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BackgroundThe mRNA vaccines help protect from COVID-19 severity, however multiple sclerosis (MS) disease modifying therapies (DMTs) might affect the development of humoral and T-cell specific response to vaccination.MethodsThe aim of the study was to evaluate humoral and specific T-cell response, as well as B-cell activation and survival factors, in people with MS (pwMS) under DMTs before (T0) and after two months (T1) from the third dose of vaccine, comparing the obtained findings to healthy donors (HD). All possible combinations of intracellular IFNγ, IL2 and TNFα T-cell production were evaluated, and T-cells were labelled “responding T-cells”, those cells that produced at least one of the three cytokines of interest, and “triple positive T-cells”, those cells that produced simultaneously all the three cytokines.ResultsThe cross-sectional evaluation showed no significant differences in anti-S antibody titers between pwMS and HD at both time-points. In pwMS, lower percentages of responding T-cells at T0 (CD4: p=0.0165; CD8: p=0.0022) and triple positive T-cells at both time-points compared to HD were observed (at T0, CD4: p=0.0007 and CD8: p=0.0703; at T1, CD4: p=0.0422 and CD8: p=0.0535). At T0, pwMS showed higher plasma levels of APRIL, BAFF and CD40L compared to HD (pAccording to DMTs, at both T0 and T1, lower anti-S antibody titers in the depleting/sequestering-out compared to the enriching-in pwMS subgroup were found (p=0.0410 and p=0.0047, respectively) as well as lower percentages of responding CD4+ T-cells (CD4: p=0.0394 and p=0.0004, respectively). Moreover, the depleting/sequestering-out subgroup showed higher percentages of IFNγ-IL2-TNFα+ T-cells at both time-points, compared to the enriching-in subgroup in which a more heterogeneous cytokine profile was observed (at T0 CD4: p=0.0187; at T0 and T1 CD8: p =0.0007 and p =0.0077, respectively).ConclusionIn pwMS, humoral and T-cell response to vaccination seems to be influenced by the different DMTs. pwMS under depleting/sequestering-out treatment can mount cellular responses even in the presence of a low positive humoral response, although the cellular response seems qualitatively inferior compared to HD. An understanding of T-cell quality dynamic is needed to determine the best vaccination strategy and in general the capability of immune response in pwMS under different DMT.

In the direct-acting antiviral (DAA) era, it is important to understand the immunological changes after HCV eradication in HCV monoinfected (mHCV) and in HIV/HCV coinfected (HIV/HCV) patients. In this study, we analyzed sub-populations of monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), T-lymphocytes and inflammatory biomarkers following initiation of DAA in 15 mHCV and 16 HIV/HCV patients on effective antiretroviral therapy at baseline and after sustained virological response at 12 weeks (SVR12). Fifteen age- and sex-matched healthy donors (HD) were enrolled as a control group. Activated CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes, mDCs, pDCs, MDC8 and classical, non-classical and intermediate monocytes were detected using flow cytometry. IP-10, sCD163 and sCD14 were assessed by ELISA while matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) was measured by zymography. At baseline, increased levels of IP-10, sCD163 and MMP-2 were found in both HIV/HCV and mHCV patients compared to HD, whereas sCD14 increased only in HIV/HCV patients. After therapy, IP-10, sCD163 and sCD14 decreased, whereas MMP-2 persistently elevated. At baseline, activated CD8+ T-cells were high in HIV/HCV and mHCV patients compared to HD, with a decrease at SVR12 only in HIV/HCV patients. Activated CD4+ T-cells were higher in HIV/HCV patients without modification after DAAs therapy. These results suggest complex interactions between both viruses and the immune system, which are only partially reversed by DAA treatment.

Introduction Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the most significant advance in the medical management of HIV-1 infection. Given the fact that HIV cannot be eradicated from the body, ART has to be indefinitely maintained. New approaches need to be defined for monitoring HIV-infected individuals (PLWHIV), including clinical, virologic, immunological parameters and also ways to collect individual points of view and quality of life. Areas covered We discuss which tests may be used to improve the management of PLWHIV and respond to a comprehensive health demand. Expert opinion Viral load and CD4 counts are well-validated outcome measures and we still need them, but they do not completely depict the health status of PLWHIV. We need to better understand and to apply to clinical practice what happens in sanctuaries, what is the role of HIV DNA, what is the meaning of low-level viremia. Most of these questions do not yet have a definitive response. Further, we need to understand how to modify these variables in order to improve outcomes. Similar points may be raised for immunological measures and for tests exploring the tolerability of drugs. The goal must be the evolution from a viro/immunologic-based to a comprehensive quality-of-health-based evaluation of PLWHIV.

BackgroundCD163, a haptoglobin-hemoglobin scavenger receptor mostly expressed by monocytes and macrophages, is involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes. Following proteolytic cleavage after pro-inflammatory stimulation, CD163 is shed from the cell surface and its soluble form in plasma, sCD163, is a biomarker of monocyte/macrophage lineage activation.The assessment of sCD163 plasmatic levels in an early stage of the disease could have clinical utility in predicting the severity of COVID-19 pneumonia. The use of tocilizumab (monoclonal antibody anti-IL-6 receptor) in COVID-19 patients reduces lethality rate at 30 days. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of tocilizumab on sCD163 plasmatic levels in a cohort of COVID-19 patients.MethodsIn COVID-19 patients, on hospital admission (T0), after 7 days from hospitalization (T7) and after 45 days from discharge (T45) sCD163 plasmatic levels were evaluated, along with other laboratory parameters. COVID-19 patients were stratified into tocilizumab (TCZ) and non-tocilizumab (non-TCZ) groups. TCZ group was further divided into responder (R) and non-responder (NR) groups. Patients who died or required mechanical ventilation were defined as NR. As control group, healthy donors (HD) were enrolled.ResultsSeventy COVID-19 patients and 47 HD were enrolled. At T0, sCD163 plasmatic levels were higher in COVID-19 patients compared to HD (pConclusionsCD163 plasmatic levels are increased in COVID-19 pneumonia and is efficiently down-regulated by tocilizumab treatment regardless of the clinical outcome.

Neurofilament light chain (NfL) is a specific biomarker of neuro-axonal damage. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent enzymes involved in blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity. We explored neuro-axonal damage, alteration of BBB integrity and SARS-CoV-2 RNA presence in COVID-19 patients with severe neurological symptoms (neuro-COVID) as well as neuro-axonal damage in COVID-19 patients without severe neurological symptoms according to disease severity and after recovery, comparing the obtained findings with healthy donors (HD). Overall, COVID-19 patients (n = 55) showed higher plasma NfL levels compared to HD (n = 31) (p < 0.0001), especially those who developed ARDS (n = 28) (p = 0.0005). After recovery, plasma NfL levels were still higher in ARDS patients compared to HD (p = 0.0037). In neuro-COVID patients (n = 12), higher CSF and plasma NfL, and CSF MMP-2 levels in ARDS than non-ARDS group were observed (p = 0.0357, p = 0.0346 and p = 0.0303, respectively). SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in four CSF and two plasma samples. SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection was not associated to increased CSF NfL and MMP levels. During COVID-19, ARDS could be associated to CNS damage and alteration of BBB integrity in the absence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection in CSF or blood. CNS damage was still detectable after discharge in blood of COVID-19 patients who developed ARDS during hospitalization.

Chronic hepatitis C virus infection leads to the activation of innate immunity, a key component in HCV fibrosis. In the past, the use of IFN-based treatment regimens did not permit an adequate evaluation of the impact of HCV clearance on immune cells, because of their antiviral and immunomodulatory properties. The recent development of direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy, which is associated with high rates of sustained virological response, enables a more accurate analysis of the immunological modifications following HCV eradication. We studied the dynamics of blood myeloid dendritic cells, monocytes, slan-DCs, and T lymphocytes during IFN-free and IFN-based regimens in hepatitis C virus infection.

ObjectivesTo evaluate HIV-1 tropism in 1382 combined antiretroviral therapy (cART)-experienced patients failing therapy to characterize those with exhausted therapeutic options.MethodsHIV-1 genotypic tropism was inferred through Geno2Pheno by estimating the false-positive-rate (FPR) values. Cumulative resistance and drug activity were evaluated by Stanford algorithm.ResultsOverall, median (IQR) CD4 count (cells/mm3) nadir and at last genotypic resistance test (GRT) available were 98 (33–211) and 312 (155–517), respectively. Considering HIV-1 tropism, 30.5% had X4/dual-mixed strains (FPR ≤5%: 22.2%; FPR 5%–10%: 8.3%). By stratifying according to tropism, by decreasing FPR, a significant decrease of CD4 nadir and at last GRT was observed. The proportion of individuals with CD4 count ConclusionsOur findings showed that a small proportion of cART failing individuals have limited therapeutic options. However, tropism determination might help to identify people who have accumulated a high level of resistance and have a greater risk of advanced disease.

Purpose: to study the possible association of CT-derived quantitative Epicardial Adipose Tissue (EAT) and glycemia at the admission, with severe outcomes in patients with COVID-19.Methods: 229 patients consecutively hospitalized for COVID-19 from March 1st to June 30th2020 were studied.Non contrast chest CT scans, to confirm diagnosis of pneumonia, were performed. EAT volume (cm3) and attenuation (Hounsfield units) were measured using a CT post-processing software. The primary outcome was acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or in-hospital death.Results: The primary outcome occurred in 56,8% patients. Fasting blood glucose was significantly higher in the group ARDS/death than in the group with better prognosis [114 (98-144) vs 101 (91-118) mg/dl, p=0,001]. EAT volume was higher in patients with vs without the primary outcome [103 (69,25;129,75) vs 78,95 (50,7;100,25) cm3, p Conclusions: Our findings suggest that both blood glucose and EAT, measurable and modifiable targets, could allow the early identification of subjects at greater risk of developing severe complications.

Background Since last year, COVID-19, the disease caused by the novel Sars-Cov-2 virus, has been globally spread to all the world. COVID-19 infection among pregnant women has been described. However, transplacental transmission of Sars-Cov-2 virus from infected mother to the newborn is not yet established. The appropriate management of infants born to mothers with confirmed or suspected COVID-19 and the start of early breastfeeding are being debated. Case presentation We report a case of the joint management of a healthy neonate with his mother tested positive for Covid-19 before the delivery and throughout neonatal follow-up. The infection transmission from the mother to her baby is not described, even after a long period of contact between them and breastfeeding. Conclusion It may consider an appropriate practice to keep mother and her newborn infant together in order to facilitate their contact and to encourage breastfeeding, although integration with infection prevention measures is needed.

BackgroundEmerging evidence argues that monocytes, circulating innate immune cells, are principal players in COVID-19 pneumonia. The study aimed to investigate the role of soluble (s)CD163 and sCD14 plasmatic levels in predicting disease severity and characterize peripheral blood monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs), in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia (COVID-19 subjects).MethodsOn admission, in COVID-19 subjects sCD163 and sCD14 plasmatic levels, and peripheral blood monocyte and DC subsets were compared to healthy donors (HDs). According to clinical outcome, COVID-19 subjects were divided into ARDS and non-ARDS groups.ResultsCompared to HDs, COVID-19 subjects showed higher sCD163 (pConclusionsThe increase in sCD163 and sCD14 plasmatic levels, observed on hospital admission in COVID-19 subjects, especially in those who developed ARDS, and the correlations of these monocyte/macrophage activation markers with typical inflammatory markers of COVID-19 pneumonia, underline their potential use to assess the risk of progression of the disease. In an early stage of the disease, the assessment of sCD163 plasmatic levels could have clinical utility in predicting the severity of COVID-19 pneumonia.

Between November 2018 and October 2019, carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales carrying New Delhi Metallo-β-lactamase (NDM) caused one of the largest and persistent outbreaks occurred in Italy and intensified surveillance measures have been taken in all Italian hospitals. In this study we analyzed NDM-5- producing Escherichia coli identified in 2 hospitals of the Lazio region in Italy. Epidemiological and microbiological data demonstrated that in 2018-2019 the NDM-5-producing high-risk E. coli ST167 clone circulated in patients from both hospitals. In 2019, another NDM-5-producing E. coli clone, identified by MLST as ST617 was introduced in one of the 2 hospitals and caused an outbreak. This study describes an application of genomics as a useful method to discern endemic and outbreak clones when applied to strains of the same species (E. coli) with the same resistance determinant (NDM-5) and the relevance of screening patients admitted in critical units for carbapenemase producers to prevent outbreaks.

Objective To evaluate the effectiveness of Tocilizumab (with or without corticosteroids) in a real-life context among moderate-to-severe COVID-19 patients hospitalized at the Infectious Diseases ward of two hospitals in Lazio region, Italy, during the first wave of SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Method We conducted a retrospective cohort study among moderate-to-severe COVID-19 pneumonia to assess the influence of tocilizumab (with or without corticosteroids) on: 1) primary composite outcome: risk for death/invasive mechanical ventilation/ICU-transfer at 14 days from hospital admission; 2) secondary outcome: COVID-related death only. Both outcomes were also assessed at 28 days and restricted to baseline more severe cases. We also evaluated the safety of tocilizumab. Results Overall, 412 patients were recruited, being affected by mild (6.8%), moderate (66.3%) or severe (26.9%) COVID-19 at baseline. The median participant’ age was 63 years, 56.5% were men, the sum of comorbidities was 1.34 (±1.44), and the median time from symptom onset to hospital admission was 7 [3–10] days. Patients were subdivided in 4 treatment groups: standard of care (SoC) only (n = 172), SoC plus corticosteroid (n = 65), SoC plus tocilizumab (n = 50), SoC plus tocilizumab and corticosteroid (n = 125). Twenty-six (6.3%) patients underwent intubation, and 37 (9%) COVID-related deaths were recorded. After adjusting for several factors, multivariate analysis showed that tocilizumab (with or without corticosteroids) was associated to improved primary and secondary outcomes at 14 days, and at 28-days only when tocilizumab administered without corticosteroid. Among more severe cases the protective effect of tocilizumab (± corticosteroids) was observed at both time-points. No safety concerns were recorded. Conclusion Although contrasting results from randomized clinical trials to date, in our experience tocilizumab was a safe and efficacious therapeutic option for patients with moderate-to-severe COVID-19 pneumonia. Its efficacy was improved by the concomitant administration of corticosteroids in patients affected by severe-COVID-19 pneumonia at baseline.

BackgroundThe aim of this secondary analysis of the TESEO cohort is to identify, early in the course of treatment with tocilizumab, factors associated with the risk of progressing to mechanical ventilation and death and develop a risk score to estimate the risk of this outcome according to patients' profile.MethodsPatients with COVID-19 severe pneumonia receiving standard of care + tocilizumab who were alive and free from mechanical ventilation at day 6 after treatment initiation were included in this retrospective, multicenter cohort study. Multivariable logistic regression models were built to identify predictors of mechanical ventilation or death by day-28 from treatment initiation and β-coefficients were used to develop a risk score. Secondary outcome was mortality. Patients with the same inclusion criteria as the derivation cohort from 3 independent hospitals were used as validation cohort.Results266 patients treated with tocilizumab were included. By day 28 of hospital follow-up post treatment initiation, 40 (15%) underwent mechanical ventilation or died [26 (10%)]. At multivariable analysis, sex, day-4 PaO2/FiO2 ratio, platelets and CRP were independently associated with the risk of developing the study outcomes and were used to generate the proposed risk score. The accuracy of the score in AUC was 0.80 and 0.70 in internal validation and test for the composite endpoint and 0.92 and 0.69 for death, respectively.ConclusionsOur score could assist clinicians in identifying, early after tocilizumab administration, patients who are likely to progress to mechanical ventilation or death, so that they could be selected for eventual rescue therapies.

Increasing evidences suggest that HBsAg-production varies across HBV-genotypes. HBsAg C-terminus plays a crucial role for HBsAg-secretion. Here, we evaluate HBsAg-levels in different HBV-genotypes in HBeAg-negative chronic infection, the correlation of specific mutations in HBsAg C-terminus with HBsAg-levels in-vivo, their impact on HBsAg-secretion in-vitro and on structural stability in-silico. HBsAg-levels were investigated in 323 drug-naïve HBeAg-negative patients chronically infected with HBV genotype-D(N = 228), -A(N = 65) and -E(N = 30). Genotype-D was characterized by HBsAg-levels lower than genotype-A and -E (3.3[2.7–3.8]IU/ml; 3.8[3.5–4.2]IU/ml and 3.9[3.7–4.2]IU/ml, P < 0.001). Results confirmed by multivariable analysis correcting for patients’demographics, HBV-DNA, ALT and infection-status. In genotype-D, specific C-terminus mutations (V190A-S204N-Y206C-Y206F-S210N) significantly correlate with HBsAgP-value from P = 0.003), S204N + L205P (Phi = 0.36, P = 0.005), Y206F + S210R (Phi = 0.47, P < 0.001) and S210N + F220L (Phi = 0.40, P = 0.006). Notably, patients with these mutational pairs present HBsAg-levels 1log lower than patients without them(P-value from 0.003 to 0.02). In-vitro, the above-mentioned mutational pairs determined a significant decrease in HBsAg secretion-efficiency compared to wt(P-value from in-vivo, hamper HBsAg-release in-vitro and affect its structural stability, supporting their detrimental role on HBsAg-secretion. In this light, genotypic-testing can be a valuable tool to optimize the clinical interpretation of HBsAg in genotype-D and to provide information on HBV-pathogenicity and disease-progression.

Aims To evaluate whether subjects with diabetes hospitalized for Coronavirus disease-19 (Covid-19) represent a subgroup of patients with high-risk clinical features compared to patients with diabetes without Covid-19. Methods In this case-control study 79 patients with type 2 diabetes out of 354 adults hospitalized for Covid-19 and 158 controls with type 2 diabetes but without Covid-19, matched for age and gender, were enrolled. Medical history and concomitant therapies were retrieved from medical charts and compared between cases and controls, controlling for confounders. Results Fully-adjusted multivariate logistic regression model showed that previous CVD history did not differ between patients with and without Covid-19 (odds ratio 1.40, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.59-3.32, p=0.45). A higher prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (OR 3.72, 95%CI: 1.42-9.72, p=0.007) and of chronic kidney disease (CKD) (OR 3.08, 95%CI: 1.18-8.06, p=0.022) and a lower prevalence of ever smokers (OR 0.30, 95%CI: 0.13-0.67, p=0.003), of users of lipid lowering agents (OR 0.26, 95%CI: 0.12-0.54, p

Objective To conduct a multireader validation study to evaluate the interobserver variability and the diagnostic accuracy for the lung involvement by COVID-19 of COVID-19 Reporting and Data System (CO-RADS) score. Methods This retrospective study included consecutive symptomatic patients who underwent chest CT and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from March 2020 to May 2020 for suspected COVID-19. Twelve readers with different levels of expertise independently scored each CT using the CO-RADS scheme for detecting pulmonary involvement by COVID-19. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were computed to investigate diagnostic yield. Fleiss’ kappa statistics was used to evaluate interreader agreement. Results A total of 572 patients (mean age, 63 ± 20 [standard deviation]; 329 men; 142 patients with COVID-19 and 430 patients without COVID-19) were evaluated. There was a moderate agreement for CO-RADS rating among all readers (Fleiss’ K = 0.43 [95% CI 0.42–0.44]) with a substantial agreement for CO-RADS 1 category (Fleiss’ K = 0.61 [95% CI 0.60–0.62]) and moderate agreement for CO-RADS 5 category (Fleiss’ K = 0.60 [95% CI 0.58–0.61]). ROC analysis showed the CO-RADS score ≥ 4 as the optimal threshold, with a cumulative area under the curve of 0.72 (95% CI 66–78%), sensitivity 61% (95% CI 52–69%), and specificity 81% (95% CI 77–84%). Conclusion CO-RADS showed high diagnostic accuracy and moderate interrater agreement across readers with different levels of expertise. Specificity is higher than previously thought and that could lead to reconsider the role of CT in this clinical setting. Key Points • COVID-19 Reporting and Data System (CO-RADS) demonstrated a good diagnostic accuracy for lung involvement by COVID-19 with an average AUC of 0.72 (95% CI 67–75%). • When a threshold of ≥ 4 was used, sensitivity and specificity were 61% (95% CI 52–69%) and 81% (95% CI 76–84%), respectively. • There was an overall moderate agreement for CO-RADS rating across readers with different levels of expertise (Fleiss’ K = 0.43 [95% CI 0.42–0.44]). Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00330-020-07273-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Virological response and resistance profile were evaluated in drug-naïve patients starting their first-line integrase inhibitors (INIs)-based regimen in a clinical setting.Virological success (VS) and virological rebound (VR) after therapy start were assessed by survival analyses. Drug-resistance was evaluated at baseline and at virological failure.Among 798 patients analysed, 38.6 %, 27.1 % and 34.3 % received raltegravir, elvitegravir and dolutegravir, respectively. Baseline resistance to NRTIs, NNRTIs, PIs and INIs was: 3.9 %, 13.9 %, 1.6 % and 0.5 %, respectively. Overall, by 12 months of treatment, the probability of VS was 95 %, while the probability of VR by 36 months after VS was 13.1 %. No significant differences in the virological response were found according to the INI used. The higher pre-therapy viremia strata was (100,000 vs. 100,000-500,000 vs.500,000 copies/mL), lower was the probability of VS (96.0 % vs. 95.2 % vs. 91.1 %, respectively, P0.001), and higher the probability of VR (10.2 % vs. 15.8 % vs. 16.6 %, respectively, P = 0.010). CD4 cell count200 cell/mmOur findings confirm that patients receiving an INI-based first-line regimen achieve and maintain very high rates of VS in clinical practice.

Background NK cells seem to be mainly involved in COVID-19 pneumonia. Little is known about NKT cells which represent a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity. Methods We characterized peripheral blood T, NK and NKT cells in 45 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia (COVID-19 subjects) and 19 healthy donors (HDs). According to the severity of the disease, we stratified COVID-19 subjects into severe and non-severe groups. Results Compared to HDs, COVID-19 subjects showed higher percentages of NK CD57+ and CD56dim NK cells and lower percentages of NKT and CD56bright cells. In the severe group we found a significantly lower percentage of NKT cells. In a multiple logistic regression analysis, NKT cell was independently associated with the severity of the disease. Conclusions The low percentage of NKT cells in peripheral blood of COVID-19 subjects and the independent association with the severity of the disease suggests a potential role of this subset., Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image, Highlights • High percentages of NK CD57+ cells and CD56dimNK cells in COVID-19 subjects • Low percentages of CD56bright and NKT cells in COVID-19 subjects • Severe COVID-19 pneumonia and NKT cell reduction were independently associated

Increasing evidences suggest that HBsAg-production varies across HBV-genotypes. HBsAg C-terminus plays a crucial role for HBsAg-secretion. Here, we evaluate HBsAg-levels in different HBV-genotypes in HBeAg-negative chronic infection, the correlation of specific mutations in HBsAg C-terminus with HBsAg-levels in-vivo, their impact on HBsAg-secretion in-vitro and on structural stability in-silico. HBsAg-levels were investigated in 323 drug-naïve HBeAg-negative patients chronically infected with HBV genotype-D(N = 228), -A(N = 65) and -E(N = 30). Genotype-D was characterized by HBsAg-levels lower than genotype-A and -E (3.3[2.7–3.8]IU/ml; 3.8[3.5–4.2]IU/ml and 3.9[3.7–4.2]IU/ml, P

The study was undertaken in order to provide a snapshot from real clinical practice of virological presentation and outcome of patients developing immunosuppression-driven HBV reactivation. Seventy patients with HBV reactivation were included (66.2% treated with rituximab, 10% with corticosteroids and 23.8% with other immunosuppressive drugs). Following HBV reactivation, patients received anti-HBV treatment for a median (IQR) follow-up of 31(13-47) months. At baseline-screening, 72.9% of patients were HBsAg-negative and 27.1% HBsAg-positive. About 71.4% had a diagnosis of biochemical reactivation [median (IQR) HBV DNA and ALT: 6.9 (5.4-7.8) log IU/mL and 359 (102-775) U/L]. Moreover, 10% of patients died from hepatic failure. Antiviral prophylaxis was documented in 57.9% and 15.7% of HBsAg-positive and HBsAg-negative patients at baseline-screening (median [IQR] prophylaxis duration: 24[15-33] and 25[17-36] months, respectively). Notably, HBV reactivation occurred 2-24 months after completing the recommended course of anti-HBV prophylaxis in 35.3% of patients. By analysing treatment outcome, the cumulative probability of ALT normalization and of virological suppression was 97% and 69%, respectively. Nevertheless, in patients negative to HBsAg at baseline-screening, only 27% returned to HBsAg-negative status during prolonged follow-up, suggesting the establishment of chronic infection. In conclusion, most patients received a diagnosis of HBV reactivation accompanied by high ALT and 10% died for hepatic failure, supporting the importance of strict monitoring for an early HBV reactivation diagnosis. Furthermore, HBV reactivation correlates with high risk of HBV chronicity in patients negative for HBsAg at baseline-screening, converting a silent into a chronic infection, requiring long-term antiviral treatment. Finally, a relevant proportion of patients experienced HBV reactivation after completing the recommended course of anti-HBV prophylaxis, suggesting the need to reconsider proper duration of prophylaxis particularly in profound immunosuppression.

Immune-suppression driven Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)-reactivation poses serious concerns since it occurs in several clinical settings and can result in severe forms of hepatitis. Previous studies showed that HBV strains, circulating in patients with HBV-reactivation, are characterized by an enrichment of immune-escape mutations in HBV surface antigen (HBsAg). Here, we focused on specific immune-escape mutations associated with the acquisition of N-linked glycosylation sites in HBsAg (NLGSs). In particular, we investigated profiles of NLGSs in 47 patients with immunosuppression-driven HBV-reactivation and we evaluated their impact on HBsAg-antigenicity and HBV-replication in vitro. At HBV-reactivation, despite a median serum HBV-DNA of 6.7 [5.3&ndash, 8.0] logIU/mL, 23.4% of patients remained HBsAg-negative. HBsAg-negativity at HBV-reactivation correlated with the presence of &gt, 1 additional NLGSs (p &lt, 0.001). These NLGSs are located in the major hydrophilic region of HBsAg (known to be the target of antibodies) and resulted from the single mutation T115N, T117N, T123N, N114ins, and from the triple mutant S113N+T131N+M133T. In vitro, NLGSs strongly alter HBsAg antigenic properties and recognition by antibodies used in assays for HBsAg-quantification without affecting HBsAg-secretion and other parameters of HBV-replication. In conclusion, additional NLGSs correlate with HBsAg-negativity despite HBV-reactivation, and hamper HBsAg-antigenicity in vitro, supporting the role of NGSs in immune-escape and the importance of HBV-DNA for a proper diagnosis of HBV-reactivation.

Background During severe immunosuppression or treatment with specific biological drugs, human polyomavirus JC (JCPyV) may establish a lytic infection in oligodendrocytes, leading to progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Beyond AIDS, which represents the most common predisposing condition, several biological drugs have been associated to the development of PML, such as natalizumab, fingolimod and dimethyl fumarate, which have been showed to increase the risk of PML in the multiple sclerosis (MS) population. JCPyV non-coding control region (NCCR) can be found in two different forms: a virulent neurotropic pathogenic form and a latent non-pathogenic form. The neurotropic forms contain a rearranged NCCR and are typically found in the cerebrospinal fluid, brain or blood of PML patients. Case presentation We sequenced and critically examined JCPyV NCCR from isolates detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of four newly diagnosed progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy patients: two HIV-positive and two HIV-negative multiple sclerosis patients. More complex NCCR rearrangements were observed in the two HIV-positive patients compared to the HIV-negative multiple sclerosis patients with PML. Conclusions The comparison of HIV-positive and HIV-negative MS patients with PML, allowed us to evidence the presence of a common pattern of JCPyV NCCR rearrangement, characterized by the deletion of the D-block, which could be one of the initial rearrangements of JCPyV NCCR needed for the development of PML.

New strategies for HIV treatment able to reduce drug-exposure, medium-long term toxicities and costs are a recognized clinical need. The availability of newer drugs with improved potency and tolerability, as well as high genetic barrier to resistance, makes antiretroviral-sparing strategies with two-drug regimens (2DRs) particularly attractive. Substantial evidence has been generated over the last few years supporting 2DR in virologically suppressed HIV infected patients for whom a therapy switch is planned. More recently, very promising data on 2DR in naïve patients have also been reported. The main purpose of this consensus is to provide an overview of guideline indications and recommendations, and the most recent data from clinical studies of 2DR in both naïve and virologically suppressed patients. As an expert consensus, suggestions and indications on the use and management of 2DR are also provided.

Our aim was to evaluate the association between recent eGFR values and risk of switching from TDF to TAF or dual therapy (DT) in real life. HIV-positive patients achieving HIV-RNA ≤50 copies/mL for the first time after starting a TDF-based regimen were included. Kaplan–Meier (KM) curves and Cox regression models were used to estimate the time from TDF to switch to TAF or DT. 1486 participants were included: median (IQR) age 36 (30–42) years; baseline CKD-EPI eGFR 99.92 (86.47–111.4) mL/min/1.73m2. We observed a consistently higher proportion of people with HIV-RNA ≤50 copies/mL who switched from TDF to TAF rather than to DT. By competing risk analysis, at 2 years from baseline, the probability of switching was 3.5% (95% CI 2.6–4.7%) to DT and 46.7% (42.8–48.5%) to TAF. A significantly higher probability of switching to TAF was found for patients receiving INSTI at baseline versus NNRTIs and PI/b [KM, 65.6% (61.7–69.4%) vs. 4.0% (1.8–6.1%) and 59.9% (52.7–67.2%), respectively; P < 0.0001]. eGFR

ObjectiveWe evaluated the characteristics of HIV-1 molecular transmission clusters (MTCs) in 1890 newly diagnosed individuals infected with non-B subtypes between 2005 and 2017 in Italy.MethodsPhylogenetic analyses were performed on pol sequences to characterise subtypes/circulating recombinant forms and identify MTCs. MTCs were divided into small (SMTCs, 2–3 sequences), medium (MMTCs, 4–9 sequences) and large (LMTCs, ≥10 sequences). Factors associated with MTCs were evaluated using logistic regression analysis.Results145 MTCs were identified and involved 666 individuals (35.2%); 319 of them (16.9%) were included in 13 LMTCs, 111 (5.9%) in 20 MMTCs and 236 (12.5%) in 112 SMTCs. Compared with individuals out of MTCs, individuals involved in MTCs were prevalently Italian (72.7% vs 30.9%, p9/L: 0.4 (0.265–0.587) vs 0.246 (0.082–0.417), p10 copies/mL: 4.8 (4.2–5.5) vs 5.0 (4.3–5.5), p=0.87). Logistic regression confirmed that certain factors such as being MSM, of Italian origin, younger age and higher CD4 cell count were significantly associated with MTCs.ConclusionsOur findings show that HIV-1 newly diagnosed individuals infected with non-B subtypes are involved in several MTCs in Italy. These MTCs include mainly Italians and MSM and highlight the complex phenomenon characterising the HIV-1 spread. This is important especially in view of monitoring the HIV epidemic and guiding the public health response.

Background: The Italian Society of Infectious and Tropical Diseases performed a survey on the application of guidelines for the management of persons living with HIV (PLWH), to evaluate current practice and the yield of screening for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in newly-diagnosed PLWH; in addition, the offer of preventive therapy to LTBI individuals and the completion rate were analysed. Materials and methods: Newly-diagnosed PLWH in nine centres were evaluated retrospectively (2016/2017) using binary and multinomial logistic regression to identify factors associated with LTBI diagnostic screening and QuantiFERON (QFT) results. Results: Of 801 patients evaluated, 774 were studied after excluding active TB. LTBI tests were performed in 65.5%. Prescription of an LTBI test was associated with being foreign-born (odds ratio (OR) 3.19, p < 0.001), older (for 10-year increments, OR 1.22, p = 0.034), and having a CD4 count

The new QuantiFERON-TB Gold Plus employs modified peptides optimized to elicit an IFNγ response from CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes in addition to CD4+ T cells. With a view to improve the difficult identification of TB cases, we assessed the combination of two specific immunological markers comprising IFNγ secretion and T cells co-expression of CD25 and CD134 in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific antigens. A total of 34 subjects with suspected TB and 10 age-matched HD were prospectively enrolled. Assessing the performance of QFT-Plus in terms of the TB1 and TB2 results, we found that in TB patients, the quantitative IFNγ value in TB2 was similar to that in TB1, and we did not find any differences irrespective of the disease (pulmonary or extra-pulmonary). The flow cytometric CD25/CD134 assay, allowed a more accurate differentiation between M. tuberculosis-infected and uninfected patients, with a better combination of sensitivity and specificity, especially by evaluation of CD4+ T-cell subset. All individuals with negative QFT-Plus results displayed a positive CD25/CD134 response. Overall, a positive correlation was found between T cells co-expressing CD25/CD134 and IFNγ levels in response to both QFT-Plus TB antigen tubes, as well as between the QFT-Plus TB1 and TB2 tubes. We demonstrated that both TB1 and TB2 induce a higher expression of CD25+CD134+ markers on CD4+ T cells among infected TB subjects, compared to the lower degree of CD8+ T cells, mainly induced to TB2 stimulation. We suggest that a combined use of classic QFT-Plus and specific CD25/CD134 response may be a useful means in the diagnostic workup for active TB.

We report four HCV–HIV-coinfected patients who developed herpes zoster or muco-cutaneous herpes virus disease shortly after starting interferon-free antiviral treatment for HCV. We suggest that in our patients the prompt clearance of HCV following direct-acting antivirals leads to a paradoxical effect on the innate and adaptive immune system mediating the reactivation of herpetic infection.

The possibility of performing genotypic tropism testing (GTT) with proviral DNA (pvDNA) even during suppressed viremia would facilitate the use of CCR5 inhibitors as part of switching, simplification, or intensification strategies. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the tropism concordance between plasma RNA and pvDNA samples and to assess which factors could affect possible discrepancies between the two compartments. GTT was performed using both plasma RNA and pvDNA from 55 sample pairs from drug-experienced patients. Potential differences between the two compartments were evaluated by analyzing coreceptor usage and genetic variability. Paired samples were also stratified in three levels of viremia (500 copies/ml). Overall, Geno2Pheno comparisons of false-positive rates in the two compartments showed good correlation ( r = 0.72). A high level of concordance in tropism predictions for the two compartments was found (46/55 sample pairs [83.6%]). Among the 9 sample pairs with discordant tropisms, a larger proportion of pvDNA samples harboring CXCR4/dual-mixed-tropic viruses was found, in comparison with plasma RNA samples (88.9% versus 11.1%; P = 0.0034). Discordant samples were characterized by greater genetic variability than were concordant samples. With stratification of the paired samples according to viremia levels, the prevalence of discordant samples decreased with increasing viremia (500 copies/ml, 6.7%; P = 0.2). Our findings confirm that prediction of viral tropism using pvDNA is feasible even in low-level viremia and provides useful information for therapy optimization for patients with low or suppressed viremia.

HIV infection is characterized by a state of chronic activation of the immune system, which is not completely reversed by antiretroviral treatment (ART). The aim of this study was to assess myeloid and lymphoid activation markers during HIV infection, before and one year after ART initiation, in AIDS and non-AIDS presenters. Treatment naïve HIV positive patients were enrolled in this study. Myeloid dendritic cell (mDC), plasmacytoid dendritic cell (pDC), slanDC, monocyte and T-lymphocyte cell counts and activation status, were assessed by flow cytometry in peripheral blood samples. Soluble (s)CD14 and sCD163 were assessed in plasma samples using ELISA assays. Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism and Minitab Express. Thirty-four ART naïve HIV-1 infected subjects were enrolled in this study (22 non-AIDS and 12 AIDS presenters). Seventeen healthy donors (HD) were included as control group. Although circulating mDC levels resulted unchanged, HLA-DR expression was decreased on mDCs of HIV positive subjects compared to HD (p 0,0001). AIDS presenters showed the lowest level of expression of HLA-DR on mDCs. Circulating levels of pDCs were decreased in HIV patients compared to HD (p 0,001), without any changes in HLA-DR expression. SlanDC cell counts were extremely reduced in AIDS presenters, compared to non-AIDS presenters and HD (p 0,01 and p 0,0001, respectively) and showed higher HLA-DR expression in HIV patients compared to HD (p 0,01). Intermediate monocyte (IM) cell counts were increased in AIDS and non-AIDS presenters compared to HD (p 0,001 and p 0,001 respectively). Furthermore, IM expansion was directly correlated to HIV viral load (p = 0,036) and independent from CD4 cell counts and activation levels. Plasma concentrations of sCD14 and sCD163 resulted increased in HIV infected subjects compared to HD (p 0,0001 and p 0,001), with the highest levels observed in AIDS presenters. After 1 year, ART was able to increase pDC and decrease IM absolute cell counts and modify HLA-DR expression on mDCs and slanDCs, approaching the levels observed in HD. ART reduced also CD4 and CD8 activation levels. In conclusion, in untreated HIV infected subjects circulating dendritic cells resulted altered either in numbers or in HLA-DR expression, especially in AIDS presenters. IM absolute counts were equally increased in AIDS and non-AIDS presenters. ART was able to reduce myeloid and lymphoid inflammation in both advanced and non-advanced HIV patients, confirming the role of ART in hampering disease progression and immune activation associated non-AIDS events.

Background and aims Measles is an infectious disease that represents a serious public health problem worldwide, being associated with increased susceptibility to secondary infections, especially in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. The aim of this study was to evaluate sCD163 and sCD14 levels in measles virus (MV) infected patients, as markers of immune activation, in order to better understand their role in the pathogenesis of the disease. TNF-α plasma levels were also evaluated. Methods sCD163, sCD14 and TNF-α were measured by ELISA in plasma samples of 27 MV infected patients and 27 healthy donors (HD) included as controls. Results At the time of hospital admission, sCD163 and sCD14 levels were significantly higher in MV infected patients than in HD, while a decrease in TNF-α levels were found even if without statistical significance. sCD163 and sCD14 levels were significantly decreased after two months from acute infection compared to hospital admission although they remained significantly higher compared to HD. TNF-α levels increased significantly during the follow-up period. Considering clinical parameters, sCD163 levels positively correlated with aspartate aminotransferase, white blood cell count and neutrophils rate, while negatively correlated with the lymphocyte percentage. sCD14 levels positively correlated with the neutrophil and lymphocyte percentages. Conclusions These results indicate that, despite the resolution of symptoms, an important macrophage/monocyte activation persists in measles patients, even after two months from infection.

Although natalizumab (anti-α4 integrin) represents an effective therapy for relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), it is associated with an increased risk of developing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), caused by the polyomavirus JC (JCV). The aim of this study was to explore natalizumab-induced phenotypic changes in peripheral blood T-lymphocytes and their relationship with JCV reactivation. Forty-four patients affected by RRMS were enrolled. Blood and urine samples were classified according to natalizumab infusion number: 0 (N0), 1–12 (N12), 13–24 (N24), 25–36 (N36), and over 36 (N>36) infusions. JCV-DNA was detected in plasma and urine. T-lymphocyte phenotype was evaluated with flow cytometry. JCV serostatus was assessed. Ten healthy donors (HD), whose ages and sexes matched with the RRMS patients of theN0 group, were enrolled. CD8 effector (CD8 E) percentages were increased in natalizumab treated patients with detectable JCV-DNA in plasma or urine compared to JCV-DNA negative patients (JCV−) (p<0.01andp<0.001, resp.). Patients with CD8 E percentages above 10.4% tended to show detectable JCV-DNA in plasma and/or urine (ROC curvep=0.001). The CD8 E was increased when JCV-DNA was detectable in plasma or urine, independently from JCV serology, forN12 andN24 groups (p<0.01). As long as PML can affect RRMS patients under natalizumab treatment with a negative JCV serology, the assessment of CD8 E could help in the evaluation of JCV reactivation.

Objectives: Immunotherapy with BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guérin) after transurethral resection of the bladder tumor represents a highly effective primary treatment for intermediate and high-risk superficial bladder cancer. The effectiveness of this therapy has been documented, but its mechanism of action is not clear yet. In the present study, we investigated the changes of dendritic cells (DC) numbers in peripheral blood and urine of patients with superficial bladder cancer undergoing BCG intravescical therapy Material and method: We have enumerated plasmacytoid and myeloid DCs in the peripheral blood and in the urine of patients with bladder cancer in order to clarify the role of these cells in the evolution of the disease and the effect of therapy. DCs in blood and urine samples were assessed using the single-platform TruCOUNT assay with monoclonal antibodies. The study population included 37 healthy donors and 13 patients with diagnosis of primitive superficial bladder cancer. Results: At the time of diagnosis a reduction of blood DCs was found in patients as opposed to healthy donors, while DCs were not found in the urine in the same way as in healthy subjects. Six of these patients were followed before and after weekly and monthly instillations of BCG. In the peripheral blood, we observed an immunological recovery of DCs from the third weekly instillation up to the sixth. In the urine of patients, we didn’t find mDCs or pDCs at T0, but we found a statistically significant change from the third instillation up to the sixth. On the contrary, we didn’t find mDCs in urine during monthly instillation. Conclusions: DC Count could be used in the monitoring of patients undergoing BCG therapy. Immunological restoration of mDC numbers in peripheral blood and the efflux in urine could be important for confirming the effectiveness of BCG instillation.

Background and aims Increased levels of chemokine interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-inducible protein-10 (CXCL10), soluble CD163 (sCD163) and soluble CD14 (sCD14) have been reported in HCV infection. The aim of this study was to compare, sCD163 and sCD14 levels in HCV-infected patients undergoing direct acting antiviral (DAA)-containing regimens with or without interferon (IFN). Methods sCD163, sCD14 and CXCL10 were longitudinally measured by ELISA in 159 plasma samples from 25 HCV-infected patients undergoing IFN-based treatment plus telaprevir or boceprevir and 28 HCV infected subjects treated with DAA IFN-free regimens. Twenty-five healthy donors (HD) were included as controls. Results At baseline CXCL10, sCD163 and sCD14 levels were higher in HCV-infected patients than in HD. CXCL10 and sCD163 levels were significantly decreased in responder (R) patients who achieved sustained virological response (SVR), with both IFN-based and IFN-free regimens, while they were persistently elevated in non-responders (NR) patients who stopped IFN-based treatments because of failure or adverse events. Conversely, sCD14 levels were apparently unchanged during therapy, but at the end of treatment the levels reached normal ranges. Comparing the two regimens, the extent of CXCL10 reduction was more pronounced in patients undergoing DAA IFN-free therapies, whereas sCD163 and sCD14 reduction was similar in the two groups. Interestingly, only in IFN-based regimens baseline sCD163 levels were significantly higher in NR than in R patients, while in the IFN-free treatment group also patients with high sCD163 plasma levels obtained SVR. At the end of therapy, even if the biomarkers were largely decreased, their levels remained significantly higher compared to HD. Only in the early fibrosis stages, sCD163 values tended to normalize. Conclusions These results indicate that IFN-free regimens including newer DAA induce an early and marked decrease in circulating inflammatory biomarkers. However, the full normalization of biomarkers was not obtained, especially in patients with advanced fibrosis, thus underlying the need for a treatment in the early stages of HCV infection.

Summary Background and objective Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-inducible protein-10 (IP-10), soluble (s) CD163 and sCD14 play an important role in the pathogenesis of HCV and HIV infection and are involved in inflammation and liver fibrosis. The aim of the present study was to evaluate at a single time point, plasma soluble biomarkers and inflammatory monocytes subsets in different groups of subjects: (i) HIV monoinfected patients on suppressive ART; (ii) HIV/HCV coinfected patients on ART, with undetectable HIV viremia (including either subjects who had active HCV replication or those who cleared HCV); (iii) HCV monoinfected individual with active viral replication. Methods Hundred and twenty-nine plasma samples were analyzed including HCV and HIV monoinfected patients, HIV/HCV coinfected patients, with active HCV infection (AHI) or with HCV viral clearance (VHC) and healthy donors (HD). Levels of IP-10, sCD163 and sCD14 were measured by ELISA. Absolute cell counts of monocyte subpopulations were enumerated in whole blood by using flow cytometric analyses. Results IP-10 and sCD163 plasma levels were higher in HCV monoinfected and in AHI coinfected pts compared to HIV monoinfected and HD, whereas sCD14 levels were higher only in HIV monoinfected patients. Considering the degree of fibrosis, sCD163 and sCD14 levels positively correlated with kPa values (as assessed by fibroscan) and FIB-4 in HCV monoinfected group. On the other hand, IP-10 did not correlate with the fibrosis stage and it was found increased also in patients with low fibrosis. Moreover, we found an increase of the inflammatory NCM subset, in non-cirrhotic HCV subjects, while no alterations were observed in HIV, AHI and VHC. Conclusions Our study suggests a scenario in which active HCV infection is associated with a strong pro-inflammatory state, even in the initial stage of liver fibrosis, regardless the presence of HIV coinfection, thus underlying the need of an early anti-HCV treatment.

BACKGROUND: The clinical relevance of mutations in the connection subdomain and the ribonuclease (RNase) H domain of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) is uncertain.METHODS: The risk of virological failure to nonnucleoside RT inhibitor (NNRTI)-based antiretroviral therapy (ART) was evaluated in NNRTI-naive patients who started NNRTIs in the EuroSIDA study after July 1997 according to preexisting substitutions in the connection subdomain and the RNase H domain of HIV-1 RT. An observed association between A376S and virological failure was further investigated by testing in vitro NNRTI susceptibility of single site-directed mutants and patient-derived recombinant viruses. Enzymatic assays also determined the effects of A376S on nevirapine and template-primer binding to HIV-1 RT.RESULTS: Virological failure occurred in 142 of 287 (49%) individuals: 77 receiving nevirapine (67%) and 65 receiving efavirenz (38%) (P < .001). Preexisting A376S was associated with an increased risk of virological failure to nevirapine (relative hazard [RH] = 10.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.0-54.7), but it did not affect efavirenz outcome the same way (RH = 0.5; 95% CI, 0.1-2.2) (P value for interaction = .013). A376S conferred selective low-level nevirapine resistance in vitro, and led to greater affinity for double-stranded DNA.CONCLUSIONS: The A376S substitution in the connection subdomain of HIV-1 RT causes selective nevirapine resistance and confers an increased risk of virological failure to nevirapine-based ART.

To the Editor—We read with interest the comments of Manfredi. The aim of our study was to determine the seroprevalence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) antibodies among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–positive subjects in the ICONA cohort and to define the impact of CMV serostatus on the risk of AIDS and severe non-AIDS events/death. Although we agree that our analysis has several limitations, mentioned in the discussion section of the article [1], we believe that we have contributed useful new data to the debate about whether CMV infection might be associated with the risk of clinical progression in HIV-infected individuals. CMV is a herpes virus characterized by persistence in a latent state, resulting in lifelong infection [2]. Chronic CMV infection is diagnosed on the basis of detection of persistently positive CMV immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies, which can be detected in immunodeficient individuals and elderly individuals, except those with common variable immunodeficiency [3]. There is incontrovertible evidence that CMV infection has an important role in human immunity [4]. As shown by many studies, there is a significant correlation between the increase in CD57+ and CD28− T cells and CMV IgG antibody positivity [5–7]. These cells, characterized by short telomeres, loss of CD28 expression, and/or gain of CD57 expression, play a significant role in various conditions associated with chronic immune activation, such as cancer and autoimmune diseases [8, 9]. Because of these findings, CMV serostatus (and not, for example, T-cell–specific CMV response or level of CMV viremia) was included in the immune risk phenotype markers panel, a cluster of immune markers predictive of increased mortality in elderly individuals. For these reasons, we believe that it is appropriate to use CMV serostatus as a marker of CMV chronic infection, assessed by a standard test for anti-CMV IgG used in clinical practice. Manfredi also pointed out that a limitation of our study is the cumulated time elapsed from the CMV-positive serologic test until the occurrence of end-point events. Our analysis was, indeed, performed using the data from a large cohort of HIV-positive, disease-free Italian subjects monitored for almost 6 years, on average (interquartile range, 2–10 years), until they developed AIDS or a severe non–AIDS-defining event/death. It is also true that a single measurement of CMV antibodies was used in the analysis, which, in most cases, was performed at enrollment (baseline) and that, therefore, potential new incident CMV infections occurring after baseline were ignored. However, previous observations showed that the CMV seroconversion rate over time is low [10], so current exposure might have been potentially misclassified only for a minority of our population. Moreover, although it is true that clinical progression can be determined by many events over follow-up, it was originally hypothesized that would take several years for chronic CMV infection to influence the analyzed clinical outcomes. Indeed, CMV serostatus was evaluated at baseline with the aim of assessing whether it was a predictor of the risk of clinical progression independently of other classical factors (eg, nadir CD4+ T-cell count, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention HIV disease stage, and age). To reduce bias due to these potential confounding factors, in particular for the risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, we conducted a multivariable analysis. Moreover, we also explored the potential confounding role of smoking status. In contrast, the interpretation of the association between CMV serostatus, fitted as a time-dependent covariate, and the risk of progression is not free of caveats and potentially requires sophisticated modeling able to correctly control for potential time-dependent confounding factors affected by CMV seroconversion, which was beyond the scope of our analysis. Finally, Manfredi was surprised by the absence of an association between positive anti-CMV serostatus and AIDS events/death. Most people included in the analysis achieved viral suppression during antiretroviral therapy (ART) and showed a good recovery in the CD4+ T-cell count. CMV reactivation with clinical manifestations are typical of severe immunodeficiency, which is uncommon among ART recipients. In fact, the natural history of CMV infection has changed in terms of viral replication and reactivation as a result of suppression of HIV replication and improved patient immunity. In conclusion, we think that our analysis contributes to existing knowledge regarding the role of CMV in HIV disease progression. Indeed, it is the first large cohort study in which CMV/HIV-coinfected individuals were compared to HIV-monoinfected individuals in terms of their risk of future morbidity and mortality. The analysis provided strong evidence that coinfected persons are at higher risk for severe non–AIDS-related events/death than those with HIV monoinfection. Additional studies are needed to investigate the possible mechanisms through which CMV might increase this risk and whether CMV coinfection should be considered for inclusion in scores for the prediction of severe non–AIDS-related events.

Entecavir and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate are potent and effective antiviral drugs that now represent recommended treatment options for chronic HBV infection. However, no or very limited clinical evidence is currently available on these drugs for the management of HBV reactivation in patients with haematological malignancies. Herein, we report a case of HBV reactivation in a patient with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma following a rituximab-based regimen, and who was successfully treated with a combination antiviral treatment including entecavir and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate.

Rationale: Tuberculous meningitis is a highly morbid, often fatal disease. Patient concern: We describe a case of an Italian child. Diagnoses: we diagnosed early a Tuberculous meningitis complicated by the occurrence of hydrocephalus, stroke, and paradoxical reaction with brain pseudo-abscesses. Interventions: The child started readily a specific therapy associated with steroids and thalidomide was introduced few month later. Outcomes: the patient had a favorable outcome without neurologic sequelae. Lessons: Despite the prompt specific anti-tubercular and adjuvant corticosteroid therapies, only the addition of thalidomide to the treatment allow to a favorable clinical outcome.

Recently, a simple whole blood test, QuantiFERON-TB Gold (QFT-Gold), has been adopted for immunologic diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. A total of 369 individuals with suspected tuberculosis (TB) were tested with the QFT-Gold, whereas a subgroup of 62 patients was tested simultaneously with QFT-Gold test and an assay based on selected peptides from early secreted antigenic target 6 and culture filtrate protein 10 proteins. The sensitivity of the QFT-Gold assay for active TB was 72.9%, and the agreement between this test and tuberculin skin test was 75%. Using selected peptides, we found a positive response in the majority of active TB patients, with a sensitivity of 84% and a specificity of 89%. Our study suggests the usefulness of QFT-Gold in routine clinical practice on unselected patients with suspected TB. Moreover, the assay based on selected peptides is a useful tool to discriminate between active and latent TB and shows a high predictive value.

To ascertain whether multiparametric flow cytometry assessment of multifunctional Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells can distinguish between untreated and treated patients with latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), we enrolled 14 LTBI subjects treated with isoniazid (INH) therapy, 16 untreated LTBI patients, and 25 healthy controls. The analysis of mono-functional CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells producing single cytokines showed significant differences only between uninfected and infected LTBI subjects (both treated and untreated). Conversely, the analysis of multifunctional CD4(+) T cells revealed a significant reduction in the frequency of two CD4(+) T cells subsets, those producing IFN-γ, IL-2, and TNF-α simultaneously (triple positive; p = 0.005) and those producing IL-2 alone (p = 0.0359), as well as a shift towards T cells producing only one cytokine in treated as compared to untreated LTBI subjects. Assigning a triple-positive CD4(+) T cells a cut-off0.082 %, 94 % of untreated LTBI patients were scored as positive, as compared to only 28 % of treated LTBI patients and none of the healthy controls. No significant differences between untreated and treated LTBI subjects in terms of Mtb-specific CD8(+) T cell cytokine profiles (p0.05) were identified. The significant changes in the cytokine profiles of Mtb-specific T cells after INH therapy suggest that analysis of multifunctional T cells may be a promising means for the monitoring of LTBI treatment success.

Association between hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and diabetes has been widely postulated. Little is known about the effect of direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) on glycaemic control. The aim of our study was to evaluate the glycaemic control modifications in a case series of HCV-positive diabetic patients receiving DAAs. We retrospectively evaluated 149 HCV-positive patients in two different institutions affiliated with Sapienza University: Policlinico Umberto I of Rome and Ospedale Santa Maria Goretti of Latina. We were able to identify 29 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (19% of total population) who were receiving different interferon-free regimens. During-treatment fasting glucose (FG) values were available for 21 patients, and analysis revealed a statistically significant reduction (p 0.007); reduction mean value was -52.86 mg/dL. A glycated haemoglobin (A1C) value during treatment (at weeks 4, 8 and/or 12) was available for ten patients, and the analysis revealed a statistically significant reduction (p 0.021) with a reduction mean value of -1.95%. Six patients (23%) needed to reduce hypoglycaemic drugs, eight of ten patients showed reduction of A1C and 14 (67%) of 21 patients showed reduced FG during treatment. FG and A1C reductions values were independent from which DAA was present in the regimen, HCV genotype, body mass index and HIV status. In order to avoid hypoglycaemic events, diabetic patients receiving DAAs should be closely monitored for reduction of hypoglycaemic drugs. Furthermore, in our opinion, diabetes could be considered as an element to prioritize treatment in those patients with no apparent liver disease.

Mono- and multifunctional specific CD4+and CD8+T-cell responses were evaluated to improve the immune-based detection of active tuberculosis (TB) and latent infection (LTBI). We applied flow cytometry to investigate cytokines profile (IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2) of T cells after stimulation with TB antigens in 28 TB-infected subjects (18 active TB and 10 LTBI) and 10 uninfected controls. Cytokines production by CD4+T cells at single-cell levels was higher in TB-infected subjects than uninfected controlsP<0.0001. Assigning to activated CD4+T cells, producing any of the three cytokines, a cut-off >0.45%, it was possible to differentiate TB-infected (>0.45%) by uninfected subjects (+T cells, simultaneously producing all 3 cytokines, are lower in active TB than LTBI subjectsP=0.003. Thus, assigning to triple-positive CD4+T cells a cut-off 0.182%). The magnitude of CD8+T-cell responses showed no differences between active TB and LTBI. Multifunctional CD4+T-cell responses could have the potential to identify at single time point subjects without TB infection and patients having active or latent TB.

Summary Dendritic cells (DC) have been characterized recently as having an important role in the initiation and control of immunological response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Blood DC have been subdivided into myeloid (mDC) and plasmacytoid (pDC) subsets, on the basis of differences in phenotype markers and function. Little is known about the enumeration and functional evaluation of circulating DC in patients with tuberculosis and their correlation with clinical outcome during the course of anti-tuberculous treatment. We assessed circulating mDC and pDC counts measured by a newly developed single-platform flow cytometric assay based on TruCOUNT, as well as the production of interferon (IFN)-α after in vitro stimulation by herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) in 24 patients with active tuberculosis (TB) and 37 healthy donors. Absolute numbers of both DC subsets were decreased significantly in patients with active TB compared to controls. Similarly, the production of IFN-α was highly impaired. In 13 patients these parameters were assessed longitudinally, before and after the specific anti-microbial treatment. Most interestingly, in all nine patients with successful anti-tuberculous therapy there was a significant and marked increase of pDC counts and IFN-α production. In contrast, no significant longitudinal variations in DC counts and IFN-α production were observed in four patients with lack of response to specific treatment. In conclusion, active TB is associated with a defect in blood DC numbers and IFN-α production that is restored after bacterial clearance and clinical improvement, as a result of effective anti-tuberculous treatment.

Interleukin (IL)-15 is a cytokine that has lymphocyte stimulatory activity similar to that of IL-2, and plays important immunoregulatory functions during HIV disease. To evaluate the role of IL-15 in HIV infection the following patients were studied: 18 antiretroviral-naive patients with advanced disease; 19 patients with continuous viral suppression and immunological response after 48-120 weeks of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART); and 12 patients with evidence of virological and immunological HAART treatment failure. Nineteen healthy blood donors were included as controls. The production of IL-15 by human peripheral blood monocytes stimulated with lipopolysaccharide and Mycobacterium avium complex, the priming effect of IL-15 on IFN-gamma production from purified CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, and the ability of IL-15 to stimulate the beta-chemokine release from purified CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells were analyzed. In the present work IL-15 production by human peripheral blood monocytes was significantly increased in HIV-infected patients with long-term virological and immunological response to HAART. IL-15 enhanced the in vitro priming of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells for IFN-gamma production, also in patients receiving HAART. Finally, IL-15 had positive effects on RANTES, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta release by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. In conclusion IL-15 could affect the immune response of HIV-infected patients by augmenting and/or modulating IFN-gamma production and beta-chemokine release. These data about functional properties of IL-15 could provide new implications for immune-based therapies in HIV infection.