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There is growing evidence on the negative effects of perceived discrimination on health outcomes and their interactions with indicators of socioeconomic status. However, less has been studied on whether income and education lead individuals of a different race to encounter different discriminatory experiences in their lifetime. Using data from the national survey of the Midlife Development in the United States-MIDUS 1 (1995-1996) and MIDUS Refresher (2011-2014)-on eight measures of perceived lifetime discrimination, this study compares discriminatory experiences of Black and White persons in two time periods. We applied generalized structural equation models and generalized linear models to test multiplicative effects of income and education by race on lifetime discrimination. In both periods, we find substantive disparities between White and Black people in all types of lifetime discrimination, with Black people reporting much higher levels of discrimination. Such disparities exacerbated in the top cohorts of society, yet these associations have changed in time, with White individuals reporting increasing levels of discrimination. Results show that, for Black people in the mid-1990s, perceived discrimination increased as education and income increased. This finding persisted for education by the early 2010s; income effects changed as now both, low- and high-income Black people, reported the highest levels of discrimination. These findings highlight a policy conundrum, given that increasing income and education represent a desirable course of action to improve overall discrimination and health outcomes. Yet, we show that they may unintendingly exacerbate racial disparities in discrimination. We also show that the U.S. is moving toward a stagnation period in health outcomes improvement, with racial disparities in discrimination shrinking at the expense of a deterioration of whites' lifetime discriminatory experiences. Our results highlight the need for a multi-systems policy approach to prevent all forms of discrimination including those due to historical, institutional, legal, and sociopolitical structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Race also matters because of persistent racial inequality in society--inequality that cannot be ignored and that has produced stark socioeconomic disparities . . . . And race matters for reasons that really are only skin deep, that cannot be discussed any other way, and that cannot be wished away. Race matters to a young man's view of society when he spends his teenage years watching others tense up as he passes, no matter the neighborhood where he grew up. Race matters to a young woman's sense of self when she states her hometown and then is pressed, "No, where are you really from?", regardless of how many generations her family has been in the country. Race matters to a young person addressed by a stranger in a foreign language, which he does not understand because only English was spoken at home. Race matters because of the slights, the snickers, the silent judgments that reinforce that most crippling of thoughts: "I do not belong here." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article draws on the concept of race and racism as “technologies of affect” to think with some of the interventions and arguments of critical affect studies. The author suggests that critical affect theories enable the theorization of race and racism as affective modes of being that recognize the historically specific assemblages which are practiced in schools and the society. It is also argued that rethinking race and racism as technologies of affect, a vision of anti-racist politics and practice in education can be formed in ways that go beyond recognition or resistance, but rather attend to the production of pedagogical spaces and practices that create ways of living differently. The education implications of this idea are discussed in relation to how teachers and teacher educators can begin not only to analyze the affective mobilizations of race and racism, but also to engage in political struggles that harness the affective forces of anti-racist action in everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The experience of discrimination is a complex phenomenon. Few studies have captured the experience of discrimination on a predominately White university campus. This study investigated the association between perceived discrimination and self-reported health outcomes among university students in Southwest Florida. The stratified cluster random sample consisted of 527 students attending classes on the main campus of a university in Southwest Florida. This analysis provided information regarding the following: (1) the frequency of discrimination, (2) how perceived discrimination can negatively affect people from all racial and ethnic backgrounds, (3) the impact of discrimination on general health, and (4) how discrimination can contribute to unhealthy behaviors. This study addressed three research questions: (1) Is perceived discrimination significantly associated with self-reported psychological and physiological health outcomes among university students? (2) Is race or ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic position (SEP) associated with exposure to discrimination? (3) Is perceived discrimination a unique predictor of mental and physical health outcomes? For this study, a new instrument, Impact of Discrimination on Health, measured the association between perceived discrimination and self-reported health among university students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study that investigates the importance measuring the racial bias experiences of students in campuses in reducing racism in the U.S. The authors believes that method is risky because it failed to consider the radical bad practices. Moreover, they suggests the development of revised and new approaches to address the problem.

As teachers, our lessons about contemporary racial inequality are complicated and contradicted by the rhetoric of color-blindness-the belief that race no longer matters for determining life chances-entrenched in our culture. Students remain attracted to notions of racism as a problem of the past and often reject the idea that racism is still a major problem today. In this paper we describe an effective classroom exercise, adapted from bell hooks, that we use to overcome these challenges by helping students learn about the persistence of contemporary racial inequality. We ask students to reflect on their own racial memories, and by integrating their own experiences with scholarly readings about race, power, and privilege, students learn to connect their racial memories to broader patterns of racial inequality. This exercise meets a key pedagogical goal of both feminist teachers and sociologists, which is to help students understand how their personal experiences are connected to broader social arrangements and patterns of inequality. We discuss both successes and challenges of the exercise in this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter discusses racism and racial profiling in employment, the media, and higher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the final chapter, the editors reflect on the ways in which the chapters contribute to the understanding of white privilege and racism in adult and continuing education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering that jornalism should represent the diversity of society thought, the aim of this paper was to study the senses constructed by Folha Online and Portal de Notícias da Globo in the approach of racial quota system in the Brazilian universities. Texts published during 2007 were analyzed, from the perspective of discourse analysis. It was observed the predominance of discourse against the racial quota system, based in these arguments: it will be a new form of discrimination, unconstitutional and it will reinforce the racism. By other side, the discourse which arguments that racial quota system could correct historical distortion and the good performance of students admitted by the racial quota system is cited few times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades covert and subtle forms of racism have increasingly been studied in Europe and in the United States. These forms of racism may be problematic for participants to perceive or interpret as racism, because some racially discriminatory actions may seem subtle or ambiguous at first sight, but after some reflection, information and knowledge, it may become clear that such encounters were not as innocent as they seemed before. The aim of this paper is to explore and document the racism experienced by Japanese students living in the United Kingdom. It reports on a study in which 51 Japanese were asked to describe their experiences of racism. Why did they think what happened was discrimination? In order to answer this question, participants had to reconstruct and interpret various ambiguous social situations. First of all, they assessed and evaluated negative events which may have had racist implications. Then the reason why the respondents eventually decided that they had been subject to a form of racial discrimination is explored. Finally, why some respondents believed what they had experienced was racism, while others did not interpret their encounters as racist ones, is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the authors critically synthesize how Critical Race Theory (CRT) as an emerging field of inquiry has been used as a tool of critique and analysis in K-12 education research. The authors point out that CRT has been used as a framework for examining: persistent racial inequities in education, qualitative research methods, pedagogy and practice, the schooling experiences of marginalized students of color, and the efficacy of race-conscious education policy. The authors explore how these studies have changed the nature of education research and stress the need for further research that critically interrogates race and racism in education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an unintended consequence of the Civil Rights Movement and the integrationist vocabulary that it engendered, otherwise progressive thinkers have been unable to describe the adverse impact of actions, attitudes and policies that are not necessarily intended as racist, but function that way nonetheless. Because racism has come to be popularly understood as the product of individual irrationality—aberrant behavior that society abhors—supposedly race neutral actions, attitudes and policies that systematically and predictably benefit whites and adversely impact people of color escape effective critique. This has created a problem on college campuses, where many black students continue to feel alienated and mistreated because of their race. This article argues that issues of race and racism remain important considerations in the lives of black students on predominantly white campuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By examining a gifted magnet of an urban California high school as a racial project, this study contributes to our understanding of racial formation. The study analyzes the organizational and representational practices of this voluntary desegregation tool-a partial-site magnet program for "gifted" students -- and its impact on students inside and outside the program. In doing so, the study reveals how, in contrast to its stated mission, this form of voluntary desegregation actually constitutes a form of resegregation. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, this research reveals a series of practices that have produced exclusionary access to the gifted program, limited the interaction between magnet and non-magnet students, and instituted an apparently color-blind discourse of the gifted as in need of protection, all contributing to a widespread though complex and contradictory notion of whiteness as giftedness. Such notions run counter to the original intent of the desegregation ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. Revealing the processes by which a desegregation instrument facilitates such contradictory outcomes provides critical insights into the dynamic nature of racial formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the beliefs of nine white English-only speaking preservice teachers who tutored English language learners of Mexican origin as part of a university field service requirement. Over the course of a semester, participants were interviewed at length about their own reasons for becoming teachers, their beliefs about the children, and the ways in which race influenced their lives. Participants also were observed tutoring, and their learning journals were analyzed. Through various means of data collection, it became apparent that the good intentions of the participants were consistently undermined by the whiteness and the racism that influenced their beliefs about and behaviors with the children. The researcher consequently decided to intervene in the study, sharing data with participants and encouraging them to see the ways that whiteness and racism influenced their tutoring experience. Critical Race Theory and Critical White Studies together make up the theoretical framework that situates this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the achievement gap between African American students and white and Asian students is discussed widely in the media (e.g. Schemo, 2003), the gap in discipline between African Americans and these groups has gained much less attention. Few studies have explored teacher processes that affect the over-representation of African American students in discipline referrals. Teachers decide which students are considered a discipline problem, what is driving the problem, and how to intervene. This qualitative study examines teachers' implicit theories about the causes of discipline problems, and specifically examines how they consider race and culture in their theorizing. The results show that teachers considered forces inside the school, the adolescent, and the community as causes for misbehavior. Most teachers' theories were culture- and race-blind and could not account for the discipline gap. Drawing on the teachers' theories, we present a new framework of Culturally Relevant Discipline that takes into account the ecology of the school, community, and society in understanding discipline problems. This multifaceted framework has implications for culturally and racially conscious solutions to narrow the discipline gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I examine and explore the continued existence of inferential forms of sexism and racism in higher education. Situated in autoethnography and using complicity theory and narrative analysis, this essay addresses issues and experiences related to civility, sexism and racism on a largely Euro American campus. More specifically, I critically examine the interdependence of sexist and racist ideologies that persist in university classrooms in the guise of civility. I argue that inferential sexism and racism are endemic to U.S. higher education and classrooms and are as dangerous as overt forms of sexism and racism because they are harder to identify, and more naturalized and acceptable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews what we have learned about racial discrepancies in education, with particular attention to those that might be attributable to discrimination. Empirical studies have found that, on average, African American, Latino, and American Indian children arrive at kindergarten or first grade with lower levels of oral language, prereading, and premathematics skills, as well as lesser general knowledge, than that possessed by White and Asian American children. African American, Latino, and American Indian children are also reported to display behaviors less well suited to the school's learning environment. It has been estimated that at least half, and probably more, of the Black-White gap in twelfth-grade academic achievement would be eliminated if we could eliminate the Black-White performance gap at school entry. The remainder of the performance gap occurs during grades one through twelve. It is here that researchers have looked for discrimination by teachers and school administrators. In particular, they have looked for curricular track placements that, adjusting for prior performance, are disadvantageous for ethnic minority students. They have also looked for the possibility that teachers hold lower expectations for, and are less encouraging to, minority students. The evidence on these matters is mixed. It is suggested that, with the cooperation of school administrators and teachers, district-specific studies of these issues might be undertaken, using both local administrative data and participant-observational methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article I seek to answer the question, “When are racial disparities in education the result of racial discrimination?” To answer it I synthesize the social science research on racially correlated disparities in education. My review draws from the sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, history, and education literatures. I organize explanations into six categories: biological determinism, social structure, school organization and opportunities to learn, family background, culture, and the state. I arrive at three answers. The first is a definition: Racial discrimination in education arises from actions of institutions or individual state actors, their attitudes and ideologies, or processes that systematically treat students from different racial/ethnic groups disparately or inequitably. The second answer is that while distinguishing racial discrimination from disparities may be an interesting intellectual, legal, and statistical challenge, the conclusion probably is less meaningful than social scientists and policy makers might hope. The third answer follows from the first two. I propose the following reformulation of the original question: “When are racial disparities in education not due to discrimination?” I argue that the reformulated question is more likely to bring solutions to the race gap than the original one. Even if we conclude that discrimination does not cause racial disparities in education, we should not conclude that schools have no role in addressing them. If public schools do not address educational disparities, then who or what institution will? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper was prepared for the Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination, National Academy of Sciences, Committee on National Statistics. It describes the formal legal definitions of race discrimination in education, demonstrates how those definitions are applied in various contexts, and highlights the role that social science evidence has played and could play in the cases. The paper argues that what currently counts as race discrimination in education and how such discrimination is proven are, from a legal perspective, at once both straightforward and complex questions. They are straightforward because the formal legal definitions are simple enough to grasp. The questions are complex because at times the formal definitions of race discrimination are modified in their application, and also because some important questions about how to apply those definitions in a particular case or context remain unanswered. The paper offers some suggestions as to how these lingering questions could be answered and describes the limited role that social science evidence could play in shaping the answers. It also highlights the irony that, under the current legal definitions of race discrimination, it is much easier to block voluntary integration efforts designed to assist minority (and white) students than it is to block practices that unintentionally disadvantage minority students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines adolescent racial homophily in racially diversified schools in the United States. A number of studies suggest that the racial composition of schools has important consequences for students, and some of these consequences persist into adulthood. Students who attend racially integrated schools have more positive feelings about other racial groups than do students who attend segregated schools. Students in integrated schools also have more extensive interaction with other racial groups than their counterparts in segregated schools. Not only does attending a racially integrated school influence racial attitudes and behavior in childhood and adolescence, it also appears to influence patterns of close interracial friendship in adulthood. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, a nationally representative survey of about 90,000 adolescents in grades seven through twelve, authors examine patterns of interracial friendship. The results suggest that white, Afro-American, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American adolescents differ greatly in their likelihood of having an interracial friends ship, be it a same-sex friendship or an opposite-sex one. Although the relative size of different racial groups explains a large share of these racial differences, it does not fully account for them.