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BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The current literature on tofu production has predominantly focused on exploring the value-added potential of the waste generated during tofu production and conducting impact assessments related to this production. However, a noticeable gap remains in the research concerning the comprehensive examination of life cycle costs and eco-efficiency in tofu production and its associated waste. This study aims to assess the environmental and economic impacts of the implementation of recycling alternatives using a life cycle assessment and life cycle cost approach. The impact of waste recycling on the eco-efficiency of small and medium-sized enterprises in Sugihmanik Village, Grobogan Regency, Indonesia is also examined. METHODS: To achieve this goal, this study employed life cycle assessment and life cycle cost methodologies to evaluate eco-efficiency. Data were collected through interviews and direct observations. Cradle-to-grave (tofu production) and cradle-to-cradle (tofu production and waste recycling) approaches were compared. Environmental impact was assessed by determining the 12 impact categories. Environmental cost was determined using the eco-cost 2023 method, and environmental and economic impacts were examined with SimaPro software version 9.4. FINDINGS: Life cycle assessment analysis revealed eutrophication, carbon footprint, and freshwater ecotoxicity to be the categories with the most significant impact for each process. In particular, the eco-cost of the cradle-to-grave approach was 7.03 United States dollars, and that of the cradle-to-cradle approach was 7.90 United States dollars. Life cycle cost analysis yielded a net value of 1.33 United States dollars for the cradle-to-grave process and 38.16 United States dollars for the cradle-to-cradle process. According to the life cycle cost analysis, the recycling scheme increased the overall cost of production. Meanwhile, the eco-efficiency analysis demonstrated an increase in the eco-efficiency of tofu production (cradle-to-grave) and the recycling system (cradle-to-cradle). Waste recycling can increase the eco-efficiency index from 0.18 to 5. CONCLUSION: Life cycle assessment identified eutrophication, carbon footprint, and ecotoxicity (freshwater) as the three major impact categories. Proper waste management in tofu production offers environmental benefits and significant profits, with the net value of the cradle-to-cradle process at 38.99 US dollars. The eco-efficiency values showed a substantial positive increase, and the waste processing scenarios were found to be sustainable and economically beneficial. These findings suggest new business opportunities through straightforward waste processing and affordable production costs. The scheme also reduces the environmental impact and increases the efficiency and profit of the overall tofu production system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a Greenpeace International survey, Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) companies are the dominant force behind the single-use economic model that drives the plastic waste crisis originating from consumption and production by producing industrial waste that must be handled appropriately with the concept of sustainable supply chain management (SSCM). This study discusses SSCM practices in one of the FMCG companies, namely PT XYZ, and focuses on sustainable packaging supply chains, intending to know the application of SSCM in the supply chain and improvements that can be made to reduce waste and its negative impacts. The exploratory research was done with a case study type and used a mixed-method approach to formulate the development that can be done to reduce the waste and negative impact of the packaging supply chain. The assessment resulted from calculating the Life Cycle Assessment software, Simapro, with the CML-IA baseline V3.06/EU25 method. This method represents the environmental impact using 11 indicators. The most significant adverse environmental impacts are global warming, human toxicity, and marine aquatic ecotoxicity. The most significant contribution to the cause of the negative environmental impact is the consumption of electricity and water, which produce excess CO2 and boiler engines which produce excess NO2. Improvements can be made by reducing CO2 gas and using alternative fuels for environmentally friendly boilers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cement industry in supporting sustainable development is faced with the challenge of reducing energy consumption, natural resources and emissions generated from its production activities. PT X is one of the cement industries in Indonesia that has a production design capacity of 2.6 million tons/year. PT X's cement production activities use several fossil fuel energy sources and alternative fuels that can produce carbon dioxide emissions that are wasted into the environment. This study aims to identify process units that produce significant impacts to determine alternative environmental improvement scenarios. The method used is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as a tool for calculating potential environmental impacts, and AHP as an alternative selection of environmental improvement program scenarios. The scope of the LCA study carried out with the scope of "Cradle to Gate" includes the stages of the raw material extraction process, the production process to the distribution of cement. The resulting potential environmental impact is a total Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 0.20543 tons CO2 eq/ton. The largest potential impact comes from the kiln unit of 0.20221 tons CO2 eq/ton or an impact contribution of 98.43%. Based on the environmental impacts generated, there are 4 alternative programs that can be used to reduce the environmental impacts generated. The selection of alternative program scenarios is based on 3 criteria based on 3 types of respondents. Alternative programs that have the highest priority value are alternative program 1 with 35.5%, 38.1%, and 23.4%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents the detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) of environmental impact potential for two-stage anaerobic biogas plants between commercial and pilot scales. It provides a comprehensive and systematic approach to evaluating the environmental impacts of producing biogas from livestock wastes in several phases: collecting, processing, and production. The commercial biogas plant (C-BP) system is located in Central Taiwan's pig farm, with 1500–2000 pigs a year. The Symnergy (symbiosis bioenergy model) biogas pilot plant (S-BP) is installed in Manado City, Indonesia. The Institute of Green Products, Feng Chia University, designed both C-BP and S-BP systems. The environmental impacts of both systems' gate-to-grave life cycles were assessed and compared using Simapro 9.0.0 software. The pilot-scale biogas plants produce bioenergy from the wastewater of the slaughterhouse. Therefore, 10,950 tonne/year of slurry feedstock flowing into the commercial biogas plant was considered a functional unit equal to 21 times larger than the pilot scale biogas plant. The LCA analyzes the impacts of three processes for feedstock collection, biogas production, and digestate production. It was found that Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential had the highest total impact on C-BP (33%), and Eutrophication had the highest impact on S-BP (33%). Both the biogas production systems of C-BP and S-BP showed very low environmental impacts, and the impacts of C-BP are lower than the S-BP. However, implementing digesters considerably reduced the potential environmental impacts of well manure feedstock handling and fertilizer applications. The LCA analysis among the three individual processes is developed to allow critical points and environmental impacts for local government. Consequently, the LCA report could help establish regional sustainability strategies for the management of livestock wastes by anaerobic two-stage biogas plant from manure. [Display omitted] • LCA of environmental impacts analysis for two-stage anaerobic biohythane plants. • Both C-BP and S-BP two-stage biohythan plant showed very low environmental impacts. • Implementing digesters considerably reduced the environmental impacts potential. • Developing a critical points and environmental impact factors for local government. • Establishing regional sustainability strategies for management of livestock wastes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to determine the eco-friendliness of microalgae-based renewable energy production in several scenarios based on life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA provides critical data for sustainable decision-making and energy requirement analysis, including net energy ratio (NER) and cumulative energy demand (CED). The Centrum voor Milieuwetenschappen Leiden (CML) IA-Baseline was used on environmental impact assessment method by SimaPro v9.3.0.3® software and energy analysis of biofuel production using native polyculture microalgae biomass in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) Bojongsoang, Bandung, Indonesia. The study was analyzed under three scenarios: (1) the current scenario; (2) the algae scenario without waste heat and carbon dioxide (CO2); and (3) the algae scenario with waste heat and carbon dioxide (CO2). Waste heat and CO2 were obtained from an industrial zone near the WWTP. The results disclosed that the microalgae scenario with waste heat and CO2 utilization is the most promising scenario with the lowest environmental impact (− 0.139 kg CO2eq/MJ), positive energy balance of 1.23 MJ/m3 wastewater (NER > 1), and lower CED value across various impact categories. It indicates that utilizing the waste heat and CO2 has a positive impact on energy efficiency. Based on the environmental impact, NER and CED values, this study suggests that the microalgae scenario with waste heat and CO2 is more feasible and sustainable to adopt and could be implemented at the Bojongsoang WWTP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Food waste is a severe problem, and Indonesia is the world’s second-largest producer of food waste. A limited waste management system will decrease environmental quality, such as air, water, and soil pollution. So far, the waste management system is limited to reducing waste generation. The life cycle assessment is a method to analyze environmental aspects or environmental impacts at all stages in a resource’s life cycle, from the initial process of raw materials to disposal. This study aims to analyze the environmental impact and provide waste management policies to obtain sustainable household waste management and environmental sustainability. Methods: The study design used in this research is cross-sectional by conducting direct observations and interviews at the Waste Bank. Interviews were conducted to identify more in-depth findings about waste management problems and the characteristics of respondents and waste characteristics. Observations were made to calculate waste generation that refers to Indonesian national standard methods of sample collection and measurement of urban waste generation and composition (SNI 19-3694-1994.) The sampling technique was carried out by the total sampling method, resulting in 100 households. Results: The research results with organic waste processing with the black soldier fly method. This method impacts global warming, acidification, eutrophication, and ozone depletion. Of the four elements that produce the most negligible impact is the impact of global warming of 0.281 kg CO2 eq compared to the other effects. Conclusion: BSF processing can reduce environmental impacts, especially global warming. Meanwhile, education affects people’s behavior in generating food waste; therefore, there are policy recommendations for Waste Bank stakeholders in processing food waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Coconuts and their derivatives, such as copra and charcoal, are leading commodities of Indonesia contributing to local consumption and exports. Life cycle assessment is a tool for evaluating the inputs, outputs, and potential impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle and is associated with product sustainability. The cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of copra and coconut shell charcoal aims to determine the impacts of coconut, copra, and charcoal production from copra byproducts quantitatively and identify scenario improvements to reduce the impacts and enhance sustainability. METHODS: Field observations were conducted in tall coconuts in Agrabinta, South Cianjur, and in copra and coconut shell charcoal factories in Sukabumi, West Java, Indonesia. The life cycle assessment method comprises the following four stages: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation. The scope of this study was based on land preparation, nurseries, planting, fertilization, harvesting of mature coconuts, transportation of mature coconuts, copra production, transportation of coconut shells, and charcoal production. Ten impacts were calculated using the Center of Environmental Science of Leiden University Impact Assessment baseline method with Simapro software. FINDINGS: This study obtained ten impact categories, not only the global warming potential impact similar to most studies of perennial crop products in Indonesia. Normalization results showed that the category with enormous impacts on humans from coconut cultivation and copra processing activities had terrestrial ecotoxicity potential. The largest impact on charcoal production was on the human toxicity potential. Separated coconut factories from plantations have a high impact because of high fuel transportation. Four recommendation scenarios were formulated: 1) utilization of smoke from pyrolysis into liquid, 2) implementation of organic coconut cultivation practices, 3) integration of coconut plantations with copra and charcoal processing plants and processing smoke into liquid, and 4) combining scenarios 1, 2, and 3. In scenario 3, seven of ten impacts showed the lowest value among other scenarios. This scenario potentially decreases the impact from 68.35 to 99.62 percent. The human toxic potential of coconut shell charcoal decreased from 2.92 × 105 to 109.43 kilogram 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent, terrestrial ecotoxicity potential decreased from 59 to 19 kilogram 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent, and the global warming potential decreased from 1753.55 to 93.03 kilogram carbon dioxide equivalent. CONCLUSION: Life cycle assessment can evaluate the impacts of copra and coconut shell charcoal from the coconut cultivation to the production stages. Opportunities for improvement can be identified from the interpretation and hotspots. Scenario analysis results showed the potential of developing integrated coconut agroindustry with coconut plantations, copra factories, and charcoal factories to produce liquid smoke in one location. This integration markedly reduces the impact due to the reduction of transportation fuel and emissions and the treatment of air pollution from pyrolysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fishing sector in Indonesia plays an important role in driving the national economy. Shrimp exports have increased from 162,256 tons in 2015 to 239,227 tons in 2020. Shrimp farming relies on proper management of shrimp feed. Inadequate feed management can result in organic waste build-up, harming shrimp growth, survival, and production efficiency. This research identifies the potential environmental impacts of a shrimp feed production process unit based on the gate-togate approach, with shrimp feed as its main product. Environmental impact identification is conducted using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method using Microsoft Excel as tools. The LCA stages consist of goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory (LCI), life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), and data interpretation. The method used is ReCiPe 2016 (H) midpoint impact assessment. Based on the results of the LCA study analysis, an environmental impact reduction scenario analysis is performed using an environmental program. The environmental impact assessment using LCA indicates that in the production process of 1 ton of shrimp feed, the most dominant environmental impacts are global warming potential (228,127 kgCO2eq), and freshwater eutrophication (0,000175 kgPeq). In the production process of shrimp feed, the largest contribution to the environmental impact comes from the Boiler unit and Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP). Then, Analysed efforts to deal with environmental impacts on the shrimp feed production process uses the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims to assess the environmental impacts of liquified natural gas (LNG) process production, identify the increasing potential of environmental performance, publish environmental product declarations, and contribute to a national database of environmental impacts. Methods: The analysis scope covers raw material receiving, a liquefaction process, utility, and storage and loading of the product. The assessed impacts are categorized as primary, secondary, and energy usage impacts using a life cycle assessment method that refers to ISO 14040-2016 and ISO 14044-2017 guidelines. The three methods for impact evaluation included ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) v.1.03, CML-IA Baseline v.3.05, and cumulative energy demand (CED) methods. Results: Every ton of LNG product produced global warming, ozone depletion, acidification, and eutrophication potential of 699.31 kg CO2-eq, 2.62 × 10−4 kg CFC11-eq, 0.4281 kg SO2-eq, and 0.1155 kg PO4-eq, respectively. The secondary impact of the photochemical oxidant was 0.81968 kg C2H4-eq/ton. Abiotic depletion potential–fossil was observed at 23.41183 MJ/ton, while non-fossil was 0.0000041 kg Sb-eq/ton. Biotic depletion potential included terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecotoxicity produced 3.0439 kg 1,4-DCB-eq/ton, 0.0452 kg 1,4-DCB-eq/ton, and 0.0630 kg 1,4-DCB-eq/ton, respectively. Carcinogenic and toxicity impacts produced 0.0681 kg 1,4-DCB-eq/ton and 1.966 kg 1,4-DCB-eq/ton. The impact on the water footprint of every ton of LNG was at 2.6387 m3, and land use change was evaluated at 0.0883 m3a corp-eq. Analysis of cumulative energy demand identified that the LNG plant needs only non-renewable energy. The specific energy consumption is 29,151.056 MJ/ton. Conclusions: This study identified that the hotspots included the steam generation unit in Utility II and sour gas absorption in all studied trains. Steam generation produces more CO2, NOx, and SOx emissions. Besides, the utility applied phosphate and boiler feed water. The process of sour gas adsorption needs electricity and polydimethylsiloxane as an adsorbent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional markets in Malang Regency are divided into four classes with particular classifications. The traditional market solid waste research aims to show the environmental impact of solid waste management efforts using life cycle assessment (LCA) and selected scenarios to reduce solid waste sustainably. The planned management follows four scenarios: Scenario 0 represents the baseline scenario. Scenario 1 assumes that non-composted solid waste recycling is carried out. Scenario 2 assumes that composting takes place. Finally, Scenario 3 assumes that non-composted solid waste recycling and composting are integratively carried out by building a reduced reuse recycle solid waste treatment facility (TPS 3R) near the market. The environmental impact analysis was carried out with various impact categories (carcinogens, respiratory organics, respiratory inorganics, climate change, radiation, ozone layer, ecotoxicity, acidification/eutrophication, land use, minerals, and fossil fuels). The results show that the smallest environmental impact is in Scenario 3 in most classes, namely the scenario where non-composted solid waste was integratively recycled and composted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of cocoa beans in Indonesia into chocolate and other cocoa-derived products produces emissions that pollute the environment. This research aimed to calculate the carbon footprint of the cocoa agroindustry using the Life Cycle Assessment approach in Lampung, Indonesia. The LCA under study is within the scope of Cradle to Grave, starting from nurseries_cocoa plantations_dry cocoa beans_chocolate production_retail, and consumers with emission function units per 1 kg of product. The method refers to the ISO 14040:2006 life cycle assessment standard, with the stages of determining objectives and scope, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation of recommendations. Primary data was analyzed using Simapro 9.4.0.2 Software. Secondary data was collected through a literature study. Data analysis shows the highest environmental impact after normalization resulting from four activities: packaging, transportation from industry to marketing office, and transportation from marketing office to retail. The highest environmental impact is generated by industrial activities, with a total emission of 2.57E-10 per kg of dark chocolate. In this study, GWP 100a emissions from cocoa agroforestry and agroindustry activities within the scope of the Cradle to Grave study were 7.31E+01 kg CO2-eq per kg dark chocolate. In addition, selecting the type of packaging is an indicator that must be considered. Using a combination of aluminum foil, paper, and cardboard as packaging causes the second highest emission in the packaging sub-process after transportation from industry to marketing office in industrial activities. It is the 4th highest of all activities. One of the reasons for the high emissions produced in the final product or cocoa consumed by consumers is no longer in doubt. On the basis of normalization activities, the highest environmental impacts were generated by industrial activities, with a total emission of 2.57E-10. The use of packaging in packaging and fuel activities in transportation from industry to marketing office activities, industrial activities also use quite a large amount of electrical energy, namely 421.91 kWh. Recommendations for improvement can be identified to reduce the GHG impact and increase energy efficiency. Energy-saving sustainablemethods constitute a challenge for the cocoa agroindustry because they positively impact the reduction of the global warming potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extraction of critical minerals used in clean technologies has profound impacts on sustainable development goals (SDGs). Life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) is used to evaluate the sustainability impacts of products and services, but few frameworks exist to support SDGs assessment for the "green minerals" extraction. Here, we propose a mining‐specific framework identifying linkages between LCSA and SDGs, along with a process to integrate methods and data. As a proof of concept, we assess the LCSA performance and local‐community level SDG impacts of a nickel mining project in Indonesia. Integrating remote sensing, media sources, stakeholder's data, and expert opinion, we find that LCSA encompasses all 17 goals but only a subset of targets and indicators. The study highlights the need to incorporate indigenous people's perspectives in both LCSA and SDG assessments, and points to priority areas for improving life cycle sustainability and SDG outcomes: fighting corruption, protecting cultural heritage, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. We suggest that this framework can inform corporate social responsibility activities, as well as consumer choices for low‐carbon technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to a lack of environmental protection awareness and knowledge, many practices informally recycle smartphone waste to get precious metals. Smartphones are hazardous and toxic waste materials, so they require proper handling not to cause problems for the environment. This study aims to measure the environmental impact and eco-efficiency level of formal recycling practices carried out by licensed companies and compare them with informal recycling practices carried out by the community. Environmental impact measurement uses Life Cycle Assessment with the eco-cost method. The measurement results show informal recycling practices have a higher environmental impact than formal recycling practices. Informal recycling practices harm almost every category, while formal recycling has a significant positive impact on the acidification and metal scarcity categories. Based on the value of the eco-efficiency index, formal recycling practices are affordable and sustainable and have an eco-efficiency level of 100%. Economically, formal recycling provides higher financial benefits than informal recycling. Thus, formal recycling practices are better and more profitable than informal recycling practices from the economic and environmental aspects. So, it is time for Indonesia to switch to a formal recycling process carried out by licensed companies considering the vast potential for waste as a raw material. The government's role is to invite the public to distribute smartphone waste to licensed recycling companies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food Estate is a government program as a solution to meeting food demand. However, in order to meet food needs, environmental impacts must be considered. The study objective was to investigate the impacts of shallot production in Food Estate Hutajulu, Indonesia. The study was conducted with the first stage determining the functional unit, namely an area of 0.2 hectares with a gate-to-gate scope. The second is the inventory data analysis by grouping the categories of nursery, tillage, maintenance, harvesting, and transportation. The third is life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) according to the ISO 14044 standard. Every data obtained from each process was processed using the software OpenLCA 1.11.0; the following is the workflow and use of the software. Processes were made based on the five categories of data (soil processing, planting, maintenance, harvesting and transportation), which had been determined to be connected to flow. The product system was adjusted according to the data in each process and then calculated, and the results of calculation data and graph models appear from each processed data category. Fourth is the interpretation that considers the highest environmental impact, namely acidification in the transportation process of 1.8974 kg SO2 eq, global warming potential in the transportation process of 415.3188 kg CO2 eq, eutrophication in the transportation process of 0.4364 kg PO4 eq, and human toxicity in the maintenance process of 1,409.07377 kg 1,4-DB eq. To minimize the impact on subsequent production, reducing diesel fuel, chemical pesticides and chemical fertilizers are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia is an archipelagic country with abundant marine wealth that makes it the world's second largest producer of fish after China. While most of Indonesia's capture marine fisheries (80%) are consumed domestically, around 90% of blue swimming crab (BSC) products are exported, mainly in cans. This makes up almost half of all BSC products on the global market, with the United States and the European Union being the main importers. We carried out a life cycle assessment (LCA) of canned BSC products from Indonesia. Our LCA evaluated the production of "one tonne of canned BSC" at market as a functional unit (FU), with a cradle‐to‐market system boundary, encompassing wild capture, preprocessing, processing, and distribution to the port of destination at home and abroad. The processing stage was found to be the highest contributor (hotspot) for most of the impact categories considered, mainly due to the use of tin cans for packaging. Despite producing less by‐catch, BSC caught with traps resulted in around threefold greater global warming impact per FU than those caught using nets. We also concluded that BSC meat produced in Java is environmentally preferable to that from Sumatra, as most of the shells were sold as coproducts. In addition to recycling and substitution of packaging materials, environmental improvements can also be obtained by increasing the number of shell‐processing facilities outside Java. The results of this study can be used by the Indonesian government to develop more sustainable practices to avoid overexploitation of BSC and limit its environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seafood is a vital aspect of the Indonesian diet, both healthily and monetarily. Due to the overconsumption of sea fish and other seafood over the years, numerous concerns about climate change have arisen. To protect the aquaculture business, it is of the utmost importance to increase sustainable seafood production in Indonesia with minimal environmental damage. Moreover, the ecological implications of the aquaculture industry rely on the management of the site and the species used. To ensure the sustainable expansion of the aquaculture sector, innovations/interventions are required to offset the impact of environmental consequences associated with the sector's growth. To do this, the current study utilized a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Approach and primary and secondary data to identify a set of treatments. As a result, the protective capability of seven aquaculture interventions in Indonesia has been extracted. These interventions include increased bioproduct utilization and decreased food waste, use of renewable electricity, preference for freshwater finfish over shrimp, preference of pelleted feeds over low-cost fish diets, sustainable intensification of milkfish polyculture, Asian tiger shrimp, and reduction of tilapia, carp, and shrimp, as well as sustainable processing and packaging. Moreover, this study contributes to the aquaculture literature by not only relying on the literature review but also analyzing primary and secondary data using the LCA to identify critical interventions for the sustainable expansion of the aquaculture sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PET bottle waste is easy to recycle because it is easy to separate, abundant, and competitively priced. Technologies for the treatment of PET bottle waste have been evaluated to date by using life cycle assessment (LCA), but this does not take into account all of the aspects that policymakers consider necessary when selecting an acceptable technology. Aspects such as society, economics, policies, and technical applicability need to be considered along with the environment and resource consumption to complement the LCA results for PET bottle waste. These aspects were selected as criteria for the analytical hierarchy process (AHP), and stakeholders were invited to make a comparison evaluation of the criteria and sub-criteria. Academics were involved to compare the technology options. The results show that society is the highest priority because it is the main actor that ensures the application of the technology, and that job creation is the most important indicator for the selection of the technology in society criteria. After comparing open landfills, sanitary landfills, incineration with energy recovery, pelletizing, glycolysis, and hydrolysis for the utilization of PET bottle waste, this study suggests pelletizing as the acceptable technology for Indonesia because pelletizing is dominant in all the criteria and sub-criteria which support sustainability in waste management. This is the first time that a single plastic fraction that is easy to collect and recycle has been studied with the AHP. The results show that this type of plastic could also be reused in developing countries through mechanical recycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The electricity and heat sectors are reported to contribute approximately 40% of total CO2 emissions from the energy sector in Indonesia. Nonetheless, Indonesia is composed of several interconnected electricity-grid networks with different characteristics. This study was conducted to identify the life cycle inventories (LCIs) and perform a life cycle assessment (LCA) to determine the potential environmental impacts of electricity distributed in the Jamali grid network, contributing to 72% of the total electricity produced in Indonesia. Methods: An LCA was conducted with a functional unit of 1 kWh of electricity generated and transmitted in the distribution line in the Jamali grid network in 2018. The system boundary used in this study was cradle-to-gate, covering fuel production and transportation, electricity generation, and electricity distribution. The LCIs were gathered for each power plant's technology connected to the grid, which includes fuel consumption, fuel-related wastes, infrastructure, land use, water use, and air emissions. The following impact categories were assessed: global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), photochemical oxidation potential (POX), abiotic depletion potential (ADP), abiotic depletion potential–fossil fuels (ADF), and water scarcity footprint (WSF). Methods used to calculate those categories include IPCC GWP 100a, CML-IA (Baseline and Non-baseline), ReCiPe, and AWARE. Results and discussion: LCI analysis showed that the subcritical coal-fired power plants contributed to the highest electricity generation (58.80%), energy consumption (89.39%), and CO2 production (70.52%) among other technologies connected to the grid. Subsequently, for every 1 kWh of electricity distributed in the grid, the power plants' operation produced the largest GWP, AP, and POX. Each category produced a total of 1.06 kg CO2 eq., 5.89 × 10−03 kg SO2 eq, and 4.08 × 10−03 kg NMVOC, respectively. The EP and ADF produced were 2.62 × 10−03 kg PO4 eq. and 1.58 × 101 MJ, respectively, mainly resulting from coal mining. ADP produced was 2.30 × 10−05 kg Sb eq. and WSF produced was 3.8 × 10−02 m3, both majorly contributed by the production of transmission and distribution grid materials. Conclusions: LCA performed to determine the potential environmental impacts from the electricity distributed in the Jamali grid showed that the electricity produced from subcritical coal-fired power plants dominated the electricity mix in 2018. Subsequently, it contributed significantly to multiple impact categories, namely GWP, AP, and POX. Reducing the use of subcritical coal-fired power plants is thus essential to reduce the environmental impacts, which is aligned with the Indonesian government's plan to reach net-zero emissions by 2060. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Reducing global warming through cofiring involves supply flow analysis to gradually replace fossil by oil palm fibre. • Supply flow is modelled using linear programming for oil palm mill, pellet plant, and power plant. • At a 1% cofiring rate, 6 of 7 pellet plants are needed to reduce 1.57% impact compared to single firing of coal. • Ranges analysis implies the tolerable emission of 6 pellet plants for supply stability. • Economic consideration reveals 3 of 7 pellet plants can be constructed with slight impact changes. This study addresses the supply flow optimization to reduce global warming in a cofiring system, using the example of oil palm empty fruit bunches converted into pellets for use in power plants in Indonesia. Four oil palm mills, seven pellet plants and five coal power plants in the West Java Region were considered in this study to select the optimal supply chain. The study was performed using a life cycle assessment (LCA) for evaluating impact of single firing of coal and linear programming (LP) for optimizing the impact reduction of cofiring of coal and pellets. Our study indicates that the optimal environmental reduction can be achieved by constructing six of the seven pellet plants, which can substitute up to 1 % of the coal supply in five power plants. Accordingly, the emissions could be decreased by an average of 0.018 kg CO 2 eq/kWh for the power plants, which is equal to 0.2 Mt CO 2 eq/y or a 1.57 % reduction per year. By varying the emission factor of the pellet plants, our analysis showed a tolerable range in which the supply would not be affected. The sensitivity analysis at a 1 % cofiring rate showed that the increase in biomass supply from the oil palm mills had the highest reduction, whereas the reduction in transportation emissions provided much less impact. By adjusting the cofiring rate, the impact would not change after the 3 % cofiring rate because of the limited availability of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) feedstock. However, if sufficient supply could be provided, the environmental impact would be further reduced significantly. Furthermore, the scenario expansion indicated that only three pellet plants would be required for the minimum economic scale of production, although the environmental impact increased by 0.47 % compared to using six pellet plants. Therefore, this study can be used to determine the optimal supply chain scenarios by constructing an appropriate number of economically feasible pellet plants according to the biomass demand and cofiring rate of the power plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The municipal wastewater treatment in Denpasar City has a service target of 100%, which supports the Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing (PUPR), Indonesia. The total wastewater produced by Denpasar City is around 43,920 m³/y. Currently, a centralized wastewater treatment plant treats only 3% of wastewater. In comparison, the rest of 96.8% is carried out by onsite treatment with septic tanks, and 0.2% is directly discharged into the environment (open defecation). This study examined the eutrophication impact generated by each wastewater management based on the analysis of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The analysis was conducted using the Simapro ver. 9.1 software and observed the eutrophication impact potential generated for each wastewater management system. The inventory results showed that open defecation management was the largest pollution load, although the quantity of water contributed was very low (0.2%). The weighting of the impact of eutrophication, global warming potential, photochemical oxidation, and water scarcity on fecal management showed the same weight for open defecation behavior (346.8 pt). In comparison, the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and septic tanks were 2.1 and 52.1 pt, respectively. Open defecation behavior must be eliminated by formulating a right strategy. Treatment with septic tanks should be directed to centralized treatment by applying the tertiary treatment. Also, a sustainable development strategy needs to be applied in Denpasar City and more broadly throughout Indonesia and other developing countries where the population still applies open defecation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has forced human being to adapt in fulfilling their energy needs sustainably. In Indonesia, forestry activities has been considered as an emission rather than carbon sink. This study aims to analyze the inputs, outputs, and potential environmental impacts of wood pellet production in a forest company using life cycle assessment (LCA). The wood pellet is made from Eucalyptus pellita plantation. Analysis was made for 1 planting cycle or 6 years, and allometric equations were used to estimate the ability of industrial timber plantation forest to absorb CO2 Production of wood pellet starting from plantation requires inputs as follows: diesel fuel, electricity, NPK and other fertilizers, pesticides, and electrical energy. Those inputs produced emissions, of which the largest was N2O of 551.2927 kg, followed by NH of 7.5275 kg generated from NPK fertilizer. Another was PO 3-4 amounted at 0.1792-0.2229 kg from liquid fertilizers and pesticides. Potential acidification came from 13.3675 kg SO2 eq, and eutrophication of 0.4021 kg PO 3- 4 eq. The greenhouse gas (GHG) emission was 678.0270 kg CO2 eq from the plantation activities, especially from diesel-based energy consumption, while wood pellet mills only released 0.1053 kg CO2 eq of GHG emissions. Thus, total emissions from 6 years' time of wood pellet production are much lower compared to the average CO absorbed by the plantation forest, of which annually is 36.34-67.69 ton ha-1year-1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible vegetable oils are a major source of climate change impacts and an environmental concern in the processed food industry. This study consists of a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) of refined U.S. cottonseed oil (CSO), global soybean oil, U.S. canola oil, and palm oil sourced from Indonesia and Malaysia. Considering the oils equivalent for deep frying, they are compared on a 1 kg of oil basis. Analysis includes sensitivity analyses for modeling allocation choices and oil mixes as well as uncertainty analysis. Results show that the cultivation phase is the main impact driver for all vegetable oils analyzed, which favors CSO (U.S.) because it is a co-product. Refined CSO (U.S.) can reduce climate change impacts by up to 83%. Overall, refined CSO (U.S.) was a top performer in six of the eight impact categories evaluated. When ranking the oils, refined CSO (U.S.) was the preferred choice. Despite being the preferred choice, there are tradeoffs with CSO, such as water scarcity. In the context of global-scale commercial frying applications, e.g., McDonald’s daily French fry production of 9 million tons per day, switching the frying oil to refined CSO (U.S.) represents potential savings of 1,130 to 2,188 tons of CO2-eq d-1. For fast-food chains seeking to reduce their climate change impacts, refined CSO (U.S.) may be useful in frying applications. However, opportunities may exist for improvement in water use efficiency in the cultivation phase, which reinforces the need for continuous improvements in agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia is the fourth largest coffee producer in the world, with most of the production managed by smallholders. Analyzing the current environmental impacts of coffee production processes and moving the sector towards lower impact systems, including options for industrial ecology (IE) is critical. The aim of IE for Sustainable Coffee Production (SCP) is primarily toward Zero Waste (ZW), while producing high-quality coffee products that could potentially access new environmentally-oriented markets. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was applied in this study to evaluate the environmental impacts of coffee production, from the farm through to various coffee products, focusing on Global Warming Potential (GWP). Data was obtained from a pilot plant operation at Andungsari Coffee Group – Bondowoso, Indonesia, for coffee production using Semi-wash (SW) and Full-wash (FW) processes, from Coffee Cherry Beans (CB) to Green Beans (GB), and Coffee Powder (CP). The novelty of this work was the assessment of the impact of SW and FW, which are not often distinguished by previous studies, and which offer possibilities for improving the grade of coffee products. Observation and experimental data were used to obtain data from production operations to identify the environmental impact and also the potential feedstocks for the production of biogas and other industrial ecology strategies for developing by-products. For both SW and FW the input of 3 tonnes of CB produced 512 kg CP. The LCA indicated that the GWP for 1 kg CP (CB to CP) from SW was 0.765 kg CO 2 - eq , and for FW was 0.741 kg CO 2-eq. In the future, further consideration of alternative by-products will be undertaken in order to produce a more effective IE system towards SCP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia is the world's largest palm oil producing country. The oil palm industry (plantation and milling) generates large amounts of solid waste in the form of empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm kernel shells (PKS), mesocarp fiber (MF), oil palm fronds (OPF), and oil palm trunks (OPT). This leftover waste, collectively termed oil palm biomass (OPB), causes severe environmental pollution, thereby threatening the sustainability of the oil palm industry. Upgrading OPB by thermochemical processes (torrefaction and pyrolysis) has attracted significant interest as a means of recycling the residues and mitigating the environmental damage. This study reviews the previous research on the environment-friendly utilization of OPB in Indonesia. First, general information is presented on OPB in Indonesia (availability, properties, and governmental policy). Second, the torrefaction of OPB for the production of upgraded solid fuel is summarized. Third, the pyrolysis of OPB to produce biochar is reviewed for use as a soil amendment and in carbon storage. The market perspective and life cycle assessment (LCA) of the thermally treated OPB are discussed, targeting the generation of electricity (OPB torrefaction) and agricultural soil enhancement (OPB biochar). The recycling of OPB is expected to contribute to the sustainability and economic success of the oil palm industry and also the net-zero 2060 in Indonesia. • Availability, properties, and policy on oil palm biomass (OPB) waste in Indonesia is outlined. • Torrefied OPB is discussed for the production of upgraded solid fuel. • OPB biochar is reviewed for soil amendment and carbon storage. • Market perspective of the thermally-treated OPB is described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of global population continuously increases the demands for agroforestry-derived products, underpinning a sustainable growth of energy matrix in the sectors of food security, transportation, and industrial is momentous. The high demand for the sustainable energy sources has led to an increase in the application of pesticides associated with growing crops for the production of biofuel. In 2019, the global consumption of pesticides was 4.2 million tonnes. Case studies on life cycle assessment (LCA) of pesticides showed that toxicity is the major severe impact of pesticide usage, contributing to human toxicity (∼70%) and freshwater eco-toxicity (>50%). This alarming situation needs a solution as conventional pesticides pose various negative impacts to human and the environment, rendering the biofuel production process unsustainable. In this review, we focus on the interaction between pesticide use, biofuel production, food security for a sustainable balancing in between government benefits, environmental, and human health, aiming to track the implications and impact to the global efforts towards achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Even though, there are strict government regulations and legislations pertaining to pesticide use, and policies devised as guidelines for agroforestry sectors to implement and monitor these measures, the discrepancies still exist in between national and supranational entities. To cater the above issue, many efforts have been made to upscale the biofuel production, for example, the United States, Brazil, China and Indonesia have ventured into biofuels production from non-food-crops based feedstock while other developing nations are rapidly catching up. In this perspective, a sustainable nexus between Biofuels-Pesticides-Agroforestry (BPA) is essential to create a sustainable roadmap toward the UN SDGs, to fulfilling the energy, food, and land security. The contribution of technologies in BPA includes genetic modified crops, integrated pest and weed management with controlled release pesticides, use of nano-biopesticides is being reviewed. As a whole, the concept of biofuel processing complex (BPC) and farmers upskilling, together with the effective implementation of efficient policies and Internet of Things (IoT) would be the key to drive the BPA nexus towards fulfilment of SDGs. • The nexus between Biofuels-Pesticides-Agroforestry is discussed. • US, Brazil, China, Indonesia are supportive towards non-food-crops based biofuel. • LCA of pesticides shows that toxicity is the major impact of pesticide usage. • Advanced technologies on Biofuels-Pesticides-Agroforestry nexus are discussed. • The driven motivation towards the fulfilment of SDGs is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Land-use changes from scrub into soybean, canola, and sunflower contributed GHG emissions. • Land-use change from scrub to oil palm provides a benefit of CO 2. • Ecotoxicity, eutrophication, acidification, and global warming are related to plantation activities. • The cultivation of multiple crops is more detrimental to the environment than the oil palm alone. • From environmental perspective, single palm oil biodiesel is still better than multi-feedstock biodiesel from an environmental perspective. • Prudent practice is required; deforestation for land clearing for oil palm plantations must be prohibited. Biodiesel production from multiple feedstocks, which is currently being carried out on a laboratory scale, has the potential to be scaled up on an industrial scale in the future. Therefore, it is necessary to study the environmental impact of multi-feedstock biodiesel production. This study assesses the environmental performance of the simulated production of multi-feedstock biodiesel and compares it to palm oil biodiesel production in Indonesia. Generally, the life cycle of multi-feedstock biodiesel production has a higher environmental impact at the plantation stage than palm oil biodiesel production. The land-use change of scrubland into plantations of multiple crops (soybean, canola, sunflower, oil palm) showed a contribution of 9.89 tCO 2 GHG emissions per tonne of biodiesel produced whereas as that into only oil palm plantation obtained a value of −3.43 tCO 2. Many of the environmental impacts such as ecotoxicity, eutrophication, acidification, and global warming are related to plantation activities, particularly due to the use of fertilisers. The cultivation of multiple crops is more detrimental to the environment than the oil palm alone because they use more fertilisers. The use of soybean, canola, and sunflower to produce multi-feedstock biodiesel is not recommended because it provides a higher environmental burden than palm oil biodiesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An integration model for biomass to methanol supply chain is built. • Using an agent-based simulation–optimization is recommended in analyzing and reporting results. • Two different technological pathways of producing methanol from biomass are benchmarked. • Major decision making is included in the agent-based simulation–optimization model. • Methanol from biogas is more favorable than gasification technology. Methanol is a key product in the chemical industry, not only for producing other higher economic value chemicals, but also serves as a source of renewable energy that can substantially reduce carbon emissions. However, limited data are available on methanol total supply chain costs that consists of production, biomass cost, investment cost and the efficiency of the conversion processes. This paper recommends using an agent-based simulation–optimization in analyzing and reporting results by system elements (techno-economic assessment) or unit processes (life cycle assessment) as well as by the overall product system, of methanol supply chain. Major decision making are included in the agent-based simulation–optimization model to evaluate methanol synthesis pathways. This evaluation includes biomass and methanol ordering policy, capital budgeting during the lifetime of the methanol supply chain, carbon emissions per metric ton of methanol with specific focus on contribution to Indonesia Gross Domestic Product. The principal results obtained from the agent-based simulation show a better conversion technology pathway that leads to lower carbon emissions, higher internal rate of return, shorter payback period, and less price sensitivity of the methanol supply chain. The article proposes methanol from biogas as the chosen conversion technology pathway by considering its capability of sequestering carbon dioxide from bio-digester and lower capital investment, as well as its economic attractiveness to methanol production investors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]