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Widespread racial injustice calls for research that not only characterizes and responds to short-term challenges, but that also propels the interests and desired outcomes of historically marginaliz...

This study uses a boundary design and propensity score methods to study the effects of the 1930s-era Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) “redlining” maps on the long-run trajectories of urban neighborhoods. The maps led to reduced home ownership rates, house values, and rents and increased racial segregation in later decades. A comparison on either side of a city-level population cutoff that determined whether maps were drawn finds broadly similar conclusions. These results suggest the HOLC maps had meaningful and lasting effects on the development of urban neighborhoods through reduced credit access and subsequent disinvestment. (JEL G21, J15, N32, N42, N92, R23, R31)

Despite concerted efforts over the past decade to increase diversity in U.S. medical schools, persistent applicant and enrollment gaps remain for students from underrepresented racial and economic backgrounds. To understand these gaps, we propose a new theory of ‘academic redlining’ as a widespread practice in medical schools that systematically excludes students from underrepresented backgrounds from entry into medicine through the nearly universal use of Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) cutoff scores. In this paper, we provide evidence that academic redlining via the MCAT disenfranchises students from underrepresented backgrounds prior to and during the admissions process due to structural racism, and describe the three core mechanisms that cause medical schools to engage in academic redlining: (1) the pursuit of institutional prestige, (2) market competition and pressure, and (3) market bands. Given the persistent lack of diversity in medicine—which contributes to devastating health care disparities—as medical schools redouble their commitments to diversity, equity, and inclusion, structural alternatives within medical schools’ admissions and education practices are offered to curtail the practice of academic redlining in medical school admissions and medicine.

In this article, I address how walking as a curatorial practice of storying a neighborhood facilitates an irreducible politics of place occurring as affective intensities at various registers, where everyday movements entangle with spatial enactments of racism. Working with theories of assemblage and immanent movement, I examine walking narratives in San Jose Japantown, California (U.S.), a historic, ethnic neighborhood historically subjected to U.S. government and banking practices of “redlining” and Japanese American incarceration and dislocation to prison camps. As an analytical method, assemblage requires attention to movement: material elements of arrangement, the relations they require, new arranging and arrangements they might enable, and how these arrangements are legitimated. I examine spatial racism as an assemblage, analyzing its affective qualities wherein attentiveness to immanent movement might breach the assemblage and, in doing so, reach toward radical reformation through memorialization, community activism and development.

Throughout the late 1960s, the African American working classes in cities across the United States erupted in mass rebellions as an escalation of their historically informed resistance to racial oppression. Although state sponsored surveillance and violence and economic exploitation were the prime catalysts for the mass unrest, de jure and de facto barriers to housing, particularly redlining, also proved instrumental in African American disillusionment with the American political system. Cons...

This article positions equitable access to information as a matter of social justice and questions how the library and information science sector might work more intentionally and systemically to c...

Racial/ethnic segregation is a cause of urban inequality. This, in turn, perpetuates disadvantaged groups’ spatial segregation and difficulty in upward mobility. Planned racial and social segregation through a process of redlining almost one hundred years ago is fundamental to understanding today’s patterns of urban inequality. The aim of this study is to analyze the links between racial/ethnic segregation and inequality in Kansas City (MO). After studying the origins and significance of redlining in the city, an analysis is made of the distribution and segregation of the African American and Hispanic populations at an intra-urban level in addition to an analysis of urban inequality at a census tract level, using economic and housing indicators. We conclude that Kansas City is a divided city. The processes of segregation and inequality are clearly interrelated. The historical redlining map of racial segregation is reflected in today’s socio-spatial map of inequality.

Rarely do the public, community leaders, or policymakers engage the history of structural racialization. Despite this lack of public awareness, a large body of literature illustrates the importance of urban development history as a mechanism of upholding the philosophy of segregation upheld by Plessy v. Ferguson. The history of structural racialization in development is fundamental to understanding contemporary challenges such as segregation, concentrated poverty, and racial disparities. The following case study explores two Ohio community-based initiatives (in Cleveland and Columbus) that used historical analysis of racial discrimination in development practices as the focus of a community engagement process. Surveys, participant observations, and interviews document the outcomes, benefits, and impacts associated with engaging stakeholders using historical records of discrimination to inform contemporary policymaking. The study lends support to the importance of public engagement processes to uncover the various long-term ramifications of the “separate but equal” doctrine of Plessy.

Purpose: This paper systematically reviews a reappraisal of the relationship between consumer behavior and credit card debt. Methodology: A thorough search was performed using scholarly databases including EBSCOHost, Google Scholar, Wiley Online Library, JStor, ProQuest, and Taylor & Francis. After a vigorously screening process, a total of 77 articles were accepted with the majority (96%) of articles published after 2012. Several consumer behavior factors were considered such as social factors, psychological factors, impulse buying, compulsive buying, optimism and pessimism, risk-seeking, mental health, age, income, education, immigrants, religion and financial literacy. Findings: Overall, influential factors that contribute to credit debt can be attributed to redlining and predatory lending by financial institutions. Racial inequalities have been shown to play a significant role in credit debt, especially in the UK. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: A major knowledge gap concerning immigrants exists and further provide insight on the role played by an individual’s ethnic group in the rate of home equity decline as well as the overall net wealth of a household, ultimately affecting their credit debt. It would be useful for policy-makers to examine the biased placed on credit debt and social-economic backgrounds.

Redlining refers to the officially sanctioned practice of denying mortgage loans in some areas in order to racially discriminate against Black people and other people of colour. Recent studies have shown the persistent impacts of redlining on health risks in effected neighbourhoods. This study contributes to that growing body of work by analysing the relationship between the category that neighbourhoods were assigned on redlining maps and the percentage of the population with 3+ risk factors as defined by the Census Bureau's Community Resilience Estimates. The areas given the lowest redlining grade of D are significantly different than those given the grades of A or B and the areas not graded at the time. This result supports the argument that historical governance and planning decisions do not stay in the past and planners must work to rectify equity issues lest we be complicit in this pattern of racial discrimination.

Geography, as a social studies discipline, can be a powerful tool for students to explore how their social and political worlds have been built. In this sense, the discipline can be an affirmationa...

High levels of black residential segregation emerged over the course of the twentieth century as the black population urbanized. Segregation was achieved by means of different mechanisms at different times and places, beginning with targeted violence directed at African Americans followed later by discrimination in real estate and banking using devices such as deed restrictions, restrictive covenants, and racial redlining, practices that were institutionalized in federal policies during the New Deal. By 1977, however, discrimination had been outlawed in most US markets and average black segregation began to decline. The declines, however, were inversely proportional to the size of the black community. As Latinos grew in number after the 1970s, levels of racial isolation within Hispanic neighborhoods also rose. At the same time, class segregation increased, especially among families with children, and inequalities of wealth and income grew to create a polarized urban geography. High concentrations of affluence now prevail for affluent whites and Asians living in wealthy post-industrial coastal areas, with high concentrations of poverty prevailing for poor blacks and Hispanics in older, declining industrial areas in the Midwest and the South, which also contain pockets of white and Asian poverty. The new political geography of race and class effectively denies blacks and Hispanics their access to quality education and undermines their lifetime earning prospects to create self-perpetuating system of social and economic stratification.

With every disaster, there are fault lines that deepen our understanding of what has happened and what needs to come. The events over the past 18 months including the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic as well as the murder of George Floyd and the associated protests throughout the United States brought those fault lines into stark relief by highlighting the history of systemic racism that has fostered marginalization and discrimination against Black Americans. These clouds of systemic racism and discrimination-encompassing 250 years of slavery, 100 years of Jim Crow, police brutality, redlining, and the resulting high rates of poverty and poorer health outcomes-have created systems in which Black Americans face unequal and unequitable stressful situations. The medical community is now beginning to take notice of this race-based traumatic stress, a term coined by Carter in 2007,1 to describe how social determinants of health impacted by racial discrimination can "get under the skin" through the accumulative effects of ongoing exposure to toxic stress.2.

Place-based structural inequalities can have critical implications for the health of vulnerable populations. Historical urban policies, such as redlining, have contributed to current inequalities in exposure to intra-urban heat. However, it is unknown whether these spatial inequalities are associated with disparities in heat-related health outcomes. The aim of this study is to determine the relationships between historical redlining, intra-urban heat conditions, and heat-related emergency department visits using data from 11 Texas cities. At the zip code level, the proportion of historical redlining was determined, and heat exposure was measured using daytime and nighttime land surface temperature (LST). Heat-related inpatient and outpatient rates were calculated based on emergency department visit data that included ten categories of heat-related diseases between 2016 and 2019. Regression or spatial error/lag models revealed significant associations between higher proportions of redlined areas in the neighborhood and higher LST (Coef. = 0.0122, 95% CI = 0.0039–0.0205). After adjusting for indicators of social vulnerability, neighborhoods with higher proportions of redlining showed significantly elevated heat-related outpatient visit rate (Coef. = 0.0036, 95% CI = 0.0007–0.0066) and inpatient admission rate (Coef. = 0.0018, 95% CI = 0.0001–0.0035). These results highlight the role of historical discriminatory policies on the disparities of heat-related illness and suggest a need for equity-based urban heat planning and management strategies.

Blacks have the highest incidence and mortality from most cancers. The reasons for these disparities remain unclear. Blacks are exposed to adverse social determinants because of historic and contemporary racist polices; however, how these determinants affect the disparities that Blacks experience is understudied. As a result of discriminatory community policies, like redlining, Blacks have higher exposure to air pollution and neighborhood deprivation. Studies investigating how these factors affect tumor biology are emerging. We highlight the literature that connects racism-related community exposure to the tumor biology in breast, lung, prostate, and colorectal cancer. Further investigations that clarify the link between adverse social determinants that result from systemic racism and aggressive tumor biology are required if health equity is to be achieved. Without recognition that racism is a public health risk with carcinogenic impact, health care delivery and cancer care will never achieve excellence. In response, health systems ought to establish corrective actions to improve Black population health and bring medical justice to marginalized racialized groups.

Objective The objective of this study was to understand the effect of historical redlining (preclusion from home loans and wealth-building for Black Americans) and its downstream factors on the completion of lung cancer screening in Boston. Methods Patients within our institution were identified as eligible for lung cancer screening on the basis of the United State Preventive Service Task Force criteria and patient charts were reviewed to determine if patients completed low-dose computed tomography screening. Individual addresses were geocoded and overlayed with original 1930 Home Owner Loan Corporation redlining vector files. Structural equation models were used to estimate the odds of screening for Black and White patients, interacted with sex, in redlined and nonredlined areas. Results Black patients had a 44% lower odds of screening compared with White (odds ratio [OR], 0.66; 95% CI, 0.52-0.85). With race as a mediator, Black patients in redlined areas were 61% less likely to undergo screening than White patients (OR, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.24-0.64). Similarly, in redlined areas Black women had 61% (OR, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.21-0.73) and Black men 47% (OR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.29-0.98) lower odds of screening compared with White men in redlined areas. Conclusions Despite higher rates of lung cancer screening in redlined areas, Black race mediated worse screening rates in these areas, suggesting racist structural factors contributing to the disparities in lung cancer screening completion among Black and White patients. Furthermore, these disparities were more apparent in Black women, suggesting that racial and gender intersectional discrimination are important in lung cancer screening completion.

Purpose – This chapter examines the role of payment platforms in the United States in sex censorship in which platforms have a pattern of denying financial services to people and businesses involved in publishing legal sexual content. It answers the following questions: what explains payment platforms’ regulation of lawful sexual content and what are the consequences? Methodology/Approach – Drawing from the platform governance literature, this chapter closely examines the corporate policies for PayPal and the credit card companies that prohibit certain types of sexual content and services. Findings – This chapter argues that payment platforms’ censorship of sexual expression is shaped by the distinctive nature of and market concentration within the online payment industry. Payment actors’ systematic campaign of sexual censorship disproportionately affects small businesses and individual operators in the sex and adult entertainment industries and amounts to “digital redlining,” a form of financial discrimination. Originality/Value – Payment providers’ role in regulating sex online has received considerably less scholarly attention than research on social media platforms. This gap in scholarship is notable as big payment actors have systematically denied services for about a decade relating to sexually oriented goods and services (see Blue, 2015a).

Structural racism, which is embedded in past and present operations of the U.S. housing market, is a fundamental cause of racial health inequities. We conducted an ecologic study to 1) examine historic redlining in relation to current neighborhood lending discrimination and three key indicators of societal health (mental health, physical health, and infant mortality rate (IMR)) and 2) investigate sustained lending disinvestment as a determinant of current neighborhood health in one of the most hypersegregated metropolitan areas in the United States, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. We calculated weighted historic redlining scores from the proportion of 1930s Home Owners' Loan Corporation residential security grades contained within 2010 census tract boundaries. We combined two lending indicators from 2018 Home Mortgage Disclosure Act data to capture current neighborhood lending discrimination: low lending occurrence and high cost loans (measured via loan rate spread). Using historic redlining score and current lending discrimination, we created a 4-level hierarchical measure of lending trajectory. In Milwaukee neighborhoods, greater historic redlining was associated with current lending discrimination (OR = 1.73, 95%CI: 1.16, 2.58) and increased prevalence of poor physical health (β = 1.34, 95%CI: 0.40, 2.28) and poor mental health (β = 1.26, 95%CI: 0.51, 2.01). Historic redlining was not associated with neighborhood IMR (β = −0.48, 95%CI: −2.12, 1.15). A graded association was observed between lending trajectory and health: neighborhoods with high sustained disinvestment had worse physical and mental health than neighborhoods with high investment (poor physical health: β = 5.33, 95%CI: 3.05, 7.61; poor mental health: β = 4.32, 95%CI: 2.44, 6.20). IMR was highest in ‘disinvested’ neighborhoods (β = 5.87, 95%CI: 0.52, 11.22). Our findings illustrate ongoing legacies of government sponsored historic redlining. Structural racism, as manifested in historic and current forms of lending disinvestment, predicts poor health in Milwaukee's hypersegregated neighborhoods. We endorse equity focused policies that dismantle and repair the ways racism is entrenched in America's social fabric., Highlights • Examined structural racism in the housing market, historical redlining and current lending discrimination, on neighborhood health. • Historic redlining score was associated with current lending discrimination and neighborhood health indicators. • Sustained disinvestment over 80 years was associated with poor neighborhood health outcomes.

The ‘Godfather of House’ Frankie Knuckles referred to house music as ‘a church for the children fallen from grace’. Early house music was littered with religious references. Occasionally these links were subtle, but with constant exposure, they became extremely overt. On the surface, gospel singers, church organs and club names, referencing a range of religious practice, can be identified. On a subtler level lies a discussion of lyrical content, the role of the DJ, and the sense of euphoria that pervaded the scene. Where did these religious, or quasi-religious, inclusions spring from? The chapter explores the impact of redlining on musical education in Chicago, proposing that musical education was often only accessible to young African Americans through the church, rather than through school music programmes. Although the Fair Housing Act outlawed the practice of redlining in 1968, the racially motivated economic sanctions the practice imposed on African American neighbourhoods cast a long shadow. This chapter presents authoritative voices from early house music (DJs, vocalists, producers) from newly conducted interviews and archival sources, in addition to historic redlining maps of the city, to identify the sources of house music.

How Structural Racism Works As a legacy of African enslavement, structural racism affects both population and individual health in three interrelated domains: redlining and racialized residential s...

espanolRepensar la politica de vulnerabilidad urbana: el empoderamiento de los barrios en Kansas City Missouri (EE. UU.) El articulo demuestra la racializacion de los barrios urbanos en Kansas City-Missouri, EE. UU., y las formas en las que las asociaciones de voluntarios de ciudadanos trabajan para resistir y reducir las condiciones de vulnerabilidad. El articulo presenta datos de modelos historicos de practicas inmobiliarias con prejuicios raciales, incluido el redlining, y demuestra como estos patrones continuan dando forma a las politicas de vulnerabilidad en la region en la actualidad. Tres tipos de barrios urbanos proporcionan evidencias de las formas en las que las asociaciones de vecinos se organizan para responder a las condiciones de vulnerabilidad social y espacial. En contraste con las estimaciones de baja resiliencia comunitaria en estos barrios, el autor demuestra que el empoderamiento es un contrapunto importante a las vulnerabilidades concentradas. EnglishThe paper provides evidence for the racialization of urban neighborhoods in Kansas City Missouri, USA and the ways in which voluntary associations of citizens work to resist and reduce conditions of urban vulnerability. The paper presents data from historical patterns of racially-biased real estate practices, including redlining, and demonstrates how these patterns continue to shape the politics of vulnerability in the region today. Three neighborhood profiles provide evidence of the ways in which local neighborhood associations are organized to respond to both social and spatial conditions of vulnerability. In contrast to the estimates of low community resilience in these neighborhoods, the author demonstrates that neighborhood empowerment is an important counterpoint to concentrated vulnerabilities.

Introduction Greater availability of commercial alcohol is associated with increased alcohol use and related public health problems. Greater alcohol outlet density, a marker of alcohol availability, is associated with poorer and predominantly minority neighborhoods. However, poorer populations, African Americans, and Latinxs report using less alcohol compared to Whites and wealthier groups. We consider the role of structural racism in the social ecology of alcohol availability. Specifically we examine racist urban land use practices in the USA which became codified in the 1930s through Federal Home Owner Lending Corporation (HOLC) designations for assigning parcel values, known as “redlining.” Redlining demarcated low-density residential zones for wealthy Whites which excluded poor and non-White people as well as certain businesses, including alcohol retailers. We assessed the impacts of historic redlining on present day risks for exposure to retail alcohol availability in urban Northern California. Methods For six contiguous and demographically diverse Northern California cities we obtained digital renderings of HOLC maps (1937) which demarcated exclusions of people and businesses for 119 neighborhood areas across four land valuation zones. We then identified the most prevalent HOLC rating for each of 520 current Census block groups in the six cities, including a residual category for areas not rated by HOLC. We geolocated all current (2016) off-premise alcohol sales outlets operating in the six cities (N = 401). We used Bayesian spatial Poisson models to relate current alcohol outlet densities and Census-based estimates of neighborhood characteristics to historic HOLC classifications. Results Spatial Poisson analyses found far greater contemporary off-premise outlet densities in the lowest-valued HOLC zones than in the highest (median relative rate [RR] 9.6, 95% CI 4.8–22.1). The lowest-valued HOLC zones were also characterized by far higher current percentages of both Black residents (RR 30.4, 95% CI 17.0–54.6) and Hispanic residents (RR 9.7, 95% CI 7.2–12.9). Conclusions Present day risks for exposure to retail alcohol availability were delimited by historic exclusionary land use practices. Current inequitable health risks may be founded on racist spatial projects of past decades., Highlights • Planning and zoning created neighborhoods across the SF Bay Area in which non-wealthy, non-White people and density of alcohol retailers and housing were excluded or allowed. • Structural racism measured by historic federal land valuation zones predicted the collocation of off-premise alcohol outlet density with lower income and non-White residents. • Historical socio-political contexts must be considered in the assessment and interpretation of social-ecological characteristics which shape population health.

In 2017, AJPH launched a new section on "Climate Change and Health Justice," reflecting growing evidence of the near-term effects of climate change on public health and the substantial disparities in those effects AJPH invites research articles as well as other contributions that provide empirical evidence of and relevant commentary on the effects of climate change or climate action on health before, during, and after a global pandemic Racial and health justice clearly extend well beyond COVID-19, and we are interested in numerous public health topics with a similar lens on informing or evaluating interventions that address root causes of disparities Because many of these root causes are related to longstanding racist policies such as redlining, the Journal is interested in both contemporary empirical evidence and history essays that are relevant to understanding current conditions and developing an antiracist public health agenda

Context The New York City (NYC) Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH) has built a presence in Tremont, a historically redlined neighborhood located in Bronx, NYC. As part of an agency-wide commitment to explicitly name racism as a threat to healthy communities, DOHMH has sought opportunities to educate and engage in discussion about historical and current structural racism. Program Between January and September 2018, DOHMH exhibited Undesign the Redline, a pictorial timeline and historical analysis of redlining, in its Tremont office. The exhibit exposed neglected history, making concrete the concept of structural racism. Implementation DOHMH staff led 101 tours for 950 visitors, including employees, community partners, and residents. Tours were given in English and Spanish in three 2-month cycles over 8 months. Tour guides also facilitated interactive workshops with youth groups, community-based organizations, and teams from city agencies to engage participants in the design and ownership of new systems intended to "undesign" the consequences of redlining. Evaluation Immediate feedback was requested from all participants at the conclusion of each tour and was collected on a bulletin board. Longer-term impact was assessed through an electronic survey sent to all participants who provided valid contact information to better understand ways that the exhibit impacted personal and professional actions. Participants reported talking with family, friends, and coworkers, seeking more information, and applying an equity lens to professional projects after experiencing the exhibit. Discussion Hosting the exhibit in a local health department building offered a concrete opportunity to learn about and discuss structural racism. Exhibit tours had immediate- and long-term impacts on participants and contributed to sustainable changes internal to DOHMH work. This work presents a concrete practice to make injustice visible and engage in open conversation about structural racism to build community trust.

Racial discrimination has been a central driver of residential segregation for many decades, in the Seattle area as well as in the United States as a whole. In addition to redlining and restrictive housing covenants, housing advertisements included explicit racial language until 1968. Since then, housing patterns have remained racialized, despite overt forms of racial language and discrimination becoming less prevalent. In this paper, we use Structural Topic Models (STM) and qualitative analysis to investigate how contemporary rental listings from the Seattle-Tacoma Craigslist page differ in their description based on neighborhood racial composition. Results show that listings from White neighborhoods emphasize trust and connections to neighborhood history and culture, while listings from non-White neighborhoods offer more incentives and focus on transportation and development features, sundering these units from their surroundings. Without explicitly mentioning race, these listings display racialized neighborhood discourse that might impact neighborhood decision-making in ways that contribute to the perpetuation of housing segregation.

Food access literature links disinvested communities with poor food access. Similarly, links are made between discriminatory housing practices and contemporary investment. Less work has examined the relationship between housing practices and food environment disparities. Our central premise is that these practices create distinctions in food environment quality, and that these disparities may have implications for food system advocacy and policymaking. In this paper, we link an objective food environment assessment with a spatial database highlighting redlining, blockbusting, and gentrification in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Standard socioeconomic and housing characteristics are used to control for race, income, and housing composition in a multivariate regression analysis. Our findings highlight that blockbusting-rather than redlining-most strongly shapes poor food access. Redlining and gentrification, meanwhile, are associated with better food access. These findings raise important points about future policy discussions, which should instead be focused on ameliorating more contemporary patterns of housing inequality.

Black communities in the United States are bearing the brunt of the COVID-19 pandemic and the underlying conditions that exacerbate its negative consequences. Syndemic theory provides a useful framework for understanding how such interacting epidemics to develop under conditions of health and social disparity. Multiple historical and present-day factors have created the syndemic conditions within which Black Americans experience the lethal force of COVID-19. These factors include racism and its manifestations (e.g., chattel slavery, mortgage redlining, political gerrymandering, lack of Medicaid expansion, employment discrimination, and healthcare provider bias). Improving racial disparities in COVID-19 will require that we implement policies that address structural racism at the root of these disparities.

Objectives. To assess if historical redlining, the US government’s 1930s racially discriminatory grading of neighborhoods’ mortgage credit-worthiness, implemented via the federally sponsored Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) color-coded maps, is associated with contemporary risk of preterm birth ( Methods. We analyzed 2013–2017 birth certificate data for all singleton births in New York City (n = 528 096) linked by maternal residence at time of birth to (1) HOLC grade and (2) current census tract social characteristics. Results. The proportion of preterm births ranged from 5.0% in grade A (“best”—green) to 7.3% in grade D (“hazardous”—red). The odds ratio for HOLC grade D versus A equaled 1.6 and remained significant (1.2; P Conclusions. Historical redlining may be a structural determinant of present-day risk of preterm birth. Public Health Implications. Policies for fair housing, economic development, and health equity should consider historical redlining’s impacts on present-day residential segregation and health outcomes.

In January 2019, IBM announced the release of a “new large and diverse dataset called Diversity in Faces o advance the study of fairness and accuracy in facial recognition technology”. The dataset provides 1 million human facial images annotated using 10 coding schemes, with the hope to "accelerate the study of diversity and coverage of data for artificial intelligence (AI) facial recognition systems to ensure more fair and accurate AI systems." Networked technologies have offered individuals and groups ways to communicate and organise, becoming a powerful force for change in both developed and developing countries. However, even as the internet has enabled increased democracy through participatory practices, the major platforms have, "systematically divided people into market segments and political tribes. Digital redlining prevents certain users from seeing employment and housing opportunities, while digital inequality can exacerbate educational and income inequality.

Background The Home Owner's Loan Corporation (HOLC) was created in 1933 to provide government backing of troubled mortgages during the Great Depression. Residential security maps were created to guide investment in over 200 US cities. Neighborhoods were assigned grades of ‘A’ through ‘D’ (with corresponding color coding of green, blue, yellow and red) to indicate desirability for investment. Neighborhoods with a high percentage of African Americans or other minorities were frequently assigned grades of ‘C’ or ‘D’. These maps are now most associated with redlining, or the process of denial of credit for real estate investment based on race. Resulting economic disparities endure in areas of many US cities today. We hypothesized that there would be a correlation between redlined areas on the 1937 map of Louisville, KY to the prevalence of gun violence today. Methods Gunshot victims (GSV) and their residential addresses within the city of Louisville were examined between 2012-2018. GSVs were aggregated within census block groups to approximate neighborhoods. The spatial distribution of GSVs was analyzed against the original HOLC neighborhood grade. Additional control variables adapted from the 2013-2017 American Community Survey were included to account for other possible explanations for the spatial distribution of GSVs. A zero-inflated negative binomial regression with a spatial component was used to determine incidence rate ratios (IRR) for the relative likelihood of GSVs within neighborhoods. Results Relative to green-graded neighborhoods, red-graded neighborhoods had five times as many GSVs. This difference remained statistically significant after accounting for differences in demographic, racial, and housing characteristics of the neighborhoods. Conclusion Redlined neighborhoods within Louisville, KY in 1937 had significantly more GSVs today. The impact of historical and institutional racism on modern gun violence merits acknowledgement and further study.

Despite the impact of globalization, increased access to information, and improvements in technology, where one is born, grows up, and lives matters and has a significant impact on their future. Spatial inequalities resulting from urban development policies that encouraged white flight, redlining, and gentrification have led to economic segregation in housing patterns and what is in effect, a two-tiered structure for local schools in many urban regions. In the urban core, lower income, mostly minority students attend underfunded schools in high crime neighborhoods, and in the nearby suburbs, middle and upper income families have access to well-funded schools in lower crime areas. Education reformers seek to reduce these inequalities in outcomes by improving all students’ access to high-quality, high-performing schools, regardless of race, class, or home address. The focus of this chapter is to examine the interrelationships between schools, economic development, race, class, and housing.

Residential energy use represents roughly 17% of annual greenhouse gas emissions in the United States (U.S.). Studies show that legacy housing policies and financial lending practices have negatively impacted housing quality and home ownership in non-Caucasian and immigrant communities. Both factors are key determinants of household energy use. But to date there has been no national scale analysis of how race and ethnicity affect household energy use and related carbon emissions. In this paper, we estimate energy use and emissions of 60 million household to clarify how energy efficiency and carbon emissions vary by race, ethnicity, and home ownership. We find that per capita emissions are higher in Caucasian neighborhoods than in African-American neighborhoods, even though the former live in more energy-efficient homes (low energy use intensity). This emissions paradox is explained by differences in building age, rates of home ownership, and floor area in these communities. In African-American neighborhoods, homes are older, home ownership is lower (reducing the likelihood of energy retrofits), and there is less floor area per person compared to Caucasian neighborhoods. Statistical models suggest that historical housing policies, particularly “redlining”, partially explain these differences. We suggest three policies to address this emissions paradox: Government financing of home retrofits, particularly in rental units; Increased access to photovoltaics in disadvantaged communities; and Disincentivizes for high energy consumption and emissions. Addressing this emissions paradox provides an opportunity for an equitable decarbonization of the U.S. housing sector.

Residential segregation was practiced by federal, state, and local governments as an instrument of racial domination in the United States throughout much of the 20th century. Systematic racial discrimination in housing was unconstitutionally developed and implemented by state and federal agencies. Laws, regulations, and private practices in the real estate industry were used to promote legally enforced residential segregation in the United States. Zoning, redlining, and blockbusting created the division of our urban landscape along the color line: black and white. Residential segregation has had debilitating impacts on African Americans in cities in terms of lost opportunities for economic prosperity and the denial of homeownership and the wealth‐building potential that comes from it. Oakland, California is at the center of this research, where urban renewal and an interstate highway destroyed whole neighborhoods in West Oakland. The Acorn Housing Project was built in the aftermath of the urban renewal program. Title VIII of the Fair Housing Act remains the most promising basis for developing strategies for African Americans to fully engage in American’s legacy of wealth building through homeownership—the American Dream. Historically, that dream was designed only for white America. The task now is to realize it for everyone.

The ecological civilization characterized by the ecological redline policy (ERP) has been a new long-term national development strategy in China. The ERP emphasizes the need to define ecological baseline areas to provide ecosystem services and guarantee the national ecological safety. Eco-land units delineated by the individual spatial boundaries of ecosystems may facilitate an understanding of ecosystem patterns and the associated ecological processes at the landscape level. An eco-land classification system may help to identify and manage ecological baseline areas. In this study, a multi-dimensional eco-land classification system was designed to show how eco-land types could provide a reliable work platform for implementing the ERP and land management. Based on previous studies of eco-land types, we extracted three characteristics comprising the scale dependence, functional dominance, and adaptability of management. These three features were then integrated with the existing land use classification to develop a hierarchical eco-land classification system with four primary classes (fundamental eco-land, auxiliary eco-land, productive eco-land, and daily-life eco-land), 11 secondary classes, and 21 sub-secondary classes. Using a performance index based on spatial overlay analysis, we found that the fundamental eco-land covered up to 65% of the ecological redlining areas at the national scale, but not in some physical geographical regions. Thus, productive eco-land, auxiliary eco-land, and daily-life eco-land were also classified to fill the national level gaps among fundamental eco-lands, where the percentage cover of eco-land types at both the regional and urban scales could exceed 65% of the ecological redlining areas at the corresponding scale. Therefore, the disconnected fundamental eco-lands within ecological redlining areas at the national scale might be linked together as a conterminous green infrastructure if productive, auxiliary, and daily-life eco-land types located in strategic gap sites can be identified and protected at regional and urban scales. The eco-land classification system developed in this study may provide a useful land management framework for implementing the new ERP in China.

Public health approaches to crime and injury prevention are increasingly focused on the physical places and environments where violence is concentrated. In this study, our aim is to explore the association between historic place-based racial discrimination captured in the 1937 Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) map of Philadelphia and present-day violent crime and firearm injuries. The creators of the 1937 HOLC map zoned Philadelphia based in a hierarchical system wherein first-grade and green color zones were used to indicate areas desirable for government-backed mortgage lending and economic development, a second-grade or blue zone for areas that were already developed and stable, a third-grade or yellow zone for areas with evidence of decline and influx of a “low grade population,” and fourth-grade or red zone for areas with dilapidated or informal housing and an “undesirable population” of predominately Black residents. We conducted an empirical spatial analysis of the concentration of firearm assaults and violent crimes in 2013 through 2014 relative to zoning in the 1937 HOLC map. After adjusting for socio-demographic factors at the time the map was created from the 1940 Census, firearm injury rates are highest in historically red-zoned areas of Philadelphia. The relationship between HOLC map zones and general violent crime is not supported after adjusting for historical Census data. This analysis, extends historic perspective to the relationship between emplaced structural racism and violence, and situates the socio-ecological context in which people live at the forefront of this association.

Racism- a system operating at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, and structural levels- is a serious threat to the health and wellbeing of children and adolescents. This narrative review highlights racism as a social determinant of health, and describes how racism breeds disparate pediatric health outcomes in infant health, asthma, Type 1 diabetes, mental health, and pediatric surgical conditions. Key examples include the association of residential racial segregation and the alarming infant mortality rate among Black infants as well as the role of redlining and discriminatory housing practices on asthma morbidity among Black children and adolescents. Furthermore, inequitable care practices such as (1) racial and ethnic disparities in insulin pump usage in patients with Type 1 diabetes, (2) lower rates pharmacotherapy initiation in racialized children with mental health disorders, and (3) decreased pain medication management and confirmatory imaging in Black children with acute appendicitis, highlight the role of interpersonal racism in propagating poor health outcomes. An urgent call to action is needed to address pediatric health inequities and ensure all children can live healthy lives. Key strategies must tackle racism at the individual, institutional, and structural levels and include building a diverse workforce, prioritizing research to describe the impact of racism on pediatric health outcomes, initiating improvement efforts to close equity gaps, building community partnerships, co-designing solutions alongside patients and families, and advocating for policy change to address the social conditions that impact children and adolescents of color.

St. Louis, Missouri, is a case study in America's long legacy of racism and a prominent example of a “shrinking city.” This paper expands the notions of “core” and “periphery” using the highly segregated city and its suburbs to include not just economic exploitation but also racial exploitation. Using historical and contemporary census data and spatial data delineating the boundaries of Home Owner Loan Corporation grades (i.e., “redlining” maps), this paper examines the relationship between historical racism, contemporary segregation, and economic consequences. I find that St. Louis's peripheral areas expanded over the twentieth century, first in the city and then in the county, creating dual zones of exploitation where poverty, segregation, and income inequality remain persistently higher. These findings identify the historical roots of contemporary segregation, and suggest that addressing the long term consequences of both racial and economic exploitation in peripheral spaces remains critical for improving African American families' life chances.

The practice of Emergency Management in Michigan raises anew the question of whose knowledge matters to whom and for what reasons, against the background of what projects, challenges, and systemic ...

While undergraduate student loan debt continues to be “hard to register,” there are other conditions and effects of the student loan debt spiral that remain relatively invisible, unexamined, and certainly receive less attention in news headlines or on the op-ed pages about the fiscal cliff of education debt. These are the effects of this debt spiral on graduate education, faculty composition, and knowledge production itself. This article highlights how the debt load of faculty is part of the current student loan debt spiral, yet its effects on the working conditions of faculty, the learning conditions of students, and, importantly, the production of knowledge in the university remain underexamined.

The Red Line Archive includes visual, material and ephemeral artifacts collected during four walks along the perimeter of formerly redlined neighborhoods in north and central Brooklyn. These areas once provided affordable homes to working class ethnics, black people and immigrants of color; now, ironically, they are the epicenter of some of the most expensive and aggressively gentrified real estate in the city. Historian Jelani Cobb once wrote in the New Yorker, “The past haunts along the periphery” (Cobb, 2015). If this is true what evidence of past redlining are still visible today? What emotions, insights and visual metaphors might arise as I walked along the periphery of the original 1938 Red Line Map of Brooklyn? Equipped with camera and journal, I walked around the perimeter of former redlined neighborhoodsin search of clues.

Homeownership is often considered the lynchpin of the “American Dream.” The largest asset in the portfolio of the typical American household is a house, which is most often financed by a mortgage loan. Thus, homeownership via the mortgage market has significant implications for wealth-generation and other long-term benefits, including improved educational and health outcomes, safer communities, and tax advantages. For these reasons, homeownership is subsidized by the government and supported by a complex housing finance system supported by domestic and international investors. Due to racism, discrimination, historical inequality, and the disparate impact of certain public policies over time, Black and Latinx households have had far fewer opportunities to accrue the benefits of homeownership than their White counterparts, and homeownership rates for Blacks and Latinx households in the USA remain significantly lower than those of White Americans. This chapter focuses on the cumulative disadvantages of race and racism in mortgage lending requirements and the ways in which these impediments undergird a persistent wealth gap that can only be offset by substantial changes to the market system.

Part 1 Mortgage lending discrimination: An overview, John Goering, Ron Wienk Discrimination in mortgage lending - a literature review, John Yinger Accounting for racial differences in housing credit markets, Robert B. Avery et al Turning a critical eye on the critics, Geoffrey M.B. Tootell The role of FHA in the provision of credit to minorities, Stuart A. Gabriel Race, redlining, and residential mortgage defaults - evidence from the FHA-insured single-family loan programs, James A. Berkovec et al Mortgage discrimination and FHA loan performance, James A. Berkovec et al comparing loan performance between races as a test for discrimination - a critique of the Barkovec et al study, George Galster Flaws in the use of loan defaults to test for mortgage lending discrimination, Stephen L. Ross Rejoinder, James A. Berkovec et al Discrimination and the secondary mortgage market, Robert Van Order Housing discrimination and the appraisal industry, Robert G. Schwemm. Part 2 Fair lending enforcement: An overview, John Goering, Ron Wienk The Decatur federal case The Decatur Federal case - a summary report, Richard Ritter Use of statistical models to provide statistical evidence of discrimination in the treatment of mortgage loan applicants - a study of one lending institution, Bernard R. Siskin, Leonard A. Cupingood Comments and responses by Decatur Federal savings and loan association, Kent B. Alexander Targeting a lending discrimination investigation, Ann Chud, Hal Bonnette Methods for identifying lenders for investigation under the Fair Housing Act, Ira J. Goldstein Fair lending management - using influence statistics to identify critical mortgage loan applications, David Rodda, James E. Wallace A practical model for investigating mortgage lending discrimination by financial institutions, Richard W. Cole Reviewing loan files for mortgage lending discrimination, Zina Gefter Greene The role of private, nonprofit Fair Housing enforcement organizations in lending testing, Shanna L. Smith, Cathy Cloud Preapplication mortgage lending testing program - lender testing by a local agency, Rachel Lawton The Chevy Chase case Patterns of residential mortgage activity in Philadelphia's low- and moderate-income neighbourhood - 1990-91, Paul S. Calem. Part 3 Future directions: Future directions in Mortgage discrimination research and enforcement, George Gaster.

MJEAL chose to publish Helen Kang’s piece, Looking Toward Restorative Justice for Redlined Communities Displaced by Eco-Gentrification, because it offers a unique analytic approach for analyzing the roots of environmental racism and the appropriate tools to help rectify it. She offers an argument for why restorative justice needs to be the framework and explains how we can accomplish this in the context of a whole government solution. MJEAL is excited to offer what will be an influential approach for environmental restorative justice to the broader activist and academic community.

Multiple studies document both the scarcity of small-business financing in inner-city minority communities and the higher loan application rejection rates among minority business enterprises (MBEs), compared with equally creditworthy White-owned firms. When MBEs do receive bank financing, they get smaller loans than Whites. Two aspects of these findings are troublesome. First, urban MBEs are heavily concentrated geographically in minority communities, raising the issue of whether difficulties accessing financing reflect firm location, minority ownership, or both. Second, applicable studies rest on weak theoretical foundations. The authors’ findings suggest that banks engage in discriminatory practices limiting credit availability to MBEs. Controlling for risk factors, however, firm location in a minority or inner-city neighborhood has no apparent impact on loan availability or size. Owner race/ethnicity, in contrast, is important. Subtle processes discourage MBEs from seeking bank loans. Owner race and wealth both powerfully shape loan access: high wealth opens doors, minority ownership closes them.

Urban Ecology Cities create challenging environments for many nonhuman species, and the presence of nonhumans in cities influences the health and well-being of the humans with which they share the environment. Distinct urban conditions are created by landscape modification, but the history of this transformation is not equal across urban environments. Schell et al. review how systematic racist practices such as residential segregation, enacted in part through redlining, have led to an unequal distribution of “nature” within cities. These inequities continue to play out in both the ecological processes of cites and the welfare of their residents. Science , this issue p. [eaay4497][1] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aay4497

This Paper feeds into the current transcultural debate surrounding tensions between the construction of immersive technologies within westernised paradigms. In the construction of immersive spaces, tech companies have unconsciously subjugated other cultural frameworks and perspectives. Safiya Umoja Noble’s term ‘technological redlining’ succinctly articulate this subjugation in her book ‘Algorithms of Oppression’ where she says ‘The power of algorithms in the age of neoliberalism and the ways those digital decisions reinforce oppressive social relationships and enact new modes of racial profiling, which I have termed technological redlining. By making visible the ways that capital, race, and gender are factors in creating unequal conditions, I am bringing light to various forms of technological redlining that are on the rise’. (Noble 2018: 01) These assumptions are systematic of what Jean-Paul Sartre referred to in the last century as Neocolonialism (Sartre 2001: 2). Political systems intentionally subjugating other cultural narratives, in order to impose colonial paradigms concerning social activity. These are still the dominant perspectives, still controlling global narratives. ‘Neocolonialism can be described as the subtle propagation of socio-economic and political activity by former colonial rulers aimed at reinforcing capitalism, neo-liberal globalization’. (Taiwo; Accessed 02/05/19) Umoja Noble highlights a key challenge to address this balance, which is in the construction of any digitised decision-making platform, the key point is to understand that all initial mathematical formulations that drive automated decision-making are made by human beings who exist in a specific socio-cultural context.