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Despite the proliferation of HRM research, only a small fraction explores the context of small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). Where HRM in SMEs has received attention, the literature base remains fragmented and variable, comprising a plurality of definitions, explanations, and methods. To advance understanding, this paper uses a quarter‐century systematic review drawing on an evidence base of 137 peer‐reviewed articles. A cumulative framework is presented capturing key developments and synthesizing existing areas of research focus. Analysis of limitations and knowledge‐gaps finds a failure to differentiate across various types of SMEs, limited appreciation of SME characteristics and contextual conditions, and a dominance of managerial perspectives. An agenda for future research on HRM in SMEs is outlined with respect to definitional parameters, HR practices, HRM–performance, key determinants, and presenting issues. The paper concludes that SMEs offer a unique, fruitful, and timely context for investigations of HRM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study responds to calls for more in‐depth and qualitative studies, the return to a focus on external factors, and the inclusion of business strategy and industrial relations in human resource management (HRM) research, as well as more research in the retail sector in the Chinese context. We examine the coevolution of the business strategy and HR strategy of Walmart (China) in the last two decades and identify tensions in the context of intensifying competition in the Chinese retail market. We highlight the interactive effect of business and HR strategies through a historical lens. Our study reveals a shift from the original employee‐oriented win–win strategy through rent sharing between the firm and the employees to a win–lose strategy through the introduction of more cost conscious HR policies and practices. Findings of our study challenge the conventional wisdom that firms adopt either the cost or quality strategy and, along with it, the suggestion of matching the quality strategy with employee‐oriented HR policies and practices, and cost leadership with a transactional approach to HRM. We argue a cost and quality business strategy may be adopted, which requires the support of employee‐oriented, rather than cost‐oriented, HR policies and practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To encourage the growth of the village economy, the Village Law also mandates the establishment of a Village Business Company (VBC). The VBC is expected to be able to become an instrument of village development, both in terms of economic development and social development. Langkat Regency is one of the Regency in North Sumatera that responded to the establishment of the VBC by making a Regional Regulation that requires all villages to establish VBC. Based on the Regent's Regulation, every village, including Pulau Kampai Village, Pangkalan Susu District, Langkat Regency, tried to initiate a VBC, in accordance with the potential of Natural Resources, Human Resources, and needs of each village. Seeing the important role of VBC in the economic and social empowerment of rural communities, it is necessary to conduct a study of the existence of VBC since its inception until the present condition which is already more or less 4 years (2015–2019). This is necessary to see how the VBC development model is in the effort to empower the economy and social village communities. The findings of this model are needed so that it can be replicated to other VBCs and VBC has an alternative model in order to develop the VBC they are managing. This study uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative research design approaches with a combination model used in this study is dominant-less dominant design. The result shows that the Savings and Loan Business Unit was chosen because most of the residents of this village work are traditional fishermen, where this work is always tinged with income uncertainty, so that institutions are needed to be able to provide loans when they need them. VBC Sejahtera Bersama is principled as an institution that empowers rural communities to become more productive and effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The experimental tobacco marketplace (ETM) approximates real-world situations by estimating the effects of several, concurrently available products and policies on budgeted purchasing. Although the effects of increasing cigarette price on potentially less harmful substitutability are well documented, the effects of other, nuanced pricing policies remain speculative. This study used the ETM as a tool to assess the effects of two pricing policies, conventional cigarette taxation and e-liquid subsidization, on demand and substitutability.Methods: During sampling periods, participants were provided 2-day samples of 24 mg/mL e-liquid, after which ETM purchase sessions occurred. Across two ETM sessions, conventional cigarettes were taxed or e-liquid was subsidized in combination with increasing cigarette price. The other four available products were always price constant and not taxed or subsidized.Results: E-liquid functioned as a substitute for conventional cigarettes across all conditions. Increasing cigarette taxation and e-liquid subsidization increased the number of participants for which e-liquid functioned as a substitute. Cigarette taxation decreased cigarette demand, by decreasing demand intensity, and marginally increased the initial intensity of e-liquid substitution, but did not affect the functions' slopes (substitutability). E-liquid subsidization resulted in large increases in the initial intensity of e-liquid substitution, but did not affect e-liquid substitutability nor cigarette demand.Implications: 24 mg/mL e-cigarette e-liquid was the only product to significantly substitute for cigarettes in at least one condition throughout the experiment; it functioned as a significant substitute throughout all four tax and all four subsidy conditions. Increasing cigarette taxes decreased cigarette demand through decreases in demand intensity but did not affect e-cigarette substitution. Increasing e-liquid subsidies increased e-liquid initial intensity of substitution but did not affect cigarette demand.Conclusions: This study extended research on the behavioral economics of conventional cigarette demand and e-liquid substitutability in a complex marketplace. The results suggest that the most efficacious method to decrease conventional cigarette purchasing and increase e-liquid purchasing may involve greatly increasing cigarette taxes while also increasing the value of e-liquid through potentially less harmful product subsidization or differential taxation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Underage binge drinking is a serious health concern that is likely influenced by the neighbourhood environment. However, longitudinal evidence has been limited and few studies have examined time-varying neighbourhood factors and demographic subgroup variation.Methods: We investigated neighbourhood influences and binge drinking in a national cohort of US 10th grade students at four times (2010-2014; n = 2745). We estimated odds ratios (OR) for past 30-day binge drinking associated with neighbourhood disadvantage, personal and property crime (quartiles), and number of liquor, beer and wine stores within 5 km, and then evaluated whether neighbourhood associations differ by age, sex and race/ethnicity.Results: Neighbourhood disadvantage was associated with binge drinking before 18 [OR = 1.54; 95% confidence interval (1.14, 2.08)], but not after 18 years of age. Property crime in neighbourhoods was associated with a higher odds of binge drinking [OR = 1.54 (0.96, 2.45)], an association that was stronger in early adulthood [4th vs 1st quartile: OR = 1.77 (1.04, 3.03)] and among Whites [4th vs 1st quartile: OR = 2.46 (1.03, 5.90)]. Higher density of liquor stores predicted binge drinking among Blacks [1-10 stores vs none: OR = 4.31 (1.50, 12.36)] whereas higher density of beer/wine stores predicted binge drinking among Whites [one vs none for beer: OR = 2.21 (1.06, 4.60); for wine: OR = 2.04 (1.04, 4.03)].Conclusions: Neighbourhood conditions, particularly those related to economic circumstances, crime and alcohol outlet density, were related to binge drinking among young adults, but associations varied across age and individual characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: In 2012, a large Australian metropolitan health service introduced a healthy food policy, where there was a requirement for food and drinks for sale within retail stores to conform to standards based on macronutrients and energy content. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the experience of those implementing a healthy food retail policy in order to inform the translation of such policies into other organisations. Methods: A qualitative approach was used, with semistructured interviews exploring informants' involvement in, experiences of, factors affecting and perceived outcomes of policy implementation. Interviews were conducted with seven individuals participating in the introduction of the healthy food retail policy. Results were analysed using a thematic analysis approach. Results: Four themes and 21 sub‐themes were identified, with analysis interpreted using the socio‐ecological model. Participants identified that successful policy implementation hinged on the provision of resources and support by the health service to the retail staff. Trusting relationships between retail and health service staff were built through effective and frequent communication. The fear of tensions between the policy and business income had significantly lessened after implementation. A key factor contributing to this change was the use of low‐risk trials to remove less healthy products or introduce new healthier foods. Conclusions: Implementing a healthy food retail policy within a health service benefits from dedicated resourcing, investment in relationship building with key stakeholders and introducing changes gradually with a long‐term approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To describe trends across the intake distribution of total, manufactured and homemade sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) from 1999 to 2012, focusing on high SSB consumers and on changes by socio-economic status (SES) subgroup.Design: We analysed data from one 24 h dietary recall from two nationally representative surveys. Quantile regression models at the 50th, 75th and 90th percentiles of energy intake distribution of SSB were used.Setting: 1999 Mexican National Nutrition Survey and 2012 Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey.ParticipantsSchool-aged children (5-11 years) and women (20-49 years) for trend analyses (n 7718). Population aged >1 year for 2012 (n 10 096).Results: Over the 1999-2012 period, there were significant increases in the proportion of total and manufactured SSB consumers (5·7 and 10·7 percentage points), along with an increase in per-consumer SSB energy intake, resulting in significant increases in per-capita total SSB energy intake (142, 247 and 397 kJ/d (34, 59 and 95 kcal/d) in school-aged children and 155, 331 and 456 kJ/d (37, 79 and 109 kcal/d) in women at the 50th, 75th and 90th percentile, respectively). Total and manufactured SSB intakes increased sharply among low-SES children but remained similar among high-SES children during this time span.Conclusions: Large increases in SSB consumption were seen between 1999 and 2012 during this pre-tax SSB period, particularly for the highest consumers. Trends observed in school-aged children are a clear example of the nutrition transition experienced in Mexico. Policies to discourage high intake of manufactured SSB should continue, joined with strategies to encourage water and low-calorie beverage consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: An industry levy on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) was implemented in the UK in 2018. One year later, Brexit is likely to change the UK trade regime with potential implications for sugar price. We modelled the effect of potential changes in sugar price due to Brexit on SSB levy impacts upon CHD mortality and inequalities.Design: We modelled a baseline SSB levy scenario; an SSB levy under 'soft' Brexit, where the UK establishes a free trading agreement with the EU; and an SSB levy under 'hard' Brexit, in which World Trade Organization tariffs are applied. We used the previously validated IMPACT Food Policy model and probabilistic sensitivity analysis to estimate the effect of each scenario on CHD deaths prevented or postponed and life-years gained, stratified by age, sex and socio-economic circumstance, in 2021.Setting: England.Subjects: Adults aged 25 years or older.Results: The SSB levy was associated with approximately 370 (95 % uncertainty interval 220, 560) fewer CHD deaths and 4490 (2690, 6710) life-years gained in 2021. Associated reductions in CHD mortality were 4 and 8 % greater under 'soft' and 'hard' Brexit scenarios, respectively. The SSB levy was associated with approximately 110 (50, 190) fewer CHD deaths in the most deprived quintile compared with 60 (20, 100) in the most affluent, under 'hard' Brexit.Conclusions: Our study found the SSB levy resilient to potential effects of Brexit upon sugar price. Even under 'hard' Brexit, the SSB levy would yield benefits for CHD mortality and inequalities. Brexit negotiations should deliver a fiscal and regulatory environment which promotes population health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: We described the population of daily smokers purchasing cigarettes on Indian reservations (IRs), estimated the rates of cigarette purchasing on IRs for diverse populations of daily smokers in the U.S., and assessed the trends in the period from 2010-11 to 2014-15.Methods: We used the 2010-11 and 2014-15 Tobacco Use Supplement to the Current Population Survey data for adult daily smokers as well as additional information, e.g., state excise tax on tobacco (n = 33,871).Results: Daily smokers who purchased cigarettes on IRs were primarily 45+ years old, non-Hispanic (NH) White, resided in a state with an IR, paid less than $4.50 per pack, and purchased cigarettes in the state of their residency. The majority of purchases on IRs were made in New York (28%), Oklahoma (14%), Washington (10%), Arizona (9%), and Florida (6%). The rate of purchasing cigarettes on IRs decreased from 4% in 2010-11 to 3% in 2014-15 (p = 0.012). The rates were higher for females than males (OR = 1.23, CI = 1.09:1.40) and heavy than non-heavy smokers (OR = 1.35, CI = 1.17:1.55). Higher state excise tax on tobacco, on average, was associated with purchasing cigarettes on IRs.Conclusions: The rate of purchasing cigarettes on IRs is relatively low and has decreased in recent years. However, the rates differ across sociodemographic factors of daily smokers, including the state of residency and purchase. Purchasing cigarettes on IRs at lower prices can affect smokers' intentions to quit and can reduce federal and state efforts toward a tobacco-free nation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We evaluated the effects of outlet and small area level malt liquor policies on crime in 10 U.S. cities and hypothesized that more restrictive malt liquor policies would be associated with greater reductions in crime.Method: We used a pooled time-series study design (i.e., panel regression) with comparison areas to test our hypothesis. Quarterly crime rates in targeted areas were compared 3 years before and after policy adoption. Four crime outcomes were analyzed: Selected Part II crimes, assaults, vandalism/property damage, and disorderly conduct. Both the presence and absence of a malt liquor policy (yes, no) and degree of restrictiveness of the malt liquor policy were assessed using a newly created measure of malt liquor policy restrictiveness developed by the investigators. Results were analyzed using a series of linear mixed models.Results: Adoption of malt liquor policies was not associated with Part II selected crimes. For individual crimes (e.g., assaults, vandalism, disorderly conduct), we found mixed results as more restrictive malt liquor policies were significantly associated with decreases as well as increases in crime. In general, the evaluated policies were considered to be not highly restrictive.Conclusions: Our findings suggest that malt liquor policies at the outlet or small area level alone may not be sufficient to reduce crime associated with malt liquor use. Policies that are more restrictive or cover larger areas than assessed in the current study may be required to have an independent effect on crime outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate whether enrollment in high-deductible health plans (HDHPs) led enrollees to choose lower-priced providers for office visits and laboratory tests.Study Setting: Claims data from more than 40 large employers.Study Design: We compared the change in price for office visits and laboratory tests for enrollees who switched to HDHPs versus enrollees who remained in traditional plans. We estimated separate models for enrollees who changed providers versus those who remained with the same provider to disentangle the effects of HDHPs on provider choice and negotiated prices.Data Collection: Claims data from 2004 to 2010 on 1.8 million enrollees.Principal Findings: After enrollment in HDHPs, 28 percent of enrollees changed physicians for office visits (compared to 19 percent in the Traditional Plan group, p < .01); however, this did not result in a statistically significant reduction in price for office visits. About 25 percent of enrollees changed providers for laboratory tests (compared to 23 percent in the Traditional Plan group, p < .01), resulting in savings of about $2.09 or a 12.8 percent reduction in price per laboratory test. We found that HDHPs had lower negotiated prices for office visits but not for laboratory tests.Conclusions: High-deductible health plan enrollment may shift enrollees to lower cost providers, resulting in modest savings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recognising the lack of research on daytime drinking practices in areas with managed night-time economies (NTEs), this qualitative study explores the phenomena in the London Borough of Islington; a rapidly gentrifying area with a highly regulated night-time economy (NTE). The objectives were to (i) Characterise the daytime drinking spaces of the local alcohol environment and (ii) Theorise the ways in which these spaces, and the practices and performativities within them, are situated within broader social and economic trends.Methods: Adopting a legitimate peripheral participation approach to data collection, 39 licensed premises were visited in Islington and on-site observations carried out between the hours of 12 pm and 6 pm using a semi-structured observation guide. Observations were written-up into detailed fieldnotes, uploaded to NVivo and subject to a thematic analysis.Findings: The daytime on-premises alcohol environment was characterised by two main trends: the decline of traditional pubs and a proliferation of hybrid establishments in which alcohol was framed as part of a suite of attractions. The consumption trends that the latter exemplify are implicated in processes of micro-cultural production and 'hipster capitalism'; and it is via this framing that we explore the way the diverse local drinking spaces were gendered and classed. Hybrid establishments have been regarded as positive in terms of public health, crime and safety. However, they could also help introduce drinking within times and contexts where it was not previously present.Conclusion: The intersection of an expanding hipster habitus with Local Authority efforts to tackle 'determined drunkenness' create very particular challenges. The operating practices of hybrid venues may feed into current alcohol industry strategies of promoting 'new moments' in which consumers can drink. They blur the divisions between work and play and produce temporal and classed divisions of drinking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Interactions between societies and nature are regulated by complex systems of beliefs, symbolism, customs, and worldviews (kosmos), ecological knowledge (corpus), and management strategies and practices (praxis), which are constructed as product of experiences and communication of people throughout time. These aspects influence social relations, life strategies, and cultural identity, and all of them in turn influence and are influenced by local and regional patterns of interchange. In this study, we analyze the interchange of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms in traditional markets of the Phurépecha region of Mexico. Particularly, the social relations constructed around the interchange of these products; how knowledge, cultural values, and ecological factors influence and are influenced by interchange; and how all these factors influence the type and intensity of biotic resources management. Methods: We studied three main traditional markets of the Phurépecha region of Michoacán, Mexico, through 140 visits to markets and 60 semi-structured interviews to sellers of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms. In nearly 2 years, we carried out 80 visits and 30 interviews in the "Barter Market", 20 visits and 15 interviews in the "Phurépecha Tiánguis", and 40 visits and 15 interviews to the "Municipal Market". We documented information about the spaces of interchange that form the markets, the types of interchange occurring there, the cultural and economic values of the resources studied, the environmental units that are sources of such resources, the activities associated to resources harvesting and, particularly, the management techniques practiced to ensure or increase their availability. We analyzed the relations between the amounts of products interchanged, considered as pressures on the resources; the perception of their abundance or scarcity, considered as the magnitude of risk in relation to the pressures referred to; and the management types as response to pressures and risk. Results: We recorded 38 species of wild and weedy plants and 15 mushroom species interchanged in the markets. We characterized the spaces of interchange, the interchange types, and social relations among numerous Phurépecha communities which maintain the main features of pre-Columbian markets. The products analyzed are differentially valued according to their role in people's life, particularly food, medicine, rituals, and ornamental purposes. The highest cultural values were identified in multi-purpose plant and mushroom resources and, outstandingly, in ornamental and ritual plants. In markets, women are the main actors and connectors of the regional households' activities of use and management of local resources and ecosystems. The interrelationships between worldviews, knowledge, and practices are visible through the interchange of the products analyzed, including the types of environments comprised in communitarian territories, agricultural calendars, and feasts. Those plants and mushrooms are highly valued but relatively scarce according to the demand on them receiving special attention and management practices directed to ensure or increase their availability. With the exception of most mushrooms and ornamental and ritual plants, which have high economic and cultural values, there are those that are relatively scarce and under high risk, but are obtained through simple gathering from the wild. Conclusions: Traditional markets are crucial part of the subsistence strategy of Phurépecha people based on the multiple use of resources and ecosystems at the local and regional levels. The markets influence social relations, cultural identity, and preservation of traditional knowledge and biodiversity. In general, the demand of products in markets enhances innovation and practices for ensuring or increasing their availability, particularly those that are naturally scarce. However, it was notorious that, althoug mushrooms and ritual plants have high demand and value in markets, most of them are obtained by simple gathering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: In the United States, excessive alcohol consumption is responsible for 88,000 deaths annually and cost $249 billion, or $2.05 per drink, in 2010. Specific excise taxes, the predominant form of alcohol taxation in the United States, are based on the volume of alcohol sold rather than a percentage of price and can thus degrade over time because of inflation. The objective of this study was to describe changes in inflation-adjusted state alcohol excise taxes on a beverage-specific basis.Method: State-level data on specific excise taxes were obtained from the Alcohol Policy Information System and the Tax Foundation. Excise tax rates were converted into the tax per standard U.S. drink (14 g of ethanol) for beer, wine, and distilled spirits, and converted into 2015 dollars using annual Consumer Price Index data.Results: Across U.S. states, the average state alcohol excise tax per drink in 2015 was $0.03 for beer, $0.05 for distilled spirits, and $0.03 for wine. From 1991 to 2015, the average inflation-adjusted (in 2015 dollars) state alcohol excise tax rate declined 30% for beer, 32% for distilled spirits, and 27% for wine. Percentage declines in state excise taxes since their inception were more than twice as large as those from 1991 to 2015.Conclusions: In 2015, average state specific excise taxes were $0.05 or less per standard drink across all beverage types and have experienced substantial inflation-adjusted declines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyze a game-theoretic model of a risk-sharing agreement between a payer and a pharmaceutical firm. The drug manufacturer chooses the price while the payer sets the rebate rate and decides which patients are eligible for treatment. The manufacturer provides the payer with a rebate for nonresponding patients. We generalize on the existing literature, by making both price and rebate rate decision variables, allowing the rebate rate to be different from 100%, and incorporating 2 types of administrative costs. We identify a threshold for the expected probability of response for classifying the drug as a mass-market or niche type and investigate the optimal solutions for both types. We also identify a threshold for the rebate rate at which the net benefits become equal for responding and nonresponding patients. Through numerical examples, we examine how various parameters impact the drug manufacturer's and the payer's optimal solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: California Senate Bill 41 (SB41), effective January 2012, is a human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis C virus prevention measure designed to expand syringe access among injection drug users (IDUs) by allowing pharmacies to sell syringes without a prescription. This study assesses self-reported implementation of SB41 and characterizes barriers amenable to intervention.Design: Interviewer-administered survey.Setting and Participants: Fresno and Kern Counties, CA. Pharmacists and other pharmacy staff (n = 404) at 212 pharmacies.Outcome Measure: Self-reported nonprescription pharmacy sales to known or suspected IDUs.Results: Overall, 29.3% of participants said their pharmacy would sell nonprescription syringes to a known or suspected IDU, whereas a far higher proportion (79.3%) would sell nonprescription syringes to a person with diabetes. More than one-half said that their pharmacy requires nonprescription syringe purchasers to enter their signature and name and address in a log book although that is not required under SB41. Fewer than 2 out of 3 participants (61.1%) knew that it is legal to sell nonprescription syringes to IDUs. That knowledge, as well as having syringe sales practices based on both store policy and discretion, were positively associated with IDU syringe sales after controlling for other factors. Working at an independent pharmacy, agreeing that only people with "medical conditions" such as diabetes should be able to buy syringes, and viewing syringe sales to IDUs as "not good business" were independently but negatively associated with IDU syringe sales.Conclusion: This study complements an earlier syringe purchase trial documenting low participation in voluntary nonprescription syringe sales under SB41 in Fresno and Kern Counties. In the absence of legislation requiring mandatory syringe sales, interventions should be developed to increase knowledge of the law and frame addiction as a medical condition, with a special focus on independent pharmacies. Informational interventions should stress the need to eliminate log book documentation requirements, which may serve as a barrier to IDU purchase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A small number of studies have used a natural experiment approach to examine the health impacts of increased economic resources stemming from Native American-owned casinos. We build on this work by examining whether casinos are associated with obesity-related health in utero.Methods: We examined whether casino openings or expansion (as proxy for increased economic resources) are associated with a decreased likelihood of infants being born large-for-gestational-age (LGA), an important risk factor for childhood overweight/obesity. We used repeated cross-sectional data from California birth records (1987-2011) to assess the prevalence of LGA births among Native Americans (n = 21 011). Using zip code fixed-effect regression models, we compared how prevalence of LGA births changed in association with casino openings or expansions, while controlling for secular trends through the inclusion of a comparison group of Native American newborns in zip codes that were eligible to open or expand casinos, but did not do so. In sensitivity analyses, we evaluated whether there was any change in small-for-gestational-age births (SGA).Results: Average prevalence of LGA births over the period was 11%. Every one slot machine per capita increase was associated with a 0.13 percentage point decrease (95% confidence interval: -0.25, -0.01) in the prevalence of LGA births but was not associated with SGA prevalence.Conclusions: Casino expansion in California is associated with a lower prevalence of LGA births. Interpreted in combination with previous work showing that California casino expansions were associated with a lower body mass index (BMI) among schoolchildren, these results suggest that casinos are associated with improvement in a surrogate marker of excess adiposity. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which casinos might be associated with obesity-related health outcomes among Native Americans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess the effect of a 50% discount on fruits and vegetables (F&V) on the purchase and intake of F&V and on psychosocial determinants of F&V intake: self-efficacy (SE), stages of change (SOC), and perceived barriers (PB).Methods: This randomized controlled trial was conducted in local supermarkets over 16 weeks, including a 4-week baseline, 8-week discount intervention, and 4-week follow-up. Shoppers with overweight or obesity (BMI > 25) were randomized to receive a discount or no discount via their reward scan card after the baseline. Twenty-four-hour recalls and psychosocial measures were obtained for each study period.Results: Purchases (P < 0.0005) and intakes (P = 0.019) of F&V increased significantly during the intervention, while only F&V intake was sustained at follow-up. The discount intervention increased SE (P < 0.01) and SOC (P < 0.05) and did not decrease PB (P = 0.057) during the intervention. SOC mediated the discount intervention effect on F&V intake (P < 0.05) during the intervention, explaining 43% of variance.Conclusions: A supermarket discount intervention led to increases in purchases and intakes of F&V and increases in the psychosocial factors SE and SOC and did not decrease PB. The discount intervention prompted participants to move from the preparation to action stage of SOC, which acted as a mediator for increased F&V intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Aims: Alcohol is an increasingly important risk factor in the global burden of disease. The acute harms experienced and persistence of drinking patterns established in adolescence motivate investigating influences on youth drinking. The aim is to examine association between heavier drinking in young people and their choice of beverage type, purchase outlet and price.Design and Methods: A nationally representative sample of New Zealand drinkers (N = 1056) aged 16-19 years recruited using random digit dialling was surveyed in 2012 as part of the International Alcohol Control study. Typical quantities consumed and frequency of alcohol consumption categorised respondents into lower, medium and heavier consumption groups. Beverage choice, prices paid and on or off-premise purchase were related to consumption using univariate analysis. Logistic analysis was used to examine multivariate factors predicting membership of consumption groups.Results: Twenty percent of the sample consumed six or more drinks at least once a week, increasing to 1 in 4 for those 18 years and older. Heavier drinkers consumed more alcohol in the form of ready to drinks (RTD) especially high-potency RTDs. Lower consumers drank greater proportion of wine. Heavier drinkers paid less than medium consumers who paid less than lower consumers. High-potency RTDs were cheaper per unit of alcohol than other beverages and chosen by heavier drinkers resulting in lower prices.Discussion and Conclusions: Heavy consumption of alcohol remains common in New Zealand young drinkers. Heavier drinkers paid less to purchase alcohol and consumed more alcohol in the form of high-potency RTDs. [Wall M, Casswell S, Yeh L-C. Purchases by heavier drinking young people concentrated in lower priced beverages: Implications for policy. Drug Alcohol Rev 2017;36:352-358]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To conduct a pilot study to assess the feasibility of modifying food truck meals to meet the My Plate guidelines as well as the acceptability of healthier meals among consumers.Design: We recruited the owners of Latino food trucks (loncheras) in 2013-2014 and offered an incentive for participation, assistance with marketing and training by a bilingual dietitian. We surveyed customers and we audited purchases to estimate sales of the modified meals.Setting: City of Los Angeles, CA, USA.Subjects: Owners or operators of Latino food trucks (loncheras) and their customers.Results: We enrolled twenty-two lonchera owners and eleven completed the intervention, offering more than fifty new menu items meeting meal guidelines. Sales of the meals comprised 2 % of audited orders. Customers rated the meals highly; 97 % said they would recommend and buy them again and 75 % of participants who completed the intervention intended to continue offering the healthier meals. However, adherence to guidelines drifted after several months of operation and participant burden was cited as a reason for dropout among three of eleven lonchera owners who dropped out.Conclusions: Lonchera owners/operators who participated reported minimal difficulty in modifying menu items. Given the difficulty in enrolment, expanding this programme and ensuring adherence would likely need to be accomplished through regulatory requirements, monitoring and feedback, similar to the methods used to achieve compliance with sanitary standards. A companion marketing campaign would be helpful to increase consumer demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The benefit of male circumcision is greatest among men who are most at risk of HIV infection. Encouraging this population of men to get circumcised maximizes the benefit that can be achieved through the scale-up of circumcision programs. This paper examines how the price of circumcision affects the risk profile of men who receive a voluntary medical circumcision.Methods: In 2010, 1649 uncircumcised adult men in urban Malawi were interviewed and provided a voucher for a subsidized voluntary medical male circumcision, at randomly assigned prices. Clinical data were collected indicating whether the men in the study received a circumcision.Results: Men who took-up circumcision with a zero-priced voucher were 25 percentage points less likely than those who took-up with a positive-price voucher, to be from a tribe that traditionally circumcises (p=0.101). Zero-priced vouchers also brought in men with more sexual partners in the past year (p=0.075) and past month (p=0.003). None of the men who were most at risk of HIV at baseline (those with multiple partners and who did not use a condom the last time they had sex) received a circumcision if they were offered a positive-priced voucher. Lowering the price to zero increased circumcision take-up to 25% for men of this risk group. The effect of price on take-up was largest among those at highest risk (p=0.096).Conclusions: Reducing the price of circumcision surgery to zero can increase take-up among those who are most at risk of HIV infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses research regarding rural grocery storeowners' perceptions of their communities, their business practices, and factors that influence their sustainability and the ability to support healthy food choices in Nebraska as of 2016. According to the article, storeowners reported on strategies that they employ to remain competitive by focusing on customer service and product quality. The public health aspects of obesity in America are examined, along with small U.S. stores.

Introduction: Higher tobacco taxes reduce tobacco use. On military installations, cigarettes and other tobacco products are sold tax-free, keeping prices artificially low. Pricing regulations in the military specify that tobacco should be within 5% of the local most competitive price, but prices still average almost 13% lower than those at local Walmarts.Methods: To gain insight into policy leaders' ideas and positions on military tobacco pricing, we interviewed members of the Department of Defense (DoD) Addictive Substances Misuse Advisory Committee and the Advisory Committee on Tobacco about tobacco pricing policies (n = 12).Results: Participants frequently lacked specific knowledge of details of military pricing policy, and the impact higher prices might have on military tobacco use. Most participants thought tobacco should not be sold at military stores, but many also felt that this policy change was unlikely due to tobacco industry pressure, and DoD reliance on tobacco profits to support Morale, Welfare, and Recreation funds.Conclusions: Achieving a tobacco-free military will require changing pricing policy, but this study suggests that for effective implementation, military leadership must also understand and articulate more clearly the rationale for doing so.Implications: Previous work has found that adherence to military tobacco pricing policy is inconsistent at best. This study suggests that lack of knowledge about the policy and conflicting pressures resulting from the funding stream tobacco sales represent extend to high level military policy leaders. Without clearer information and direction, these leaders are unlikely to be able to establish and implement better tobacco pricing policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our objective was to compare the effect of commercial weight-loss programs on blood pressure and lipids to control/education or counseling among individuals with overweight/obesity. We conducted a systematic review by searching MEDLINE and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews from inception to November 2014 and references identified by the programs. We included randomized, controlled trials ≥12weeks in duration. Two reviewers extracted information on study design, interventions, and mean change in systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c), triglycerides, and total cholesterol and assessed risk of bias. We included 27 trials. Participants' blood pressure and lipids were normal at baseline in most trials. At 12months, Weight Watchers showed little change in blood pressure or lipid outcomes as compared to control/education (2 trials). At 12months, Atkins' participants had higher HDL-c and lower triglycerides than counseling (4 trials). Other programs had inconsistent effects or lacked long-term studies. Risk of bias was high for most trials of all programs. In conclusion, limited data exist regarding most commercial weight-loss programs' long-term effects on blood pressure and lipids. Clinicians should be aware that Weight Watchers has limited data that demonstrate CVD risk factor benefits relative to control/education. Atkins may be a reasonable option for patients with dyslipidemia. Additional well-designed, long-term trials are needed to confirm these conclusions and evaluate other commercial programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drinking in bars contributes to numerous public health problems, including violence and motor vehicle crashes. In order to formulate effective preventive interventions, it is essential to identify which specific features of bar environments are related to increased risks. Unobtrusive ethnographic observations are one approach that has been used to characterize these features; however, no studies have assessed reliability in a representative sample of bars. We performed brief scouting assessments in all 165 bars in six purposively selected California cities, followed by unobtrusive observations from a subsequent representative sample of 97 bars which were located in low- and high-bar density areas of the cities. Inter-rater reliability between two independent observers assessed individual item reliability, and principal components analyses assessed the reliability of a series of scales describing the physical, social, and economic characteristics of the bars. For the scouting assessment, items exhibited at least moderate reliability (κ orr≥ 0.40). For the unobtrusive observations, items assessing physical and economic environments (e.g. pool table present, κ = 0.90; index beer cost,r = 0.82) had moderate to outstanding reliability (κ orr> 0.80). Items describing the social environment generally had poorer reliability, though group aspects (e.g. patron count,r = 0.78; patron circulation,r = 0.64) had better reliability than individual behaviors (e.g. derogatory speech, κ = 0.12). Scales constructed from specific sets of items exhibited modest reliability. The individual metrics and principal components we present will enable future studies seeking to disaggregate relationships between bar characteristics and public health problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Smoking rates and tobacco-related health problems vary by race and ethnicity. We explore whether cigarette prices, a determinant of tobacco use, differ across racial and ethnic groups, and whether consumer behaviors influence these differences.Methods: We used national Tobacco Use Supplement data from 23 299 adult smokers in the United States to calculate average reported cigarette pack prices for six racial and ethnic groups. Using multivariate regression models, we analyzed the independent effect of race and ethnicity on price, and whether these effects changed once indicators of carton purchasing, menthol use, Indian reservation purchase, and state market prices were incorporated.Results: American Indians and whites pay similar amounts and report the lowest prices. Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians reported paying $0.42, $0.68, and $0.89 more for a pack of cigarettes than whites. After accounting for differences in consumer behaviors, these gaps shrunk to $0.27, $0.29, and $0.27, respectively, while American Indians paid $0.38 more than whites. Pack buying was associated with $0.99 higher per-pack prices than carton buying, which was most common among whites. Additionally, people who purchased off an Indian reservation reporting paying $1.54 more than those who purchased on reservation.Conclusions: Average reported cigarette prices vary by race and ethnicity, in part due to differences in product use and purchase location. Tobacco price policies, especially those that target low prices for multipack products or on Indian reservations may increase the prices paid by whites and American Indians, who smoke at the highest rates and pay the least per pack.Implications: This study examines differences in reported prices paid by different racial and ethnic groups, using recent, national data from the United States. Results indicating that racial and ethnic groups that smoke at the highest rates (American Indians and whites) also pay the least are consistent with evidence that price is a key factor in cigarette use. Additional analysis finds that cigarette purchasing behaviors, especially carton buying and purchasing on Indian reservations, partially account for the documented price differences, and suggest that policies focused on bulk purchases (carton, multipack) and reservation prices have strong tobacco control potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a new empirical study of the effects of televised alcohol advertising and alcohol price on alcohol consumption. A novel feature of this study is that the empirical work is guided by insights from behavioral economic theory. Unlike the theory used in most prior studies, this theory predicts that restriction on alcohol advertising on TV would be more effective in reducing consumption for individuals with high consumption levels but less effective for individuals with low consumption levels. The estimation work employs data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, and the empirical model is estimated with quantile regressions. The results show that advertising has a small positive effect on consumption and that this effect is relatively larger at high consumption levels. The continuing importance of alcohol taxes is also supported. Education is employed as a proxy for self-regulation, and the results are consistent with this assumption. The key conclusion is that restrictions on alcohol advertising on TV would have a small negative effect on drinking, and this effect would be larger for heavy drinkers. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Illegal drug markets are shaped by multiple forces, including local actors and broader economic, political, social, and criminal justice systems that intertwine to impact health and social wellbeing. Ethnographic analyses that interrogate multiple dimensions of drug markets may offer both applied and theoretical insights into drug use, particularly in developing nations where new markets and local patterns of use traditionally have not been well understood. This paper explores the emergent drug market in Kisumu, western Kenya, where our research team recently documented evidence of injection drug use.Methods: Our exploratory study of injection drug use was conducted in Kisumu from 2013 to 2014. We draw on 151 surveys, 29 in-depth interviews, and 8 months of ethnographic fieldwork to describe the drug market from the perspective of injectors, focusing on their perceptions of the market and reports of drug use therein.Results: Injectors described a dynamic market in which the availability of drugs and proliferation of injection drug use have taken on growing importance in Kisumu. In addition to reports of white and brown forms of heroin and concerns about drug adulteration in the market, we unexpectedly documented widespread perceptions of cocaine availability and injection in Kisumu. Examining price data and socio-pharmacological experiences of cocaine injection left us with unconfirmed evidence of its existence, but opened further possibilities about how the chaos of new drug markets and diffusion of injection-related beliefs and practices may lend insight into the sociopolitical context of western Kenya.Conclusions: We suggest a need for expanded drug surveillance, education and programming responsive to local conditions, and further ethnographic inquiry into the social meanings of emergent drug markets in Kenya and across sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The private for-profit sector is an important source of treatment for malaria. However, private patients face high prices for the recommended treatment for uncomplicated malaria, artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs), which makes them more likely to receive cheaper, less effective non-artemisinin therapies (nATs). This study seeks to better understand consumer antimalarial prices by documenting and exploring the pricing behaviour of retailers and wholesalers. Using data collected in 2009-10, we present survey estimates of antimalarial retail prices, and wholesale- and retail-level price mark-ups from six countries (Benin, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Uganda and Zambia), along with qualitative findings on factors affecting pricing decisions. Retail prices were lowest for nATs, followed by ACTs and artemisinin monotherapies (AMTs). Retailers applied the highest percentage mark-ups on nATs (range: 40% in Nigeria to 100% in Cambodia and Zambia), whereas mark-ups on ACTs (range: 22% in Nigeria to 71% in Zambia) and AMTs (range: 22% in Nigeria to 50% in Uganda) were similar in magnitude, but lower than those applied to nATs. Wholesale mark-ups were generally lower than those at retail level, and were similar across antimalarial categories in most countries. When setting prices wholesalers and retailers commonly considered supplier prices, prevailing market prices, product availability, product characteristics and the costs related to transporting goods, staff salaries and maintaining a property. Price discounts were regularly used to encourage sales and were sometimes used by wholesalers to reward long-term customers. Pricing constraints existed only in Benin where wholesaler and retailer mark-ups are regulated; however, unlicensed drug vendors based in open-air markets did not adhere to the pricing regime. These findings indicate that mark-ups on antimalarials are reasonable. Therefore, improving ACT affordability would be most readily achieved by interventions that reduce commodity prices for retailers, such as ACT subsidies, pooled purchasing mechanisms and cost-effective strategies to increase the distribution coverage area of wholesalers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Rising greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) have implications for health and up to 30 % of emissions globally are thought to arise from agriculture. Synergies exist between diets low in GHGEs and health however some foods have the opposite relationship, such as sugar production being a relatively low source of GHGEs. In order to address this and to further characterise a healthy sustainable diet, we model the effect on UK non-communicable disease mortality and GHGEs of internalising the social cost of carbon into the price of food alongside a 20 % tax on sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs).Methods: Developing previously published work, we simulate four tax scenarios: (A) a GHGEs tax of £2.86/tonne of CO2 equivalents (tCO2e)/100 g product on all products with emissions greater than the mean across all food groups (0.36 kgCO2e/100 g); (B) scenario A but with subsidies on foods with emissions lower than 0.36 kgCO2e/100 g such that the effect is revenue neutral; (C) scenario A but with a 20 % sales tax on SSBs; (D) scenario B but with a 20 % sales tax on SSBs. An almost ideal demand system is used to estimate price elasticities and a comparative risk assessment model is used to estimate changes to non-communicable disease mortality.Results: We estimate that scenario A would lead to 300 deaths delayed or averted, 18,900 ktCO2e fewer GHGEs, and £3.0 billion tax revenue; scenario B, 90 deaths delayed or averted and 17,100 ktCO2e fewer GHGEs; scenario C, 1,200 deaths delayed or averted, 18,500 ktCO2e fewer GHGEs, and £3.4 billion revenue; and scenario D, 2,000 deaths delayed or averted and 16,500 ktCO2e fewer GHGEs. Deaths averted are mainly due to increased fibre and reduced fat consumption; a SSB tax reduces SSB and sugar consumption.Conclusions: Incorporating the social cost of carbon into the price of food has the potential to improve health, reduce GHGEs, and raise revenue. The simple addition of a tax on SSBs can mitigate negative health consequences arising from sugar being low in GHGEs. Further conflicts remain, including increased consumption of unhealthy foods such as cakes and nutrients such as salt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Importance: Single cigarettes, which are sold without warning labels and often evade taxes, can serve as a gateway for youth smoking. The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009 gives the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authority to regulate the manufacture, distribution, and marketing of tobacco products, including prohibiting the sale of single cigarettes. To enforce these regulations, the FDA conducted over 335,661 inspections between 2010 and September 30, 2014, and allocated over $115 million toward state inspections contracts.Objective: To examine differences in single cigarette violations across states and determine if likely correlates of single cigarette sales predict single cigarette violations at the state level.Design: Cross-sectional study of publicly available FDA warning letters from January 1 to July 31, 2014.Setting: All 50 states and the District of Columbia.Participants: Tobacco retailer inspections conducted by FDA (n = 33 543).Exposures For Observational Studies: State cigarette tax, youth smoking prevalence, poverty, and tobacco production.Main Outcomes and Measures: State proportion of FDA warning letters issued for single cigarette violations.Results: There are striking differences in the number of single cigarette violations found by state, with 38 states producing no warning letters for selling single cigarettes even as state policymakers developed legislation to address retailer sales of single cigarettes. The state proportion of warning letters issued for single cigarettes is not predicted by state cigarette tax, youth smoking, poverty, or tobacco production, P = .12.Conclusions and Relevance: Substantial, unexplained variation exists in violations of single cigarette sales among states. These data suggest the possibility of differences in implementation of FDA inspections and the need for stronger quality monitoring processes across states implementing FDA inspections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Tobacco use is markedly higher among lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations than heterosexuals. Higher density of tobacco retailers is found in neighborhoods with lower income and more racial/ethnic minorities. Same-sex couples tend to live in similar neighborhoods, but the association of this demographic with tobacco retailer density has not been examined.Methods: For a national sample of 97 US counties, we calculated the number of tobacco retailers per 1000 persons and rates of same-sex couples per 1000 households in each census tract (n = 17 941). Using spatial regression, we examined the association of these variables in sex-stratified models, including neighborhood demographics and other environmental characteristics to examine confounding.Results: Results from spatial regression show that higher rates of both female and male same-sex couples were associated with a higher density of tobacco retailers. However the magnitude of this association was small. For female couples, the association was not significant after controlling for area-level characteristics, such as percent black, percent Hispanic, median household income, the presence of interstate highways, and urbanicity, which are neighborhood correlates of higher tobacco retailer density. For male couples, the association persisted after control for these characteristics.Conclusion: Same-sex couples reside in areas with higher tobacco retailer density, and for men, this association was not explained by neighborhood confounders, such as racial/ethnic composition and income. While lesbian, gay, and bisexual disparities in tobacco use may be influenced by neighborhood environment, the magnitude of the association suggests other explanations of these disparities remain important areas of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A growing body of evidence indicates that the density of tobacco retail outlets around the home residence may influence tobacco use among youth and adults. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of neighborhood tobacco retail outlet density on young adult initiation of different tobacco product types.Methods: Cross-sectional data from a 2013 nationally representative sample of young adults aged 18-34 was examined in relation to a 2012 geocoded listing of all outlets likely to sell tobacco in the United States. Separate multivariable logistic regression analyses examined associations between neighborhood outlet density and past 6 months first use of cigarettes, non-cigarette combustible products, and noncombustible products among adults aged 18-24 and 25-34.Results: Outlet density was significantly associated with recent initiation of cigarettes and other combustibles, but this impact varied for younger and older groups. Increased density was significantly associated with a higher likelihood of initiating cigarette use among adults aged 25-34 (OR = 3.75, 95% CI = 1.18, 11.90), and of initiating non-cigarette combustible use among 18-24 year olds (OR = 3.16, 95% CI = 1.03, 9.74). There was no impact of outlet density on recent noncombustible product initiation among either group.Conclusion: This study is the first to examine the impact of tobacco outlet density on young adult initiation of cigarettes and other tobacco products. Findings demonstrate that residential neighborhood outlet density is associated with recent initiation of combustible products and this effect varies by product type and age. The tobacco outlet environment may be a critical factor in promoting young adult tobacco use initiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Prior studies suggest that Black and Hispanic minority populations are exposed to greater concentrations of alcohol outlets, potentially contributing to health disparities between these populations and the White majority. We tested the alternative hypothesis that urban economic systems cause outlets to concentrate in low-income areas and, controlling for these effects, lower demand among minority populations leads to fewer outlets.Method: Market potential for alcohol sales, a surrogate for demand, was estimated from survey and census data across census block groups for 50 California cities. Hierarchical Bayesian conditional autoregressive Poisson models then estimated relationships between observed geographic distributions of outlets and the market potential for alcohol, income, population size, and racial and ethnic composition.Results: Market potentials were significantly smaller among lower income Black, Hispanic, and Asian populations. Block groups with greater market potential and lower income had greater concentrations of outlets. When we controlled for these effects, the racial and ethnic group composition of block groups was mostly unrelated to outlet concentrations.Conclusions: Health disparities related to exposure to alcohol outlets are primarily driven by distributions of income and population density across neighborhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most activity-based financing systems, payers set prices reactively based on historical averages of hospital reported costs. If hospitals respond to prices, payers might set prices proactively to affect the volume of particular treatments or clinical practice. We evaluate the effects of a unique initiative in England in which the price offered to hospitals for discharging patients on the same day as a particular procedure was increased by 24%, while the price for inpatient treatment remained unchanged. Using national hospital records for 205,784 patients admitted for the incentivised procedure and 838,369 patients admitted for a range of non-incentivised procedures between 1 December 2007 and 31 March 2011, we consider whether this price change had the intended effect and/or produced unintended effects. We find that the price change led to an almost six percentage point increase in the daycase rate and an 11 percentage point increase in the planned daycase rate. Patients benefited from a lower proportion of procedures reverted to open surgery during a planned laparoscopic procedure and from a reduction in long stays. There was no evidence that readmission and death rates were affected. The results suggest that payers can set prices proactively to incentivise hospitals to improve quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organizations are increasingly subject to rating and ranking by third-party evaluators. Research in this area tends to emphasize the direct effects of ratings systems that occur when ratings give key audiences, such as consumers or investors, more information about a rated firm. Yet, ratings systems may also indirectly influence organizations when the collective presence of more rated peers alters the broader institutional and competitive milieu. Rated firms may be more responsive to ratings systems when surrounded by more rated peers, and ratings may generate diffuse or spillover effects even among unrated firms. We test these arguments by analyzing how rated and unrated firms change their pollution behavior when more firms in their peer group are rated on environmental performance. Results indicate that the presence of more rated peers is often associated with emissions reductions. This relationship varies, however, by whether a firm was rated, whether the rating was positive or negative (if rated), and, often, features of the competitive and regulatory environment. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Prior research on female sex workers (FSW) in China, and their risk for HIV and STI, neglects the nuanced experiences of ethnic minority FSW. We conducted participant observations and in-depth interviews with 33 FSW and six venue bosses to describe the experiences of FSW and management structures in low and high-priced sex work venues in Liuzhou, China. In low-priced venues, FSW had more autonomy and stronger relationships with their ethnic minority peers. Mid- and high-priced venues had more formal management structures. Ethnic minority FSW working in higher priced venues experienced less support and kinship with their peers. HIV/STI prevention outreach activities occurred in all of the venues, but they were not tailored for different venue types or for ethnic minority FSW. Our findings provide guidance for tailoring public health programs that meet the needs of ethnic minority women working in different types of sex work venues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims This study aims to compare the average price of liquor in the United States between retail alcohol outlets in states that have a monopoly ('control' states) with those that do not ('licence' states). Design A cross-sectional study of brand-specific alcohol prices in the United States. Setting We determined the average prices in February 2012 of 74 brands of liquor among the 13 control states that maintain a monopoly on liquor sales at the retail level and among a sample of 50 license-state liquor stores, using their online-available prices. Measurements We calculated average prices for 74 brands of liquor by control versus license state. We used a random-effects regression model to estimate differences between control and license state prices-overall and by alcoholic beverage type. We also compared prices between the 13 control states. Findings The overall mean price for the 74 brands was $27.79 in the license states [95% confidence interval ( CI): $25.26-30.32] and $29.82 in the control states (95% CI: $26.98-32.66). Based on the random-effects linear regression model, the average liquor price was approximately $2 lower (6.9% lower) in license states. Conclusions In the United States monopoly of alcohol retail outlets appears to be associated with slightly higher liquor prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study to evaluate and compare strategies by many U.S. firms to promote and offer vaccination including vaccination clinics to prevent lost productivity due to influenza and their economic value. The study concluded that employer-sponsored influenza vaccination clinics are generally cost-saving and incremental costs were lower in larger firms, and when influenza was assumed to be more contagious, and when vaccine effectiveness was assumed to be higher.

Background Marketing on television showcases less-healthful options, with emerging research suggesting movies promote similar products. Given the obesity epidemic, understanding advertising to youth should be a public health imperative. The objective of this study was to estimate youth impressions to food and beverages delivered through movies. Methods Impressions were calculated by dividing US receipts annually into average movie ticket prices, then multiplying this by the number of brand appearances. Examination by ratings, product types and ages were conducted by Spearman rank correlation coefficient tests. Results Youth in the USA saw over 3 billion food, beverage or food–retail establishment (FRE) impressions on average, annually from 1996 to 2005. Those aged 12–18 viewed over half of all impressions, with PG-13-rated movies containing 61.5% of impressions. There were no significant trends in brand appearances by food, beverage or FRE impressions over the decade, although there was a decreasing trend in R-rated impressions for both foods (P< 0.01) and beverages (P< 0.01), but not FREs (P= 0.08). Conclusions Movies promote billions of food and beverage impressions annually to youth. Given the public health crisis of obesity, future research should further investigate these trends, as well as the potential association of these unhealthy exposures in youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To evaluate the short-term economic impact of legislation removing point of sale tobacco promotional displays (ie, tobacco displays and other point of sale tobacco advertising) in Ireland, implemented July 2009, on cigarette sales across a range of categories of retail outlets. Methods Cigarette sales were evaluated using scanning (weekly data since January 2006) and audit data (bimonthly since November 2007) within different retail categories using data sourced from AC Nielsen, Ireland. Visual inspection and time-series regression techniques were used where appropriate to assess changes in sales over time and in relation to the legislation. Results No change was observed in sales data in any retail category over and above seasonal patterns and an underlying downward trend over time. Similarly, where available data enabled statistical analysis, there was no significant effect in the short term (up to 12 months after implementation) on retail sales of tobacco products, over and above seasonal and long-term trends. Conclusions Recent claims of substantial revenue losses and closures of small retailers as a direct result of the removal of point of sale tobacco promotional displays in Ireland are not borne out by these data. The removal of point of sale displays is aimed at reducing the pernicious effects of tobacco advertising on children and is therefore likely to have an impact on sales over a much more protracted time period. This should enable retailers to adapt over time, perhaps using such regulations as an opportunity to play a role in promoting healthier products in the local community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To determine if the Ohio statewide smoke-free law is associated with economic activity in Ohio or Kentucky counties that lie on the border between the two states. In November 2006, Ohio implemented a comprehensive statewide smoke-free law for all indoor workplaces. Design A feasible generalised least squares (FLGS) time series design to estimate the impact of the Ohio smoke-free law on Kentucky and Ohio border counties. Setting Six Kentucky and six Ohio counties that lie on the border between the two states. Subjects All reporting hospitality and accommodation establishments in all Kentucky and Ohio counties including but not limited to food and drinking establishments, hotels and casinos. Main outcome measures Total number of employees, total wages paid and number of reported establishments in all hospitality and accommodation services, 6 years before Ohio's law and 1 year after. Results There is no evidence of a disproportionate change in economic activity in Ohio or Kentucky border counties relative to their non-border counterparts. There was no evidence of a relation between Ohio's smoke-free law and economic activity in Kentucky border counties. The law generated a positive influence on wages and number of establishments in Ohio border counties. The null result cannot be explained by low test power, as minimum changes necessary in the dependent variables to detect a significant influence are very reasonable in size. Conclusions Our data add to the large body of evidence that smoke-free laws are neutral with respect to the hospitality business across jurisdictions with and without laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]