Search

Variable eruptive style and explosivity is common in basaltic to basaltic andesite volcanoes but can have uncertain origins. Veniaminof volcano in the Alaska-Aleutian arc is a frequently active open-vent center, regularly producing Strombolian eruptions and small lava flows from an intracaldera cone within an intracaldera ice cap. The September–December 2018 eruption of Veniaminof evolved in explosivity over time. The eruption was documented with frequent satellite observations, syn- and post-eruption structure-from-motion photo surveys, and post-eruption sampling of lava flows and tephra preserved in the syn-eruption snowpack. Lava flows with a total volume of ~ 6 × 106 m3 flowed down the cone flanks into the ice cap, overthickening at ice marginal flow fronts. Smaller tephra deposits were estimated at ~ 1–2 × 106 m3 dense rock equivalent, with almost half of this volume deposited directly on the eruptive cone itself. Erupted products were basaltic andesite, and composition (54 ± 0.7 wt% bulk rock, 58 ± 0.7 wt% glass SiO2), sideromelane microlite crystallinity (20–30%), and microlite number density (plagioclase 6.4 ± 2.6 × 105 n/mm3) did not change significantly over the eruption suggesting a similar magma source and ascent rate. We defined tephra componentry with groundmass microcrystalline textures using backscatter electron images. The componentry of tephra groundmass showed significant increases in tachylite grains, defined here by the presence of dendritic interstitial nanolites, corresponding to increasing seismic tremor and periods of increased ash emissions. We suggest that these componentry changes reflect increasing undercooled zones on the conduit margins that increased brittle shearing, fragmentation, and ultimately ash emissions.

The 2018 lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption of Kīlauea, Hawai’i, provides an excellent natural laboratory with which to test models of lava flow propagation. During early stages of eruption crises, the most useful lava flow propagation equations utilize readily determined parameters and require fewer a priori assumptions about future behavior of the flow. Here, we leverage the numerous observations of lava flows collected over the duration of the eruption crisis at Kīlauea in 2018 to test simple lava flow propagation models. These models track the one-dimensional propagation of the flows according to three main rheological restraining forces: bulk viscosity, yield strength, and growth of a surface crust. We calculate the predicted changes in length through time of three flows that vary in bulk composition, crystal content, and total flow length. Cooler flows that are more crystal-rich tend to be more dominated by crust growth, though early stages of propagation can be controlled by bulk viscosity. We find that variations in effusion rate significantly impact flows that are short-lived; flows that are produced during steady-state effusion are readily approximated by average values for the entire flow. Thus, accurate knowledge of variations in effusion rate are critical to accurate lava flow propagation forecasting.

The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea Volcano produced large and destructive lava flows from the fissure 8 (Ahu ‘aila ‘au) vent with flow velocities up to 17 m s−1, highly variable effusion rates over both short (minutes) and long (hours) time scales, and a proximal channel or spillway that displayed flow features similar to open channel flow in river systems. Monitoring such dynamic vent and lava flow systems is a challenge. Our results demonstrate that infrasound, combined with ground-based observations and imagery from unoccupied aircraft systems (UAS), can be used to distinguish vent degassing activity from high-speed lava flow activity. We use spectral characteristics and the infrasound frequency index (FI) to distinguish spillway infrasound from vent infrasound. Comparing FI with flow speeds derived from UAS videos reveals that spillway infrasound only occurs when flow speeds were sufficiently high to cause a supercritical flow state and breaking waves (Froude values > 1.7), and we propose that the spillway signals are produced primarily through the interaction of the turbulent lava-free surface with the atmosphere. We show that FI can also provide a means to track bulk effusion rate. Our results indicate that infrasound offers a new way to characterize lava flow channel hydraulics and is a powerful tool for monitoring effusive eruptions when high-speed flows are possible.

The 2018 eruption on the lower East Rift Zone of Kīlauea Volcano produced one of the largest and most destructive lava flows in Hawai’i during the past 200 years. Over the course of more than 3 months, twenty-four fissures erupted, and the rate of lava effusion varied by two orders of magnitude, with significant implications for evolving flow behavior and hazards. Syn-eruptive data were collected to quantify these changes in lava effusion rate, including video of flow through channels and digital elevation models acquired using small unoccupied aircraft systems, airborne lidar, and airborne single-pass interferometric synthetic aperture radar. Topographic data through time allowed calculation of subaerial lava flow volume and time-averaged discharge rate over the course of the eruption, which we integrated with pre- and post-eruption bathymetric surveys. Repeat videos of the near-vent channel were analyzed with particle velocimetry to extract flow velocities, and these were combined with open channel flow theory to calculate a time series of instantaneous effusion rates. Results show a general increase in dense rock equivalent (DRE) effusion rate from ~7 to ~100 m3/s from early to late May for the whole flow field and ≥ 200 m3/s by mid-June after the eruption had focused at a primary vent. By the end of the eruption in August, 0.9–1.4 km3 DRE of lava had erupted, with 0.4 km3 deposited on land and at least 0.5 km3 offshore. The trends in effusion rate through time reflect magmatic processes in the connected summit and rift zone system that controlled eruption rate, with resulting implications for lava flow dynamics and hazards.

The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea volcano produced the largest and most destructive lava flows in the lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) in the past 200 years. Average effusion rates exceeded 100 m3 s-1 (DRE) ...

Connecting caldera collapse The Kīlauea Volcano on the island of Hawai‘i erupted for 3 months in 2018. Neal et al. present a summary of the eruption sequence along with a variety of geophysical observations collected by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. The cyclic inflation, deflation, and eventual collapse of the summit was tied to lava eruption from lower East Rift Zone fissures. A total volume of 0.8 cubic kilometers of magma erupted, roughly the equivalent of 320,000 swimming pools, which matched the change in volume at the summit. Science , this issue p. 367

INTRODUCTION The 2018 flank eruption and summit collapse of Kīlauea Volcano was one of the largest and most destructive volcanic events in Hawai‘i in the past 200 years. The eruption occurred on the volcano’s lower East Rift Zone (ERZ), draining magma at a high rate from the summit reservoir and triggering incremental collapse of the overlying caldera floor. Lava flows erupted for 3 months, destroying several residential subdivisions and burying miles of roads. The eruption rate exhibited cyclic behavior on multiple time scales, resulting in repeated lava breakouts and overflows. Multidisciplinary observations provide insight into the nature of these variations, driving forces in the magmatic system, and implications for hazard. RATIONALE Volumetric eruption rate is a primary control on the vigor and hazard of lava flows, but the processes that control its temporal variations are not well understood because of limited observational data. We integrated field observations, photos and video from time-lapse cameras and unmanned aircraft systems, seismic tremor, and infrasound to track the time scales and magnitude of fluctuations in eruption rate at the primary vent for the 2018 eruption on Kīlauea’s LERZ. We combined these data with documentation of summit caldera collapses to investigate the origins and impacts of these fluctuations. RESULTS Cyclic variations in eruption rate occurred on two disparate time scales. First, short-term fluctuations (“pulses”) in eruption vigor had periods of 5 to 10 min, but had no major implications for lava flow hazard. Flow rate in the lava channel was inversely related to fountaining and outgassing intensity at the vent. Second, long-term fluctuations (“surges”) had periods of 1 to 2 days and began within minutes of episodic caldera collapse events at the summit, 40 km upslope. These surges triggered overflows from the channel that produced hazardous enlargement of the lava flow field, which could be forecast several hours in advance. We also show that seismic tremor and infrasound were correlated with lava flow eruption rates. CONCLUSION We conclude that the two types of eruption rate cycles were controlled by two distinct processes. Short-term pulses were driven by changes in outgassing efficiency of the lava at shallow depths. Long-term surges in eruption rate were driven by pressure transients induced by the summit collapses and transmitted through the magma conduit over a distance of 40 km. The pressure-driven surges in eruption rate demonstrate that the episodic rhythm of summit caldera collapse sequences may be imparted on the accompanying flank eruption. The surges also help to constrain the efficient hydraulic connection between Kīlauea’s summit magma system and rift zones and demonstrate that pressure communication over distances of 40 km can occur on a time scale of minutes. Seismic tremor and infrasound may be effective proxies for lava flow eruption rates, allowing for improved tracking of lava flow hazards. Our multidisciplinary data provide a clear link between eruption rate fluctuations and their driving processes in the magmatic system.

Lava flows pose a significant hazard to infrastructure and property located close to volcanoes, and understanding how flows advance is necessary to manage volcanic hazard during eruptions. Compared to low-silica basaltic flows, flows of andesite composition are infrequently erupted and so relatively few studies of their characteristics and behaviour exist. We use El Reventador, Ecuador as a target to investigate andesitic lava flow properties during a 4.5 year period of extrusive eruption between February 2012 and August 2016. We use satellite radar to map the dimensions of 43 lava flows and look at variations in their emplacement behaviour over time. We find that flows descend the north and south flanks of El Reventador, and were mostly emplaced during durations shorter than the satellite repeat interval of 24 days.Flows ranged in length from 0.3 to 1.7 km, and the length of these flows decreased over the observation period. We measure a decrease in flow volume with time that is correlated with a long-term exponential decrease in eruption rate, and propose that this behaviour is caused by temporary magma storage in the conduit acting as a melt capacitor between the magma reservoir and the surface. We use the dimensions of the flow levees and widths to estimate the flow yield strengths, which were of the order of 10-100 kPa. We observe that some flows were diverted by topographic obstacles, and compare measurements of decreased channel width and increased flow thickness at the obstacles with observations from laboratory experiments. Radar observations, such as those presented here, could be used to map and measure properties of evolving lava flow fields at other remote or difficult to monitor volcanoes.

Laboratory experiments that simulate lava flows have been in use by volcanologists for many years. The behavior of flows in the lab, where “eruption” parameters, material properties, and environmental settings are tightly controlled, provides insight into the influence of various factors on flow evolution. A second benefit of laboratory lava flows is to provide a set of observations with which numerical models of flow emplacement can be tested. Models of lava flow emplacement vary in mathematical approach, physical assumptions, and computational cost. Nonetheless, all models require thorough testing and evaluation, and laboratory experiments produce an excellent test for models. This paper provides a primer on modern analog laboratory lava flow experiments. It reviews scaling con- siderations and provides quantitative information meant to guide future experimentalists in designing their experiments to be relevant to natural processes. Traditional and novel laboratory techniques are described, including a discussion of current limitations. New insights from recent experiments highlight the impact of topographic conditions and highlight the importance of considering bed roughness, major obstacles, and slope breaks. The influence of episodic or non-uniform effusion rate is demonstrated through recent experi- mental works. Lastly, the paper discusses several open questions about lava flow emplacement and the ways in which future improvements in experimental methods, such as the ability to utilize three-phase suspensions and materials with complex rheologies and to image the interior of flows could help answer these.

Mafic volcanic fields are widespread, but few have erupted in historic times, providing limited observations of the magnitudes, dynamics, and timescales of lava flow emplacement in these settings. To expand our knowledge of effusive mafic eruptions, we must evaluate solidified flows to discern syn-eruptive conditions. The Harrat Rahat volcanic field in western Saudi Arabia offers a good opportunity for this, with a historical eruption in 1256 CE and many well-preserved prehistoric flows. We combine historical observations and rheological and morphological analyses of the youngest flows with analytical models to reconstruct eruptive histories and lava flow emplacement conditions in Harrat Rahat. Petrologic analysis of samples for emplacement temperatures and crystallinities shows cooling trends from vent to toe of ~ 1140 to ~ 1090 °C at rates of 2–7 °C km−1, crystallinities increasing from 0.5 to 60%, and apparent viscosities increasing from 102 to 109 Pa s. High-resolution topographic data facilitates quantitative analysis of morphology and interpolation of pre-eruptive surfaces to measure flow thicknesses, channels, and levees, and enables calculation of eruptive volumes. Analytical models relating flow morphology to emplacement conditions are applied to estimate effusion rates. Within the suite of studied flows, volume estimates range from 0.07 to 0.42 km3 dense rock equivalent, with effusion rates on the order of 10 to 100 s of m3 s−1 and durations from 1 to 15 weeks. These integrated analyses quantify past lava flow emplacement conditions and dynamics in Harrat Rahat, improving our understanding and observations of fundamental parameters and controls of effusive eruptions in mafic volcanic fields.

Numerical simulations of lava flow emplacement are valuable for assessing lava flow hazards, forecasting active flows, designing flow mitigation measures, interpreting past eruptions, and understanding the controls on lava flow behavior. Existing lava flow models vary in simplifying assumptions, physics, dimensionality, and the degree to which they have been validated against analytical solutions, experiments, and natural observations. In order to assess existing models and guide the development of new codes, we conduct a benchmarking study of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models for lava flow emplacement, including VolcFlow, OpenFOAM, FLOW-3D, COMSOL, and MOLASSES. We model viscous, cooling, and solidifying flows over horizontal planes, sloping surfaces, and into topographic obstacles. We compare model results to physical observations made during well-controlled analogue and molten basalt experiments, and to analytical theory when available. Overall, the models accurately simulate viscous flow with some variability in flow thickness where flows intersect obstacles. OpenFOAM, COMSOL, and FLOW-3D can each reproduce experimental measurements of cooling viscous flows, and OpenFOAM and FLOW-3D simulations with temperature-dependent rheology match results from molten basalt experiments. We assess the goodness-of-fit of the simulation results and the computational cost. Our results guide the selection of numerical simulation codes for different applications, including inferring emplacement conditions of past lava flows, modeling the temporal evolution of ongoing flows during eruption, and probabilistic assessment of lava flow hazard prior to eruption. Finally, we outline potential experiments and desired key observational data from future flows that would extend existing benchmarking data sets.

New high-resolution maps of Hawaiian lava flows highlight complex topographically controlled channel networks. Network geometries range from distributary systems dominated by branching around local obstacles, to tributary systems constricted by topography. We combine 2-D network analysis tools developed for river systems and neural networks with 3-D lidar morphologic analysis and historical records of flow emplacement to investigate both the origins of channel networks and their influence on flow morphology and behavior. We find that network complexity is a function of underlying slope and that the degree of flow branching, network connectivity, and longevity of individual channels all influence the final flow morphology (flow and channel widths and levee heights). Furthermore, because channel networks govern the distribution of lava supply within a flow, changes in the channel topology can dramatically alter the effective volumetric flux in any one branch, which affects both flow length and advance rate. Specifically, branching will slow and shorten flows, while merging can accelerate and lengthen them. Consideration of channel networks is thus important for predicting lava flow behavior and mitigating flow hazards with diversion barriers. Observed relationships between network geometry, flow parameters, and morphology also offer insight into the interpretation of these features elsewhere on Earth and other terrestrial planets.

[1] Lava flow mapping is both an essential component of volcano monitoring and a valuable tool for investigating lava flow behavior. Although maps are traditionally created through field surveys, remote sensing allows an extraordinary view of active lava flows while avoiding the difficulties of mapping on location. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery, in particular, can detect changes in a flow field by comparing two images collected at different times with SAR coherence. New lava flows radically alter the scattering properties of the surface, making the radar signal decorrelated in SAR coherence images. We describe a new technique, SAR Coherence Mapping (SCM), to map lava flows automatically from coherence images independent of look angle or satellite path. We use this approach to map lava flow emplacement during the Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō-Kupaianaha eruption at Kīlauea, Hawai‘i. The resulting flow maps correspond well with field mapping and better resolve the internal structure of surface flows, as well as the locations of active flow paths. However, the SCM technique is only moderately successful at mapping flows that enter vegetation, which is also often decorrelated between successive SAR images. Along with measurements of planform morphology, we are able to show that the length of time a flow stays decorrelated after initial emplacement is linearly related to the flow thickness. Finally, we use interferograms obtained after flow surfaces become correlated to show that persistent decorrelation is caused by post-emplacement flow subsidence.