Monarch’, Gypsophila paniculata ‘Crystal’ and ‘Perfecta’, Lilium asiaticum ‘Vermeer’, Matthiola incana ‘Ruby Red’ and Rosa hybrida ‘Charlotte’ flowers by 0.9–13.4 d (7–77%) relative to control (i.e. 0 μL L−1 ClO2) stems. The beneficial effects of ClO2 treatment were associated with a reduction in the accumulation of aerobic bacteria in vase water and on cut surfaces of flower stems. ClO2 treatment was also effective in maintaining or extending the vase life of A. majus ‘Potomic Pink’, Dendrathema × grandiflorum ‘Albatron’, G. paniculata ‘Perfecta’ and M. incana ‘Ruby Red’ flowers even when stems were placed into water containing 1011 CFU L−1 bacteria. The efficacy of 10 μL L−1 ClO2 in vase water containing 0.2 g L−1 citric acid and 10 g L−1 sucrose to extend the display life of G. jamesonii ‘Lorca’ and ‘Vilassar’ flowers was equal to or greater than other tested biocides (i.e. aluminum sulfate, dichloroisocyanuric acid, 8-hydroxyquinoline sulfate, Physan 20™, sodium hypochlorite). Taken collectively, the results of the present study highlight the potential of aqueous ClO2 for use as an alternative antibacterial agent in flower vase solutions.

The capture and reuse of nutrient-rich greenhouse effluents may be an environmentally sound option for floriculture production, which would conserve fresh water resources and reduce off-site pollution of surface and groundwaters. This study was initiated in 24 outdoor lysimeters to determine effects of salinity and varying concentrations of nitrogen on the growth, yield, and ion relations of stock [Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br.] cultivar Cheerful White. The experiment was a 4 × 4 factorial, partially replicated design with four irrigation water salinities (2, 5, 8, and 11 dS·m−1) and four nitrate concentrations (2.5, 3.6, 5.4, and 7.1 mmol·L−1; N = 35, 50, 75, and 100 ppm). Ammonium nitrogen was included in the nutrient solutions. Stem lengths were measured three times weekly. Measurements at final harvest were stem and inflorescence lengths, stem and floret diameters, number of axillary buds and florets, and shoot and root fresh weights. Time course of stem elongation was quantified as a function of thermal time with a phasic growth model. Salinity significantly delayed initiation of the exponential growth phase, shortened its duration, and reduced the rate of plant development. The overall effect was to delay time to harvest of marketable stems. Although length of the flowering stems decreased with increasing salinity, marketable stems (≈60 cm) were produced in all treatments. Mineral ion relations in the plant tissues were influenced significantly, but independently, by both salinity and nitrogen. Leaf sodium, magnesium, and chlorine concentrations increased with increasing salinity; calcium and potassium decreased. In response to increasing external nitrogen, both potassium and chlorine decreased; sodium increased, whereas calcium and magnesium were unaffected. We conclude that in closed-loop irrigation systems, the nitrogen requirements for stock are low and that growers could minimize costs and limit off-site pollution by reducing nitrogen inputs.

During our experiment the effect of chlorocholine chloride, Caramba, Cultar, Regalis and Toprex bioregulators were examined on some annual ornamental species. The species used for the experiment were Coreopsis grandiflora, Godetia grandifolra , Scabiosa atropurpurea and Matthiola incana. The aim of this work was to produce marketable, bushy habitat annual plants as flowering pot plants with the use of retardants. The experiment was carried out from April to September 2013, plants were treated beweekly. Â It was found that all the treatments had effect on the plants but the result depended on the species. In the case of Coreopsis grandiflora the best dwarfing effect was obtained with Regalis 0,25% and Caramba at 0,05% concentration, the maximum shorten rate was 50%. In the case of the other examined species intensive retardant effect was observed with the spray of Cultar, Toprex or Caramba. Best results were obtained by the treatment of Matthiola incana , all the chemicals resulted compact, bushy, decorative plant habitat, Regalis WG had the best results among the bioregulators. The chlorophyll content of two plant species was measured: Scabiosa atropurpurea and Matthiola incana . The chlorophyll content of the leaves was reduced by using growth retardants. The rate of decrease depended on the regulator type and the plant species. By cultivation for market is mandatory to do trial management before use. Â Â

The gene pool of Brassica oleracea was enriched via intergeneric somatic hybridization between B. oleracea (2n = 18) and Matthiola incana (2n = 14). One hundred and eighteen plants were obtained from 96 calli. Only four plants (H1, H2, H3 and H4) showed an intermediate phenotype from the parents; among these, H1 and H3 arose from the same callus. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP), and cytological analyses confirmed that H1 and H3 were hybrids. The nuclear DNA content of the regenerated plants was determined by flow cytometry. More than half of the plants contained a nuclear DNA content of 1.3 to 3.9 pg/cell, which was higher than the content of B. oleracea but lower than that of M. incana. H1 contained 4.89 ± 0.02 pg of DNA per cell, while H3 nuclear DNA content was estimated at 4.87 ± 0.06 pg/cell. Cytological study of the root-tip cells revealed that the majority of the H1 and H3 hybrid cells contained 28 chromosomes.

Different melon (Cucumis melo), watermelon (Citrillus lanatus), pepper (Capsicum annuum) and Mathiola incana varieties, and a watermelon hybrid with its parent lines were involved in our study. Bulk and single seed samples were investigated. The spectra of the investigated melon bulk seed samples were recorded on a Spectralyzer 1025 scanning type spectrometer in the wavelength region of 1000- 2500 nm. Single seed measurements were done by a METRINIR 10-17 scanning type spectrometer. For data evaluation, the Polar Qualification System (PQS) using automatic wavelength range optimization was used. The NIR technique proved to be useful for distinction and identification of different horticultural plants from bulk and single seed samples.

Two cultivars of Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. (`Cheerful White' and `Frolic Carmine') were grown in greenhouse sand cultures to determine the effect of salt stress on growth, ion relations, and flower quality. Two types of irrigation waters, differing in ion composition, were prepared to simulate saline wastewaters commonly present in two inland valley locations in California. Solution ICV was typical of saline tailwaters frequently found in the Imperial and Coachella Valleys and contained Cl–, Na+, SO42–, Mg2+, Ca2+, predominating in that order. Solution SJV was dominated by Na+ and SO42– and simulated saline drainage effluents often present in the San Joaquin Valley. Five treatments of each salinity type were imposed; each was replicated three times. Electrical conductivities of the irrigation waters (ECi) were 2.5, 5, 8, 11, and 14 dS·m–1. Plant heights were determined weekly. Seedlings were sampled for ion analysis 9 weeks after planting. Flowering stems were harvested when about 50% of the florets in the inflorescence were open. Total stem length, weight and diameter, numbers of florets and buds, and inflorescence length were measured at final harvest. All plants remained healthy throughout the experimental period with no visible signs of ion toxicity or deficiency. Although length of the flowering stems decreased with increasing salinity, stems were of marketable quality even at the highest salinity level. Mineral ion composition of the vegetative tissues generally reflected ion concentrations in the irrigation waters. Shoot Mg2+ and Cl– were higher and shoot Na+ lower in seedlings irrigated with ICV waters than with SJV waters. Shoot P was reduced over control levels once salinity exceeded 11 dS·m–1. Both cultivars were highly selective for K+ over Na + and selectivity coefficients (SK, Na) increase about 60% as salinity increased from 2.5 to 14 dS·m–1. This study illustrates that commercially acceptable cut flowers of stock may be produced under irrigation with moderately saline wastewaters.

The respiration of flowers of stock [Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br.] had a Q10 of 6.9 between 0 and 10 °C. Simulated transport for 5 days resulted in marked reduction in the vase life of flowers transported at 10 °C and above. Flower opening, water uptake, and vase life of the flowers increased somewhat in a vase solution containing 50 ppm NaOCl, and considerably in a commercial preservative containing glucose and a bactericide. Exposure to exogenous ethylene resulted in rapid desiccation and abscission of the petals, effects that were prevented by pretreatment with 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). Even in the absence of exogenous ethylene, the life of the flowers was significantly increased by inhibiting ethylene action using pretreatment with silver thiosulfate (STS) or 1-MCP. STS was more effective than 1-MCP in maintaining flower quality.

The effects of red light and far-red light on the main shoot elongation and flowering of long-day plant stock [Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br.] were compared. During the day, plants were covered with the films which convert light quality of sunlight into different red/far-red photon flux ratio, whereas at night the plants were irradiated with compact self-ballasted fluorescent lamps of red or far-red light. Plants exposed to high red/far-red photon flux ratio during the day and red light at night, flowered late and developed short internodes, whereas the opposite occurred on plants grown under low red/far-red photon flux film during the day and irradiated with far-red light at night, i.e., flowering was advanced and internodes were elongated. The same findings were obtained regardless of planting date. However, the contrast between the two lighting conditions was especially apparent between autumn-sown, winter-cultivated plants, and summer-sown, autumn-cultivated plants because temperatures are colder during the winter flowering period. In this experiment, spring-sown, summer-grown plants had shorter internodes and more leaves ; anthesis was advanced compared with plants sown at other times of the year. This finding will contribute to the efficient production of long-day flowering plant because advancing flowering by far-red light improves the utilization of the horticultural facilities by hastening crop turnover and reducing heating costs in winter.

SummaryEffects of light and temperature on stem extension and flowering of M. incana were investigated. Stem extension was markedly suppressed by red (R)-rich spectrum treatment until the flower buds became visible, whereas it was slightly promoted or was not affected by the far-red (FR)-rich spectrum treatment. The R-rich spectrum treatment markedly suppressed the response to gibberellin A4 (GA4) by stem extension and the FR-rich spectrum treatment occasionally increased it. The FR-rich spectrum treatment accelerated flowering and the R-rich spectrum treatment delayed flowering under weakly flower-inducing temperatures. However, these phenomena were eliminated under strong flower-inducing temperatures. Dark treated plants did not initiate flower buds in spite of cold treatment. These results indicate that light quality is involved in regulation of stem extension and flowering but temperature is more responsible than light quality in the flowering of M. incana.

Anemone (Anemone coronaria L.), snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus L.), larkspur [Consolida ambigua (L.) P.W. Ball & Heyw.], delphinium (Delphinium ×cultorum Voss.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), lupine (Lupinus hartwegii Lindl.), stock [Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br.], and pansy (Viola ×wittrockiana Gams.) were grown in raised sandy loam ground beds in double-layered polyethylene-covered greenhouses which were either unheated (ambient) or had a 55 °F (13 °C) minimum night temperature in year 1 and 36 or 50 °F (2 or 10 °C) minimum night temperature in year 2. Results were species specific; however, the extreme low temperatures [21 °F (-6 °C)] in the unheated house limited delphinium and lupine production. The warmest greenhouses (55 and 50 °F) reduced production time for anemone, delphinium, larkspur, lupine (year 2), snapdragon (year 2),stock, and sunflower. The coolest greenhouses (unheated and 36 °F) increased stem lengths for anemone (year 2), delphinium, larkspur (year 1), lupine (year 2), snapdragon, stock, and sunflower. The coolest green-houses also yielded a profit or lower net loss for all species except delphinium, lupine, and snapdragon (year 2) for which profits were highest or net losses were lowest in the warmest greenhouses.

We examined effects of single-layer glass and double-layer antifog polyethylene films on growth and flowering of stock (Matthiola incana L.) and snapdragon (Antirrhinum majalis L.) in a 3-year period. Stock produced more buds/spike with shorter but thicker stems under single-layer glass and under antifog 3-year polyethylene, and showed higher photosynthetic capacity (Pc) under single-layer glass than under other covers regardless of light regimes. Similarly, growth and flowering of snapdragon were significantly better under single-layer glass than in polyethylene houses. A supplemental light of 60 μmol·m-2·s-1 accelerated flowering by 20 to 25 days, improved flower quality, and eliminated differences in plant growth and quality of snapdragon between covering treatments. The Pc of stock was lower under all polyethylene covers than under single-layer glass. Among the three antifog polyethylene films, a slightly higher Pc was measured for plants under antifog 3-year polyethylene. However, there was no difference among covering treatments in the net photosynthetic rate (PN) at low light level (canopy level). Supplemental lighting reduced Pc of stock leaves, especially under single-layer glass, and diminished differences in Pc among covering treatments. Dry mass was more influenced by larger leaf area caused by higher leaf temperature than by PN. Overall, antifog 3-year polyethylene was a good covering material when both plant quality and energy saving were considered.

Stock (Matthiola incana R. Br. cv. Asanami) was examined for ontogenic changes in leaf area, leaf weight, total nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen and phosphorus in individual leaves at successive growth stages. The final leaf number was 51 and the maximum leaf area at the 15a20th positions was different from the maximum leaf dry weight at the 33a36th positions. The dry weights of the lower leaves decreased little with aging although nitrogen and phosphorus were translocated from the lower leaves to the upper leaves on other parts up to the 30th position. The total nitrogen remained almost constant at 4.5 to 5.0% in actively developing leaves, but it decreased with age. The phosphorus concentration was higher in young leaves than in the older ones until the day before anthesis, when it decreased about above the 25th position to less than 0.35%. The translocated quotients (%) of both elements decreased with increasing leaf position from the 8th to 30th position. Nitrate nitrogen concentration in leaves above the 5th position decreased with increased node height ; the peak translocated quotient occurred at the 18th position. From these changes in dry weight, N and P contents in individual leaves during growth, we classified the leaves into three groups, lower leaves (1sta7th position), middle leaves (8tha30th position), and upper leaves (above 31th position). Lower leaves which developed slowly had higher translocated quotients of N or P. Middle leaves were finishing their development and N and P were retranslocated without any decrease in leaf dry matter contents ; flower buds became visible. Upper leaves continued to develop ; no export of N or P was apparent.

Shoots and flower buds of stock (Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. cv. Sourei) were analysed for gibberellin (GA). After purifying the acidic ethylacetate-soluble fraction by several chromatographic procedures, GA fractions were surveyed by GC-MS and Kovats retention indices (Rl). Consequently, GA1, GA4, 3-epi-GA4, GA8, GA19, GA20, GA24, GA34, GA37 and GA53 were identified. A further GA-like substance was detected and shown to be 12β-OH-GA12 (GA112) by comparison with an authentic compound prepared by synthesis.

Effects of gibberellin A4 (GA4) and three GA biosynthesis inhibitors, uniconazole (UCZ), prohexadione-calcium (PCa), and trinexapac-ethyl (TNE) on growth and flowering of Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. were investigated. In an early flowering 'Sourei', UCZ inhibited stem elongation and flowering. GA4, PCa and TNE promoted flowering at 20°/15°C and 25°/20°C (day/night) under 12-hr photoperiod as compared to the control. However, only PCa and TNE induced flowering of a late flowering 'Banrei' at 20°/15°C. Flowering was not induced in any treatment at 25°/20°C and 30°/25°C but stem elongation of both cultivars was promoted by GA4 and PCa at all temperatures. Under green house conditions in the winter, PCa promoted flowering of 'Banrei'. Although GA4 and PCa promoted stem elongation, they did not induce flowering in the summer. These results indicate that biosynthesis of GA4 and its deactivation are important factors that control stem elongation and flowering.

The effects of diurnal fluctuations between day and night temperature (DIF) during the early seedling stage of Matthiola incana (stock), Antirrhinum mains (snapdragon), Viola × wittrokiana (pansy) and Impatiens walleriana (Impatiens), were investigated to test whether they persisted.Under positive DIF, seedling height, internode length, and the 1st leaf petiole length were longer than in plants grown under negative DIF. Although positive DIF tended to favor leaf elongation and leaf unfolding rate, in that the leaves during the rapid extension (13 days after treatment started) were always longer than those grown under negative DIF, no significant difference was observed in the final measurement.The elongation response to DIF alteration during the rapid elongation was reflected in plant height, internode length, and leaf petiole length in all plant species. After DIF was altered, a significant difference on the final length was observed between the corresponding treatments (i. e. between positive DIF and alteration from positive to negative DIF, and between negative DIF and alteration from negative to positive DIF treatment). The response to DIF alteration from negative to positive was greater than that from positive to negative. The elongation after DIF alteration was greater in seedlings which were smaller at the time of DIF alteration than in the larger seedlings; the former were under the negative DIF until the alteration while the latter were under the positive DIF. This result could be summarized that the DIF during early nursery stage had a small effect on the growth after the treatment. We concluded that DIF could be applied in seedling production.

Ten acylated pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides were isolated from the red-purple flowers of Matthiola incana, and also pelargonidin 3-glucoside was isolated from the brownish-red flowers of this plant. FAB mass measurements of 10 acylated anthocyanins gave their molecular ions [M]+ at 903-1195 m/z, which were based on acylated pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides with malonic acid, sinapic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid and/or ferulic acid. This was confirmed by the analysis of NMR spectra and the experiments of acid and alkaline hydrolysis. By spectral and chemical methods, seven of the 10 pigments were determined to be pelargonidin 3-O-[2-O-(2-O- (acyl-I)-β- d -xylopyranosyl )-6-O- (acyl-II)-β- d -glucopyranoside ]-5-O-[6-O- (malonyl)-β- d - glucopyranoside ] , in which acyl moieties varied between sinapic, ferulic, caffeic and p-coumaric acids. The occurrence of these pigments was examined in 10 red-purple, 10 salmon-pink, three apricot and three copper colour cultivars of M. incana by HPLC. The acylated pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides were present as the dominant pigments in the red-purple, salmon-pink and apricot colour cultivars. On the other hand, pelargonidin 3-glucoside was present as a dominant anthocyanin in the copper colour cultivars and also pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucoside was confirmed by HPLC as a minor pigment in the copper colour flowers.

Agrostis capillaris ’Parys’, Beta vulgaris cicla ’Fordhook Giant’ (Swiss chard), Brassica oleracea ’Lion Heart’ (cabbage), Cineraria ’Miranda White’, Festiica rubra litoralis ‘Merlin’, Matthiola incana ‘Austral Apricot’ (stock), Phaseolus vulgaris ’Hawksbury Wonder’ (bean), and Polycarpaea spirosrylis (Copper Weed) were grown in pine bark‐based soilless media of pH 4.5, 5.5, and 6.5 amended with copper or zinc sulfate or composts containing high concentrations of either copper (Cu) or zinc (Zn). Growth responses ranged from none, through iron (Fe) deficiency, to symptoms of severe Cu or Zn toxicity. Correlations between growth and shoot Cu or Zn concentration on the one hand and total metal content of the medium and several measures of extractable metal content on the other were obtained. Medium pH had to be included in regressions to obtain high correlation coefficients. Total metal content and DTPA‐ and NH4OAc‐extractable metals were about equally well correlated with growth response in these e...

The inheritance of flowering time (FT) in a cross between early-flowering (P1) and late-flowering (P2) Matthiola incana genotypes, was investigated. The distribution of FT in F1, F2 and BC1 generations indicated an additive genetic control with partial dominance of earlines alleles, particularly with regard to double-flowered plants. Single-flowered plants flowered earlier than double-flowered plants, averaged within both parental lines; however, the mean difference between singles and doubles was 16 days for P1 as compared with 6 days for P2. This flower-doubleness related delay in FT was found to be heritable, by analysis of F3 family means. The implications of these results on the breeding of stock cultivars is discussed.

The inheritance and linkage relationships of a leaf morphology gene of Matthiola incana were investigated. The allele for sinuate leaf shape, c, was found to be recessive to the allele for normal entire leaf, C. The c allele was tightly linked to the recessive allele for double flowering, s. The recombination frequency between the two loci was close to zero. The mode of inheritance of the C gene was in accordance with the hypothesis that a pollen lethal gene is responsible for the constant 1:1 segregation ratio of double-flowered (= male sterile) to single-flowered (= fertile) plants in most M. incana breeding lines. The sinuate leaf allele seemed to reduce the frequency and delay the flowering of double-flowered plants. The importance of the C gene as a double flowering marker in the cultivation and the breeding of M. incana is discussed.

Eight bedding plant species were grown from plugs obtained from two sources. The plugs were transplanted into jumbo six packs and sprayed with a solution of chlormequat/daminozide with concentrations of 1000/800, 1250/1250, or 1500/5000 mg·L-1 when new growth was ≈5 cm in height or width. Three different species were grown in the fall (Dianthus chinensis L., `Telstar Mix', Petunia ×hybrida Hort. Vilm.-Andr., `Dreams Red', and Viola ×wittrockiana Gams., `Bingo Blue'), winter [Antirrhinum majus L., `Tahiti Mix', Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br., `Midget Red', and P. × hybrida, `Dreams Mix'], and spring [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don, `Cooler Pink', Salvia splendens F. Sellow ex Roem. & Schult., `Empire Red', and Begonia ×semperflorens-cultorum Hort., `Cocktail Mix']. The treatments significantly reduced finished plant size of all species for each season. There was a significant difference in finish size between sources for Dianthus, Antirrhinum, Matthiola, Catharanthus, Salvia, and Begonia. The efficacy of chlormequat/daminozide also differed for each source of Dianthus, Matthiola, and Begonia, but the treatments minimized the differences in finish size between sources for Petunia and Viola. Chemical names used: (2-chlorethyl) trimethylammonium chloride (chlormequat); (N-dimethylaminosuccinamic acid) (daminozide).

The effects of shading and fertilizing pre-treatments of mother stock (Matthiola incana R. Br.) plants and NH4+ : NO3- ratio in the medium on in vitro micropropagation through leaf and hypocotyl explants were investigated.1. In leaf explant culture, (1) shoot formation was enhanced when 'Ginshio' explants were taken from the mother plants grown under 75% shading and 1/2 strength Ootsuka liquid fertilizer. In 'Yukimatsuri' shoot formation was inhibited by shading mother plants grown in 1/2 and 1/4 strengths of Ootsuka fertilizer. (2) Reducing NH4+ : NO3- ratio in the medium promoted shoot formation in both cultivars.2. In hypocotyl explant culture, (1) shading mother plants for two weeks after sowing resulted in less shoot formation in both cultivars. (2) Addition of NH4+ to the medium, by which the ratios of NH4+ : NO3- were adjusted to 1 : 10 and 1 : 2 in 'Littlejem Yellow' and 'Yukimatsuri' respectively, enhanced shoot formation and increased the number of shoots per explant. The highest rate of shoot formation was 85% in both cultivars.3. Most shoots regenerated from leaf and hypocotyl explants appeared vitrified. Vitrified leaves, unlike normal ones, (1) had higher moisture content; (2) were larger; and (3) had poorly developed vascular bundles and palisade tissues. The stomata of vitrified leaves were frequently located above and below the epidermal cell layer and distributed irregularly.

The fatty acid composition of seed-oil of breeding lines and F1 hybrids of Matthiola incana was analyzed, using direct esterification and gas chromatography. The breeding lines tested differed significantly with respect to the levels of palmitic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. Embryonic-stage heterosis in linolenic acid concentration was demonstrated by F1 hybrid seeds, derived from mating horticulturally different lines of M. incana. Linolenic acid content was negatively correlated with both oleic acid content (r=−0.85) and linoleic acid content (r=−0.66). None of the breeding lines or the F1 hybrids significantly passed the limit of 67% linolenic acid. Possible genetic and biochemical explanations for the above phenotypic data are discussed.

The major anthocyanin in the leaves and stems of Arabidopsis thaliana has been isolated and shown to be cyanidin 3-O-[2-O(2-O-(sinapoyl)-beta-D-xylopyranosyl)-6-O-(4-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)-p-coumaroyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside] 5-O-[6-O-(malonyl) beta-D-glucopyranoside]. This anthocyanin is a glucosylated version of one of the anthocyanins found in the flowers of the closely related Matthiola incana.