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The public transport authority (PTA) in Helsinki Metropolitan Area, Helsinki Region Transport (HSL) and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland have been assessing and documenting performance (regulated emissions, carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption) of city buses for some 20 year. The data generated is used by HSL as an element supporting the tendering of bus services, but also to develop future bus fleet strategies. The report at hand is the first report in English on the continuous bus performance evaluation for HSL. lt is based on the Finnish 2018 annual report, but it has been expanded to serve as a stand-alone summary report of the activities. Between the spring of 2002 and end of 2018, WT has tested in total 178 city buses for HSL. The sample includes Euro I - Euro Vl diesel buses, Euro ll - Vl gas (CNG) buses and EEV ethanol buses. This report presents a summary of all data generated It is fair to say that current buses are much cleaner than the ones of the early 90's. The results cleady show the positive development in NO" and PM emission levels over the years, from Euro I to Euro Vl. lt is also evident that the step from Euro V/EEV to Euro Vl brought about the biggest relative reduction so far.

New renewable and alternative fuels are introduced in the transport sector. Valid and comparable data is needed both on the direct and indirect effects of the new technologies to enable wide-ranging decision-making to increase competitiveness of the best low-emission technologies and to avoid investment in the harmful development, which could lead to new emission related problems. For alternative fuels, composition of the particulate matter (PM) and semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) can be very different from that for the traditional fuels. Toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity of samples can also vary. The goal here is to investigate comprehensively the exhaust gas from cars using alternative fuels.The results showed differences in toxic emission species between cars using conventional and alternative fuels, as well as between modern cars compared with older Euro 2 diesel cars. As concerns the nitrogen containing species, the NOx and N2O emissions were the highest for the diesel cars, while ammonia emissions were higher for the TWC equipped E10, E85 and CNG fueled cars than for the diesel cars. The methane emission was the highest for the CNG car, while the other hydrocarbon emissions were the lowest for CNG and diesel cars. For the E85 fuelled car, the hydrocarbon emissions composed mostly of methane and ethene, while for the E10 fuelled car the aromatic compounds were dominating. The aldehyde (particularly formaldehyde) emissions were the highest for the Euro 2 diesel car, while the lowest for the Euro 6 diesel car having DPF. E85/FFV had high acetaldehyde and ethanol emissions.The highest PM and solid particulate number emissions were measured for the Euro 2 diesel car, and the lowest for the CNG and the Euro 6 diesel cars. SVOC emissions were higher than the PM emissions for all cars, however, heavier PAHs were present mainly in PM. The CNG and modern diesel cars were the lowest PAH emitters, while the highest PAH emitters were the older diesel and the Euro 6 E10 and E85 fuelled cars. All the PM samples were mutagenic with the highest response for the Euro 6 E10 fuelled car. The SVOC samples were mutagenic at tested concentrations only for diesel cars. Considering the oxidative potential for both PM and SVOC phases, the diesel cars had the highest level. One Euro 6 diesel car indicated potentially harmful SVOC emission that would deserve further studies.

Energiatehokkuuden kehittyminen suotuisasti on oleellinen tekijä matkalla kohti vähähiilistä ja resurssitehokasta Suomea, Eurooppaa ja maailmaa. Julkaisussa esitetään energiatehokkuuden toteutunut kehitys 20-25 viime vuoden aikana eri energiankäyttösektoreilla ja tarkastellaan tulevaisuuden energiatehostumispotentiaaleja. Kotitalouksien kokonaisenergian kulutus on ollut tasaisessa kasvussa vuoteen 2008 asti, jonka jälkeen kulutus on kääntynyt laskuun. Laskuun tosin vaikuttaa ennen kaikkea tilastointitavan muutos vuosina 2007-2008, eikä siitä voi vetää liian pitkälle ulottuvia johtopäätöksiä tulevaisuutta ajatellen. Suurin selittäjä itse energiakäytön kasvulle on asuntojen lukumäärän lisääntyminen, mutta nykyään toki asutaan paljon väljemmin ja väestökin kasvaa. Energiaintensiteetti on myös kasvanut, mutta siihen voi löytyä tilastointiin liittyviä selittäjiä. Kotitaloussähkön käytön ja intensiteetin kasvu näyttää pysähtyneen 2000-luvun puolivälissä, mutta tilastointitapamuutoksen takia on vaikeata arvioida nykytilaa ja -suuntausta. Rakennusten lämmitysenergian kulutus voi vähentyä 21-25 % vuoteen 2050 mennessä, missä suurin säästö tulee vanhojen talojen poistumasta. TIMES-VTT- mallin avulla arvioitiin rakennusten ominaiskulutusten vähenevän rakennustyypin mukaan noin 28-47 % vuodesta 2010 vuoteen 2050 mennessä. Henkilöliikenteen energiakäytössä nähdään selvä kasvutrendi ennen kaikkea suoritteen eli matkustajakilometrien imussa, vaikka energian käyttö on tehostunut prosentin vuodessa. Tavaraliikenteessä energiankäyttö on ollut taantumaan asti kasvussa. Tavaraliikenteen energiatehokkuus on heikentynyt viime vuosina oltuaan sitä ennen toistakymmentä vuotta vakaa. Liikenteelle esitetään eri arvioissa noin 0,4-1,5 %:n vuosittaista tehostumista liikennemuodon mukaan. TIMES-VTT-malli arvioi, että suoritekohtaiset ominaiskulutukset alenevat noin 25-60 % (paitsi tavarajunilla alle 5 %) vuoteen 2050 mennessä. Teollisuudessa näkyy selvä arvonlisään suhteutettu energiankäytön tehostumistrendi vuoteen 2007 asti, mutta sitten suunta muuttui. Kysymys kuuluukin, onko kyse taantumasta vai pysyvämmästä rakennemuutoksesta. Pohjoismaisen energiaintensiivisen teollisuuden energiasäästöpotentiaalit ovat 10-30 % teollisuudenalan mukaan, kun verrataan parhaimpaan mahdolliseen saatavilla olevaan teknologiaan. Teollisuudessa merkittävimmät kulutusmuutokset tullevat tulevaisuudessa kuitenkin uusista läpimurtotekniikoista ja teknologiamuutoksista. Palveluissa energiankäyttö on kasvanut tasaisesti eikä ole mitään merkkiä siitä, etteikö kasvu jatkuisi myös tulevaisuudessa. Energiatehokkuus on pysynyt melko vakaana ajalla 1996-2008, jonka jälkeen se on taantuman (tai tilastointitapamuutoksen) myötä hieman heikentynyt. Palvelusektorin sähkönkulutus on kasvanut 2,6 %:n vuosivauhtia ja ainoastaan vuosina 2010-2011 tapahtunut käänne voi olla merkki siitä, että muutos voisi olla tulossa. Kansallisen energiatehokkuuden toimintasuunnitelmaan sisältyy energiakäytön tehostamistoimia eri sektoreilla jo yli 50 TWh:n edestä vuoteen 2020 mennessä. Suomi on matkalla EU:n 2020 energiatehokkuustavoitteeseensa. Motivan energiakatselmustoiminnan yhteydessä on arvioitu energiansäästöpotentiaalia katselmustoimintaan osallistuvissa yrityksissä. Sähkönsäästöpotentiaali on suurteollisuutta lukuun ottamatta 6-10 % ja lämmön/polttoainesäästöpotentiaali 11-27 %, ja suurin osa potentiaalista on jo hyödynnetty katselmoiduissa yrityksissä. Tämä on hyvä pitää mielessä arvioitaessa EU:n nykyistä 20 %:n energiatehokkuustavoitetta vuoteen 2020 mennessä ja mahdollisia uusia tavoitteita vuoteen 2030 mennessä. Miksei kaikkia kustannustehokkaita energiasäästömahdollisuuksia ja -potentiaaleja hyödynnetä? Syitä on tutkittu paljon ja ne voidaan kiteyttää taloudelliseen toimintaympäristöön, toimijan prioriteetteihin, päätöksenteossa käytettyihin arviointikriteereihin, yrityksen johtamiskulttuuriin, tietotaidon puutteeseen, vastuiden jakautumiseen ja siihen, etteivät energiatehokkaat ratkaisut aina vastaa alkuperäisiä. Toki on myös otettava huomioon, että mitä yleisemmällä tasolla potentiaaliarviolaskelmat laaditaan, sen huonommin ne vastaavat tosielämän tilanteita.

Julkaisussa "EU:n ilmasto- ja energiapaketin 2030 vaikutukset Suomen energiajärjestelmään ja kansantalouteen" esitetään arviot EU:n ehdottaman toimenpidepaketin vaikutuksista Suomen kasvihuonekaasupäästöihin, energiajärjestelmään ja kansantalouteen. Työn ovat toteuttaneet Teknologian tutkimuskeskus VTT ja Valtion taloudellinen tutkimuskeskus (VATT) työ- ja elinkeinoministeriön sekä ympäristöministeriön toimeksiannosta. Hankkeen toteutuksen aikana 2030-toimenpidepaketin yksityiskohdista, mukaan lukien taakanjako jäsenvaltioiden kesken, ei ollut päätetty. Jatkossa tarvitaankin lisäselvityksiä, jotta voidaan paremmin arvioida politiikan tuomia haasteita ja mahdollisuuksia Suomelle.

Road transport needs de-carbonising actions, but no single solution can solve this challenge. Therefore, multiple technologies must be entertained to find the best-suited alternatives for each given set of boundary conditions. Engine downsizing, dieselization and hybridization contribute to fuel efficiency. Renewable energy can be introduced either through biofuels or electricity from renewable sources to further reduce CO2 emissions. There are numerous individual vehicle types, makes and models, thus the evaluation of future options is challenging. This project aims to deliver first-hand primary data for this kind of evaluations, and improve possibilities to make right-kind of choices among available options.This study demonstrates the differences in efficiency arising from fuel, engine type and size. The core of the evaluation consists of benchmarking a set of passenger cars (“vehicle platforms”) of such make and model that offer multiple choices for engine, i.e. gasoline, flex-fuel (E85), diesel, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), hybrid or EV variations. In addition, the project also demonstrates the differences in efficiency arising from engine type and size. Chassis dynamometer testing provides data on the end-use performance of alternative vehicles. The upstream well-to-tank data for various fuel options is collected by a literature survey.Findings of this study show that while the choice of vehicles engine type and size determines much of the energy consumption of the vehicle, fuel properties still have a major effect on both energy efficiency and tailpipe emissions. Battery electric vehicle was found to be the most energy efficient alternative on all driving situations while the high powered gasoline engine was the worst. The tank-to-wheel (TTW) energy consumption of this upper middle class vehicle was roughly 2.3 to 4.7 times higher on high power gasoline engine than on battery electric vehicle. The maximum power of the engine and the engine type has also an effect to the energy consumption of the vehicle. The powerful gasoline engine consumed some 23 % to 33 % more energy than the moderately powered version. The results of the diesel vehicles support this finding, although the energy efficiency difference between powerful and moderately powered diesel versions was smaller. However, well-to-tank (WTT) properties of the fuel have a significant influence to well-to-wheel (WTW) results, which needs to be considered. The TTW CO2 emissions difference between the two extremes was roughly 1.6 to 1, while the WTW CO2 emissions difference between the two extremes was some 4 to 1.

Today's advanced market economy relies in logistic operations that are both reliable and timely. Road transport is a major contributor to this daily logistics, but also a major consumer of fossil fuels, hence producing a lot of carbon emissions. Furthermore, most of the technologies recently introduced to cut down fuel use and emissions in passenger cars are not practical in heavy trucks running long-distances. This paper focuses on how to more systematically address the energy process and gives some case-examples of progress made in real-world HDVs. Several studies at VTT have been addressing energy use in HDVs. It has become evident that for real improvements in energy efficiency, the complete vehicle must be taken into consideration. We must have better understanding of the factors influencing the energy demand, and not just how to make engines more fuel efficient. For that purpose a break-down of energy use in a heavy truck-trailer combination has been made. The objective for this approach was to give proportions for the various contributors for the energy use, and be able to assess, what kind of progress in each field could be possible. Apart from the holistic and systemic approach, we need metrics to measure the energy consumption in such a way that the results reflect real-world situation as good as possible. Using a chassis dynamometer capable of taking a full-size vehicle and replicating its on-road driving operations has proven to be an excellent tool in terms of precision and repeatability of the results. Adding also road gradient (uphill/downhill) simulation further enhances the realism, and improves the accuracy how closely the duty-cycle is reflected in engine speed/load sequence compared to on-road driving. Eventually, this match is the measure for the success of the method. In case studies several areas of energy use has been addressed, and the potentials for savings in real-use has been determined. These include e.g., choice of tyres for optimum rolling losses without compromising safety and most recently aerodynamic improvements for the complete truck-trailer combination for reduced drag. The paper will portray the achievable energy savings identified in these studies. Test results demonstrate that energy efficiency of heavy trucks can be improved, but for a long-standing and substantial impact the complete design of the vehicle should be viewed from the energy efficiency perspective.

In 2009-2011, a comprehensive project on urban buses was carried out in cooperation with IEA's Implementing Agreements on Alternative Motor Fuels and Bioenergy, with input from additional IEA Implementing Agreements. The objective of the project was to generate unbiased and solid data for use by policy- and decision-makers responsible for public transport using buses. The project comprised four major parts: (1) a well-to-tank (WTT) assessment of alternative fuel pathways, (2) an assessment of bus end-use (tank-to-wheel, TTW) performance, (3) combining WTT and TTW data into well-to-wheel (WTW) data and (4) a cost assessment, including indirect as well as direct costs. Experts at Argonne National Laboratory, Natural Resources Canada and VTT worked on the WTT part. In the TTW part, Environment Canada and VTT generated emission and fuel consumption data by running 21 different buses on chassis dynamometers, generating data for some 180 combinations of vehicle, fuel and driving cycle. The fuels covered included diesel, synthetic diesel, various types of biodiesel fuels, additive treated ethanol, methane and DME. Six different hybrid vehicles were included in the vehicle matrix. The TTW work was topped up by on-road measurements (AVL MTC) as well as some engine dynamometer work (von Thünen Institute). Over the last 15 years, tightening emission regulations and improved engine and exhaust after-treatment technology have reduced regulated emissions by a factor of 10:1 and particulate numbers with a factor of 100:1. Hybridization or light-weighting reduce fuel consumption 20-30%, but otherwise the improvements in fuel efficiency have not been that spectacular. The driving cycle affects regulated emissions and fuel consumption by a factor of 5:1. The fuel effects are at maximum 2.5:1 for regulated emissions (particulates), but as high as 100:1 for WTW greenhouse emissions. WTW energy use varies by a factor on 2.5:1.

Helsinki Region Transport, Neste Oil, Proventia Emission Control, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland and Aalto University carried out a 3.5 year PPP venture "OPTIBIO" to demonstrate the use of paraffinic renewable diesel (hydrotreated vegetable oil HVO) in city buses. The project cooperated with the bus manufacturer Scania. The fleet test in Metropolitan Helsinki, involving some 300 buses at four bus operators, was the largest one in the world to demonstrate this new fuel. The fuels were a 30 % HVO blend and 100 % HVO. The field test was supplemented by a comprehensive in-laboratory research programme on fuel effects on exhaust emissions and low-temperature operability. All in all, the vehicles accumulated some 50 million kilometres between September 2007 and December 2010, of which some 1.5 million kilometres on 100 % HVO. Average distance per vehicle was some 170,000 km. The amounts of fuel used were about 22 million litres of blended fuel and 1 million litres of neat HVO. The project confirmed that HVO actually works as a drop-in fuel, meaning that HVO can replace diesel fuel 100 % without any modifications to the refuelling system or to the vehicles, without causing any operational problems. The emission testing, both the screening and the follow-up measurements, demonstrated significant and permanent emission benefits. Based on the findings of the OPTIBIO project, Scania has approved the use of 100 % HVO (NExBTL) in its city and intercity buses with DC9 engines. After the demonstration phase, the markets will determine the future of high concentration HVO fuels in Finland. Low-level blending is already used commercially to fulfil the general biofuels obligation.

We are entering an era when vehicle technology is going to be diversified. We are facing developments that include improved internal combustion engines, hybrid power trains and fuel cell vehicles, and the fuel spectrum is predicted to grow broader. Energy security, diversification of sources and sustainability are issues discussed as they relate to various fuel alternatives.With today's knowledge, the first fuel cell vehicles will be equipped with PEM fuel cell stacks that operate on hydrogen. Hydrogen can be generated either outside the vehicle or on-board the vehicle. There are several fuel options competing to be the preferred fuel for fuel cell vehicles: sulphur-free gasoline type hydrocarbons, methanol and hydrogen - either gaseous or liquid.It will take years for FC vehicles to really penetrate the market. Meanwhile, we will still be running vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines. Emissions have to be controlled, and therefore practically sulphur-free fuels will be needed. Here the use of natural gas will make a strong point, both regarding possibilities for emission reductions and energy diversification. Thus natural gas has found its way, for example, into the transportation energy scenarios of the European Commission for the year2020.Natural gas will also play a significant role in supplying energy to fuel cell vehicles. Today, the greater part of hydrogen for industrial purposes is produced from natural gas by steam reforming. For energy purposes, hydrogen could be produced from natural gas in both centralised and decentralised systems. Centralised production would even make it possible to remove CO2 by sequestration. It is doubtful with today's technology if it is possible to combine natural gas storage on-board the vehicle with on-board reforming for fuel cell vehicles due to weight and space constraints. If it were possible, it would be a tremendous opportunity to utilise the existing CNG or LNG refuelling network.This report or "Position Paper", which has been prepared within the IANGV Technical Committee, is a status report on vehicle propulsion and fuel technologies. It strives to answer the question as to how natural gas can make a contribution to fuelling the vehicles of the future.The report, which was completed in April 2002, covers, among other things, advances in engine, propulsion and fuel technologies, fuel options, fuel cell technology, hydrogen production and handling and system level efficiencies and emissions. The newest data in the report dates from February 2002. Development in the fuel cell sector is so fast that some information becomes outdated very rapidly. The report does not deal with economic aspects of different fuel and propulsion options.

Imagine a world in which people and goods can move with minimum impact on the local environment and climate. Imagine an intelligent transport system with smart infrastructure and smart, connected vehicles powered predominantly by renewable energy, and with enlightened end-users: private individuals and enterprises. Imagine a system that is actually based on user demand. That is what we would like to see. To put mobility and transport on the track to sustainability, we have to improve energy efficiency, switch to renewable energy and more efficient modes of mobility, and, most importantly, increase smartness at all levels of the system. In practice, the last point means smart and efficient mobility services, cooperative systems, and intelligent vehicles and infrastructure. VTT has a toolbox and the expertise to tackle all the key challenges of smart low-carbon mobility. And, to really make an impact, we are cooperating with all the key stakeholders in the field. Let us re-invent mobility and co-create a better future together!