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Objective The Latina(o)/Hispanic (L/H) population represents the largest and fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States. Migration patterns have evolved and greater diversity (i.e. country of origin) is evident, highlighting the ever-changing heterogeneity of this community and the need for the field of neuropsychology to ensure equitable care for linguistically and culturally diverse communities. This paper aims to provide a flexible protocol of neuropsychological instruments appropriate for primarily Spanish-speaking adults residing in the United States. Method Spanish measures were selected based on availability, translations/cultural modifications, accompanying normative data sets, and clinician experience/acumen. Bilingual/bicultural providers of neuropsychological services to Spanish speakers across the training spectrum working at U.S.-based medical centers implemented a multimodal approach (i.e. literature search, clinical practice parameters, and focus groups) in the development of a multi-domain primary protocol that includes core and supplemental measures that are appropriate for individuals with varying linguistic proficiency and sociocultural demographic characteristics. Results A multi-domain, evidence-based, flexible neuropsychological protocol is presented. Recommendations for test selection based on sociocultural demographic factors and examples of clinical assessment practices are provided via a case illustration. Most instruments included may be applied across cultural and regional backgrounds. Conclusion Provision of neuropsychological services to primarily Spanish-speaking adults presents unique challenges. Existing Spanish measures and accompanying data rarely capture the heterogeneity of L/H individuals. Although Spanish has the largest number of neurocognitive instruments, relative to other languages, robust and representative norms continue to be scarce. Future studies should prioritize collecting normative data from educationally and geographically diverse samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to analyse a corpus of 137 texts published between 1888 and 1899. These texts are included in one of the most successful Spanish-language newspapers published in the United States during the second half of the nineteenth century: Las Novedades (New York, 1876-1918). In the analysis I will determine the linguistic ideologies and the discursive strategies used for the promotion of Hispanism and Spanish language in a sociopolitical context in which the Spanish hegemony was losing all its power at an international level. Thus, the ideologies found are divided in two different categories: the linguistic ideologies that give the language a cultural value and the linguistic ideologies that make reference to the economic and commercial value of the language. The results obtained from this analysis will contribute to understand the role of Spanish language in the United States. Furthermore, this paper presents an unpublished corpus of clear historiographic interest that contributes to clarify the panorama of Hispanism in a country like the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual language immersion (DLI) programs have emerged in the U.S. as effective ways to bring together language minority and language majority speakers in school settings with the goal of bilingualism and bi-literacy for all. However, the proliferation of these programs has raised concerns regarding issues of inequity and dissimilar power dynamics in these spaces (Cervantes-Soon, 2014, "A Critical Look at Dual Language Immersion in the New Latin@ Diaspora." Bilingual Research Journal 37 (1): 64–82; Flores, 2016, Do Black Lives matter in Bilingual Education [Web log post]. Accessed May 1, 2017. https://educationallinguist.wordpress.com/2016/09/11/do-black-lives-matter-in-bilingual-education/; Valdes, 1997, "Dual language immersion programs: A cautionary note concerning the education of language-minority students." Harvard Educational Review 67: 391–430, 2018, "Analyzing the curricularization of language in two-way immersion education: Restating two cautionary notes." Bilingual Research Journal). With this in mind, this study aims to shed light on the intricate social processes at work in DLI contexts. In particular, this paper examines first, how notions of language use, race, and ethnicity are socially constructed and intersect in DLI settings; and second, it explores how these ideas are discerned and re-shaped by young children into their own social and linguistic norms. Employing qualitative research methods, this year-long ethnographic case study uses the intersectional lens of raciolinguistics (Alim, Rickford & Ball, 2016, Raciolinguistics: how language shapes our ideas about race. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; Rosa & Flores, 2017, "Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective." Language in Society 46 (5): 621–647), to examine the intricate cross-cutting dynamics at play in bilingual spaces. The exploration of these ideas helps to illuminate the ways in which language practices and interactions are shaped by social constructions from a very early age. Furthermore, it contributes to understandings of social perceptions and relations in multilingual/multicultural/multiethnic contemporary school settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports how authors use Spanish in award-winning Latinx children's picturebooks in the USA. Teachers, families, and librarians use these books to support heritage language and culture or to broaden children's understanding of cultures other than their own. Thus, how these books use Spanish matters because of the potential of these books to promote cultural and linguistic diversity to children. This study investigated how authors used Spanish, which characters spoke Spanish, and what language ideologies texts explicitly communicate. Across 9 books (award winners between 2010 and 2015), there were 78 instances of Spanish use, and 21 of these were complete sentences or exclamations. The books provided a high level of support for understanding Spanish. Supports include immediate translation, appositive explanations, contextual cues, and picture cues, with little use of fluid translanguaging, which more approximates the communicative practices of bilingual communities. The paper concludes with implications for teachers to develop critical language awareness among students in response to literature and suggestions for authors and publishers to represent Spanish-speaking communities in children's literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the Rejection-Identification Model (RIM) by examining impacts of group-level and personal experiences with discrimination on different measures of ethnic identity and cultural importance among Hispanic immigrants. The RIM is used to describe associations between discrimination and increased ethnic identity and the mediating role of ethnicity on negative outcomes of discrimination. Growing empirical support for the RIM has prompted inquiry into its application among different populations, including immigrants who face numerous types of discrimination. Using the Latino Immigrant National Election Survey, the study found that the perception of group-level discrimination was associated with a higher likelihood of reporting Hispanic identity importance, however, personal experiences with discrimination were not. Further, results showed that neither type of discrimination impacted cultural or Spanish language maintenance importance. This paper discusses the implications of these findings and how the protective factors presented by the RIM may vary among populations and when considering personal and group-level discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Code switching is a phenomenon that has increasingly attracted more and more attention from the linguistic community. As of last forty years, it is no more deemed as a deficiency in speech, but rather as a separate area of research. However, to obtain data for further examination that would not be manipulated by priming the subjects is quite complicated and poses a challenge in creating a corpus that could be used by researchers. This paper offers examples of code switching that were produced in a second language classroom in a large public university in southwestern United States. Three levels of class, from beginner up until intermediate level, were observed and recorded. Each of the instructors--a native speaker of Spanish, a native speaker of English and an early balanced bilingual--offered their insights into the use and perceptions of code switching practice in the classroom. This observation provided a framework of reference to better understand the process that takes place in a bilingual environment of a second language classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The development of the Individual Growth and Development Indicators-Español (IGDIs-E) involved over 900 preschool aged children in five states. • Using Rasch modeling the IGDIs-E were found to be psychometrically sound and robust measures of Spanish oral language ability. • IGDIs-E were designed for the diverse range of Spanish-speakers in the US. The population of Spanish-speaking preschoolers in the United States continues to increase and there is a significant need to develop psychometrically sound early language and literacy screening measures to accurately capture children's ability in Spanish. In this paper, we describe the innovative design and calibration process of the new Individual Growth and Development Indicators-Español (IGDIs-E). We developed and tested two Spanish oral language measures: Identificación de los Dibujos/Picture Naming and Verbos (Expresivo)/Expressive Verbs with 976 Spanish-speaking preschoolers (4–5-years old; 50% female) across five states. Children were tested in Spanish in fall, winter, and spring across two academic years. Results provide evidence that the new IGDIs-E are psychometrically sound with no significant bias between genders and dialects of Spanish spoken in the United States. Cumulative results, the utility of the final measures, and the implications for data-based decision making with Spanish-speaking preschoolers is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The language practices of Latinos in the US continue to attract attention from politicians, educators, journalists, linguists and the general Hispanic and non-Hispanic public. While monolingual speakers of English in the US expect Hispanics to shift to English like other minority language speakers have done in the past, monolingual speakers of Spanish expect them to speak "pure" Spanish. Even Spanish-English bilingual speakers criticize Latinos for mixing Spanish and English or speaking Spanglish. This term has been rejected by some linguists who claim that it is technically flawed and only applies to casual oral registers. In this paper I consider the linguistic nature, sociolinguistic functions and attitudes towards Spanglish, I show that Latinos are using this hybrid, heteroglossic variety beyond casual oral registers, and I suggest a broader perspective which not only considers the linguistic features of Spanglish but also the political, social and cultural issues involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whereas most research on child second language acquisition has focused on the oral production of children, studies are needed to illuminate patterns of literacy development in a second language. This paper aims to shed some light on this process, focusing on the English writing development of a native Spanish speaker, and on the Spanish writing development of a native English speaker, both enrolled in a two-way immersion program in the USA. Data for this particular study come from a longitudinal, national study, involving 484 students in 11 programs across the country. In this paper, we will present a case study of two students in the project, from the beginning of third grade through the end of fifth grade. The students' writing samples will be discussed using an analytic rubric developed for the project. This rubric addresses three major aspects of writing — composition, grammar and mechanics — and provides a clear framework for investigating changes in writing ability over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is instructive to interpret patterns of language use in light of the interaction between language use and an individual's awareness of, and resistance towards, linguistic hegemony. While heritage language maintenance is often described as language use motivated by antihegemonic ideologies, this paper suggests that the paradox of the resistance to linguistic hegemony is that in order to be successful, this resistance necessitates acquiescence to this hegemony on a certain level, namely proficiency in the dominant language. This paper contends that a key element influencing the dynamic between these existing factors and language maintenance is the speaker's awareness of, and response to, the paradox of the resistance to linguistic hegemony. Awareness of and conviction towards this paradox seems to supply a dynamic in an individual's conviction towards heritage language maintenance. This paper reports the results of a study that examined this interaction in the case studies of families maintaining Spanish across generations in a rural town in upstate New York, USA. The displays of power illustrated on a personal exchange level, on the media level, and within institutions seem to illuminate the awareness of and response to the paradox of linguistic hegemony — successful resistance that leads to heritage language maintenance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corpus compilation is of great relevance in linguistics today, with growing appreciation of studies based on spontaneous speech, in particular for minority communities. This paper puts forward a model for corpus compilation in bilingual communities, illustrated through the New Mexican Spanish–English Bilingual corpus, in which the same speakers—from a long-standing minority community in the United States—use both Spanish and English in the same conversations, smoothly alternating between their languages. We advocate community-based fieldwork for the collection of speech data by community members; the formation of a corpus which comprises recordings of spontaneous interactions and is thus of widespread usability (rather than being tied to any particular set of research questions or elicited linguistic features); scrupulously compiling information about the demography and the linguistic history of the participants that may shape their patterns of language use; and comprehensive transcription of the data taking into account prosodic aspects and making considered decisions about how to responsibly represent the speech. This community-based approach yields linguistic data situated in its social context and amenable to systematic quantitative analysis, which allows for confronting the many claims about language contact with the facts of bilingual usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The Hispanic community is the fastest growing ethnic group in the USA and is currently the largest minority group with tremendous buying power. This trend has seen a significant growth with respect to the Spanish-language media in recent years. Along with the media's ability to entertain, comes the responsibility to educate and warn its audiences of eminent threats and disasters. The aim of this paper is to look at the Spanish-language media's efforts to warn and prepare its listeners for local and national emergencies. Design/methodology/approach – Using descriptive and explanatory methods the author looks at the failures of the Spanish language media to communicate emergency warnings in both the Saragosa, Texas tornado and in the case of hurricane Katrina. Findings – Research indicated that pressure from constituents, however, forced a change on the Spanish language industry. Research limitations/implications – The research was limited by not having first hand contact with the Spanish language media. Practical implications – The practical implication of this research which has social overtones is that providing disaster warnings to the non-English speaking population in the USA is achievable. Emergency managers and first responders need to be aware of issues regarding non-English speakers. Social implications – The implications for this research is that all individuals will be notified of emergencies even non-English speakers. Originality/value – The issues on non-English speakers in emergency situations have come up before. Nevertheless, this work identifies a practical solution by involving the Spanish language media in emergency alerts. It is essential that this tremendous resource be involved in emergency alerts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents some thoughts on the usage of the so called "Spanglish" language in the United States. Its aim is that of looking at the potential facilitative effect the usage of Spanglish has in helping hispanic and non-hispanic speakers, who do not share either English or Spanish, to achieve communicative goals in particular communicative contexts. The literature has acknowledged that Spanglish relies on code-switching and code-mixing, switches and mixtures which can also be described as characteristics of the hybrid identity of many Latinos in the United States. In this paper we propose to look at the phenomenon of Spanglish in its hybrid aspect, which, from our perspective, is what makes it complex and fascinating from the perspective of mixed identities in intercultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores how second and third generation Cuban Americans from Miami, Florida, use the address pronouns "tú" and "Ud." when formulating speech acts such as requests in Spanish. A qualitative analysis shows that the explicit use of the pronouns when uttering a speech act fulfills a double purpose: 1) to flatter the hearer and express solidarity towards her/him, and 2) to establish distance towards the interlocutor when the speaker is in a position of power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the contextual determinants of bilingualism among Latino adults who were born in the US or are members of the '1.5 generation' of Latinos who immigrated to the US when they were 10 or younger. We model the broader contexts reflecting contemporary developments that influence change in both the real and the perceived value of bilingualism. Using US census data for metropolitan areas in 1990 and 2000, we find that the replenishment of an immigrant population is a strong predictor of higher bilingualism among US-born Latinos. We draw on ethnographic data on later-generation Mexican Americans as well as field-work in dual-language immersion schools to explain our findings. The variables measuring the size and growth of the foreign-born Latino population in the MSA/PMSAs in our models capture the factors that encourage bilingualism that we identify in our ethnographic research: institutional contact with Spanish, labour-market rewards, cosmopolitanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the development of Spanish-language proficiency in bilingual preservice teachers at a university on the Texas-Mexico border. A survey with open-ended questions was administered to preservice teachers in bilingual and English as a Second Language certification programs. The purpose of this study was to investigate the paths that heritage Spanish-speaking preservice teachers take to become bilingual in a border community university. The analysis of their responses suggests that they are individuals negotiating their identities between language communities. The influences of community, family, and school on theft Spanish-language development are presented. In addition, implications for improving Spanish-language proficiency for bilingual teachers are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two-way bilingual programs have the potential to promote bilingualism, biliteracy, and pluralism in minority and majority group students who study together in two languages. This paper examines how a focal group of Mexican-background middle school students enrolled in a two-way maintenance bilingual program learned to value English over Spanish at school. Evidence supporting students' choice of English over their native language came from close analysis of interactional patterns with peers and teachers in classes and informal settings and from students' explanations of their lived school experiences in interviews over a three year period during middle school. Elements of the hidden curriculum, instructional practices, and assessment policy served to devalue students' native linguistic cultural capital compelling them to use English in the classroom and within peer culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses the structural theoretical perspective and data form the 1980 Census to examine the impact of pertinent structural determinants on Mexican American intermarriage with Anglos across 53 metropolitan statistical areas in the southwest United States. The findings show that opportunity for contact, levels of Spanish language maintenance, and internal status diversity are important statistically. This lends general support for the structural theoretical perspective as it relates to the understanding of Mexican American intermarriage with Anglos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]