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The Russian federal and consolidated government budgets accrue large revenues directly from oil and natural gas, mostly from royalties and export fees. We use Russian Input-Output tables and other economic statistics to estimate how much revenue flowed to these budgets indirectly due to government spending of direct revenues in 2016–21. Although the addition of indirect revenues to the federal budget is modest (8–10 Russian rubles per 100 rubles spent), the corresponding increase in consolidated budget is quite sizable (26–30 rubles per 100 rubles spent). Given the high degree of political and economic centralization in Russia, the impact on the consolidated budget is more important than the impact on the federal budget. In addition, we speculate about the changing role of oil and natural gas budget revenues in the current environment and the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 54-year-long series of continuous instrumental measurements of mass balance and its main components has already been accumulated at the Djankuat Glacier, which is representative of the Caucasus and the most studied glacier in Russia. The anomalies of these indicators in 2017/2018–2020/2021 were evaluated against an analysis of meteorological reasons that predetermined them. Each of the four balance years under consideration represents a particular anomaly of varying severity. As for conditions of mass income, three years saw accumulation higher than average, and in one year (2018/2019) it approached the norm. As for summer ablation conditions, similarly, in one season (2019) the melting differed from the average only slightly, but in the other three it was much higher. Consequently, in one year (2020/2021) the state of the glacier was close to normal, in another (2017/2018) the budget situation was much more favorable for Djankuat, and in the other two the final losses significantly exceeded the average annual mass loss rate. At the same time, in 2019/2020, an absolute record of ablation since the beginning of monitoring in 1967/1968 was recorded (4360 mm w.e.). Nevertheless, although negative mass balance values continue to be recorded annually, signs of an inevitable slowdown in the rate of glacier degradation in the Caucasus have appeared in the last 4-year-long period: the continued growth of winter snow accumulation overlaps the ongoing intensification of summer melting. The growth of debris cover in terms of area and thickness also affects this mass loss slowdown to some extent. This inhibits ablation, exerting a heat-insulating effect. Because of this, the congruence of mass balance parameters vs. altitude curves is distorted. Also, a tendency toward increasing annual glacier mass turnover was revealed for the last half-century. This fact gradually increases the energy of glaciation and indirectly indicates a weakening of continentality in the climate of the Caucasian highlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of trends in interregional inequality in Russia in 2015–21 and of the actual outcome during the 2020 pandemic and the subsequent recovery in 2021 reveals short-term regional convergence in seven indicators, albeit of different depth and duration. Sub-federal budget revenue experienced the most significant and persistent reduction in interregional disparities, the main sources of which were a reduction of unevenness in a number of taxes, a significant increase in federal transfers and a change in their nature. After a strong short-term convergence, industry, trade, transport and investment all tended to return to long-term divergence paths. Personal income and wage inequality responded weakly to the shock in the short term and entered the new long-term path. Multidirectional spatial trends resulted from the interaction of sectorial and fiscal policy effects during the pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the 2014 Wales Summit, the NATO allies pledged to spend at least 2% of their GDP on defence by 2024. While some allies are on track to meet the 2% target, others only modestly augmented their military expenditures and still others have even reduced their defence budgets. This article aims to explain the diverging trajectories of the allies' military expenditures during the first five years after the Wales Summit. More specifically, it introduces an integrated burden sharing model, which is tested with generalized set Qualitative Comparative Analysis. The results of the analysis indicate that the threat posed by Russia provided the most important incentive for increasing defence budgets. However, general budget constraints kept some allies from increasing their defence budget in proportion to the threat posed by Russia. Conversely, in the absence of budget constraints, allies governed by a right-leaning executive made intermediate budget efforts even if they only faced a low level of threat. Strikingly, budget inertia only had a modest impact on the allies' defence budgets, only resulting in a low level of spending in allies that were not threatened by Russia and either faced considerable budget constraints or were governed by a left-wing government. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A full-scale invasion of Ukraine became a challenge not only for it, but also for the whole world, which has not yet overcome the consequences of the covid pandemic. Rethinking approaches to assessing the impact quires the development of new theoretical foundations and practical recommendations. Previous experience cannot be used, including as a result of changes due to globaliz tion processes. The modern world is characterize from economic to social. That is why blocking ports in Ukraine can cause famine in Afr can countries. The influence of civil society affects the economic behavior of intern tional corporations, which are forced to leave the market of the Russian Federation not only because of sanctions, but also to preserve the image and loyalty of consumers. The creation of a single European space currently also requires the formation of a si gle line of behavior in relation to Ukraine and Russia. This is far from a complete list of the latest relationships that shape the modern world and affect the economy. Currently, Ukraine suffers losses every day, the amount of which cannot be fully e timated. This is hindered by the incompleteness of information, the continuation of ho tilities, and the inconsistency of existing methods with the current situation. In the article, based on the analysis of the existing situation and existing challenges, the concept of a fast state is proposed. The idea grounds the socio development on the maximum promotion of entrepreneurial activity. It is based on a synergistic effect when the introduction of business opportunities will stimulate the cre tion of new workplaces, the growth of incomes, and with them, the expenses of the population, which in turn will boost the opening of new enterprises and the development of existing ones. The central, new idea of a fast state is to concentrate not on raising taxes but on reducing them as much as possible and filling the budget due to the growth of entrepreneurial activity, and not on increasing levies on those that are still functioning. Also, the research makes the point that the reconstruction of the state in the context of a fast state will be built based on finding one's own innovative trajectory of development and not on the adaptation of best practices focused on the catch nature of such action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The international reserves of Russia are growing rapidly. This research note is an attempt to consider the factors and reasons behind this increase. It concludes that the main factor of the increase in the international reserves of Russia since 2017 was the introduction of the new fiscal rule that enabled the increase in the Sovereign Wealth Fund and argues that the new rule was introduced to enhance economic security by making the public finances less sensitive to external developments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Short-term freezing of the soil surface can occur practically throughout the entire territory of Russia. This phenomenon stimulates CO2 emission from the soil. In this regard, in laboratory conditions, we studied the dynamics of CO2 emission from soils of various natural zones with periodically repeating short-term freeze–thaw cycles. For the study, samples were taken from the upper horizons of the following soils: Reductaquic Turbic Cryosol (Loamic), Reductaquic Turbic Cryosol (Loamic), Spodic Turbic Cryosol (Arenic), Histic Cryosol (Glacic), Albic Rustic Podzols (Arenic), Haplic Luvisol (Loamic, Aric), Haplic Chernozem (Loamic, Pachic), Rendzic Leptosol (Humic), Haplic Chernozem (Siltic), Gypsic Solonetz (Loamic, Columnic), Gypsic Vertisol (Hypereutric), Haplic Kastanozem (Siltic), and Haplic Calcisol (Loamic). It was found that the dynamics of CO2 emission during the freeze–thaw cycles were similar for all soils. The CO2 emission from frozen soil samples was reliably determined. Subsequent soil thawing promoted a pulse increase in the CO2 emission in comparison with that before and after the freeze–thaw cycle regardless of the soil type. Thus, for the first time, it has been shown on a wide range of soils that a significant response of СО2 emission to freeze–thaw of the soil surface can occur in any natural zone. The magnitude of the response depends on the soil properties, primarily on the organic matter content. The influence of single freeze–thaw cycles on the annual CO2 flux is insignificant. However, frequent freeze–thaw cycles can affect the CO2 flux both within individual seasons and throughout the year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has already disrupted large swathes of the global economy, threatening the growth models of major oil and gas producer countries like Russia. A collapse in oil prices, triggered by the pandemic, once again exposed Russia's enduring susceptibility to sharp falls in oil and gas prices. We argue that this decline in oil prices came at a time when tectonic shifts in global energy markets had already threatened to reduce the value of future oil and gas revenues. These structural changes were accelerated by the collapse in demand caused by the pandemic. Because the Russian leadership had done little to address the threat posed by the emergence of a new energy order, the economy remained highly dependent on oil and gas sales as the primary source of growth. While measures undertaken since 2014 to reduce the government's fiscal dependence on high oil prices will help Russia avoid a worst-case outcome of a fiscal or financial crisis, the dependence of other branches of the economy on the energy sector remains high. This has left Russia set once again to experience a deeper recession than that forecast for other energy exporting economies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article proposes a transparent method for collecting, structuring, and analyzing Russian budget data on defense and security-related expenditures. A precise answer to the question of how big Russia's defense expenditures are is impossible because of issues concerning secrecy and accounting principles. We circumvent this challenge by constructing lower and upper bounds for Russia's military expenditure, showing that depending on the chosen measure these have increased from the range of 10.3–31.2% of federal expenditures in 2011 to 12.9–35.4% in 2018. The analysis also yields additional insights into the concept of secrecy in the Russian budget; we show that 39 out of 96 subchapters in the Russian budget contain secret expenditures, many of which are not nominally related to defense or security, and that secret expenditures increased as a share of total expenditures from 12% to 17% between 2011 and 2019. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

System activities to increase the financial literacy of the population, initiated by the Government of Russia about 10 years ago, and various episodic projects implemented by commercial, educational and public organizations form a request for assessing the level of financial literacy and the effectiveness of these measures. First of all, comprehensive, accurate studies are relevant, as they make it possible to identify territorial, socio-demographic, economic and other patterns of changes in the level of financial literacy, as well as the grounds for the success of regulatory activities. The purpose of the article is to study the differentiation of the level of financial literacy by territory, socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the population. To achieve this, the original index methodology for measuring financial literacy according to “knowledge” and “skills” components has been developed by the authors. The sub-indices in subject areas (the sub-indices “income and costs”, “family budget and financial planning”, “savings and deposits”, “crediting”, “investment and taxes”, “insurance and pensions”, “risks and financial security”, “protection of consumer rights”), some particular indices of knowledge and skills, a composite index of financial literacy (range from 0 to 1) have been calculated. The list of measurable elements of financial literacy is compiled according to the model of a financially literate citizen outlined in the “Strategy for increasing financial literacy in the Russian Federation for 2017–2023”, and includes 33 items. The methodology we have developed for the assessment of financial literacy is aimed at the solution of a set of tasks, which include: identification of the key problem areas of financial literacy; determination of groups that effective financial education programs and interventions can be targeted for; identification of preferred forms and methods of providing information on the topics of interest to improve financial literacy; study the features of financial literacy in terms of sociodemographic and economic factors. The empirical foundation of the study was the data of the sociological survey “Financial literacy”, conducted the authors in 2018 in the territory of 4 regions of the North -Western Federal District (Kaliningrad, Pskov, Arkhangelsk and Vologda regions). When choosing the regions, the presence of regional programs to improve financial literacy and the level of per capita cash income of the population was taken into account. It has been revealed that the composite index of financial literacy of the population was 0.396; the maximum value of the index is observed in Arkhangelsk region (0.434), the minimum – in Vologda region (0.376). The level of financial literacy and its individual components has been differentiated according to the territorial basis, socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the population. A stable framework of subject areas in which the population implements literate skills has been highlighted; it includes the family budget and financial planning, the use of savings and loans, financial security. The dependence of financial literacy and its individual components on the level of cash incomes, which is strengthened in the context of the implementation of regional programs to improve the financial literacy of the population, has been determined. It is shown that, regardless of the region, private knowledge indices are higher than private skill indices, which indicates the presence of factors that impede the transformation of existing knowledge into practical actions of the population in the financial market. We strongly believe that it is caused by the presence of particular attitudes existed among the populating in the field of financial literacy. Therefore, at further stages of the comprehensive, accurate analysis, we intend to study a special component of financial literacy – “attitudes”, which will determine the value-motivational and psychological aspects that mediate the development of financial knowledge and skills by the populat ion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research background: The research is based on the assumption that the sectoral structure of economy has a significant impact on the level and dynamics of sub-federal budget tax revenues. It distinguishes the following sectoral determinants of tax revenues in regions: the levels of tax return and tax absorption, inflation and economic growth in various economic activities. Purpose of the article: We aimed at assessment of contribution of economic activities and their determinants to the increase in tax revenues of sub-federal budgets of the Russian Federation in 2011-2015 compared to 2006-2010. Methods: Development of a four-factor additive-multiplicative model of the tax revenue formation in regions, application of the proportional and logarithm methods of factor analysis to assessment of contribution of various activities and their determinants to increase in tax revenues of sub-federal budgets, evaluation of inter-regional inequality of tax revenues growth based on the weighted coefficient of variation, and decomposition of this inequality using the A. Shorrocks technique. Findings & Value added: We identified activities that made the largest contribution to the increase in tax revenues of the Russian sub-federal budgets. We found that the inflation factor had a predominant positive effect on the growth of tax revenues, while the contribution of the economic growth factor was 4 times less; however, the situation in various activities differed significantly. Generally, changes of sectoral levels of tax return and tax absorption influenced negatively the regional tax revenues. In addition, they moved in opposite direction in the regions. Ultimately, the uneven change in tax returns and price levels in the mining and manufacturing activities of Russian regions made the greatest contribution to inter-regional inequality of the growth of subfederal budgets tax revenues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil-biogeochemical aspects of the current state of arable land in the Russian Federation are discussed. Considerable transformation of Russian agriculture has led to structural changes in the agricultural land use, including arable farming. About forty million hectares of former arable land have been abandoned and converted into the category of abandoned lands subjected to overgrowing with meadow and woody vegetation. The restoration of natural vegetation in postagrogenic ecosystems is accompanied by changes in the biological productivity and composition of vegetation on agricultural land in general. The reduction of plowlands and their transformation to abandoned lands have changed the carbon budget. In the early 1990s, arable farming was the net source of C-CO2. At present, the total arable land area in Russia is estimated at approximately 80 M ha. This area is a source of about 20 Mt C-CO2/yr. Forty million hectares of former arable land have turned into the sink of C-CO2 of about 40 Mt/yr in size. Thus, the entire agricultural land in Russia functions as the net sink for atmospheric CO2 at the rate of 20 Tg C/yr. This fact can be considered a contribution of Russian agriculture to the goals of the "soil 4 per mille" international program assuming carbon sequestration in agricultural soils. Changes in the agricultural land use patterns together with a sharp decrease in the application of all kinds of fertilizers have led to prevalent biogeochemical flux of nutrients (N, P, K) from arable soils to urbanized areas. The deficient nutrient budget implies that the soil-climatic potential and the potentials of other factors increasing farming productivity (new varieties, plant-protective chemicals, etc.) are not fully realized in agricultural production. In 25 years (1992–2016), the uptake of nutrients by crops from arable land comprised 91, 33, and 90 Mt for N, P2O5, and K2O, respectively. The amount of applied fertilizers in that period was only about 28 Mt for N, 10 Mt for P2O5, and 28 Mt for K2O. The highly deficient budget of phosphorus is of special concern. Under these conditions, it is necessary to significantly restrict the export of apatite concentrate and phosphate fertilizers as strategic (nonrenewable) resources necessary for ensuring the food security of Russia for decades ahead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater pumping and changes in climate-induced recharge lead to lower groundwater levels and significant changes in the water balance of a catchment. Water previously discharged as evapotranspiration can become a source of pumpage. Neglecting this effect leads to overestimated streamflow depletion. A small river basin (Sudogda River Basin, Russia) with a boreal climate and with long-term records of groundwater head and streamflow rate (showing that the measured stream depletion is less than the pumping rate) was investigated. The role of evapotranspiration in the water balance was analyzed by a hydrogeological model using MODFLOW-2005 with the STR package; the annual variation in recharge was obtained with the codes Surfbal and HYDRUS. The Sudogda River Basin was classified according to landscape and unsaturated-zone texture classes, and for each classified zone, the unsaturated-zone flow simulation was used to calculate the annual recharge dynamics for the observation period. Calibration of the regional flow model was conducted using flow and head observations jointly for two steady-state flow conditions—natural (before pumping started) and stressed (pumping). The simulations showed that pumped water originates from three sources: intercepted baseflow (75% of the annual total pumping rate), the capture of groundwater evapotranspiration discharge plus increased groundwater recharge (17%), and induced stream infiltration (8%). Additionally, multi-year precipitation records were analyzed to detect any long-term recharge and pumping water-budget changes. The results showed that increasing groundwater recharge by natural precipitation leads to (1) decreased intercepted baseflow and induced streamflow infiltration and (2) increased intercepted evapotranspiration discharge, thereby reducing stream depletion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been established that opportunistic incumbent politicians, both elected and appointed, adjust public policies in systematic ways over political cycles. We show that the corrupt behavior of appointed politicians also follows certain patterns which are driven by political cycles. Based on BEEPS data, exploiting variation in the dates of surveys and in the starting dates of Russian regional governors' terms of office, we find that corruption levels, as perceived by firms operating in different regions of Russia, are higher closer to the end of a regional governor's term. We argue that such a pattern cannot be explained by standard political budget cycle reasoning, but rather that the observed pattern may be generated by governors' accumulation of private information about their likelihood of remaining in office for another term. When a governor gradually learns that he will not be re-appointed once his current term has expired, he has increasing incentives to engage in corrupt activities in order to accumulate wealth before his departure. Alternatively, when a governor becomes more certain that he will remain in office, he may have higher incentives to smooth rent extraction over time and thus not to increase it. We test this explanation in several ways and consistently find supporting evidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National assessment of ecosystem services of Russia is an urgent task taking into account their key importance for maintaining the quality of life of the population and the regulation of biosphere processes. The purpose of the present paper is to propose a natural science methodology for evaluation supplied, demanded and consumed ecosystem services for national ecosystem assessment of Russia. Supplied ecosystem services were considered as services produced by ecosystems regardless of presence or absence of people, demanded – as the volume of services that is necessary for people and economy, consumed – as services actually used by people. Ratios between these three volumes of ecosystem services reveal the degree of service use and degree of meeting the demand for service that are analogous to indices of ecosystem service budget. The proposed methodology was tested in the preparation of the Prototype of the National Report on Ecosystem Services of Russia. Ecosystem services of air and water purification are considered as examples in the present paper. These examples demonstrate that proposed methodology is useful for estimation of surplus or deficit in ecosystem services across regions and identification of ecological risk areas. It also allows regional comparison at national level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes the changing face of institutions of higher education in Russia in comparison with other countries. It is shown that the ratios of funding sources for higher education in Russia are similar in structure to those in other countries. However, the absolute amounts of funding from these sources are three times less in Russia than the level of the OECD countries. We analyze the following two strategies that Russian universities have used to cope with reduced public funding: diversification of sources of income and changing the structure of expenses. These strategies have been borrowed from the experience of foreign universities that have reformed their financial management. We identify the following main trends in the financing of Russian higher education: concentration of support on leading universities, reliance on public support for higher education as a main source of funding, and the weak use of public-private partnership mechanisms as well as endowment funds. We provide an assessment of the impact of these trends on the economic position of universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of melt inclusions in minerals is the only direct approach to estimate the contents of volatile components in silicate melts, which are essential to constrain the processes of magma generation and evolution. In particular, the content of sulfur in silicate melts is closely connected with the P-T-fO 2 conditions of mantle melting and the formation of sulfide deposits. Inclusions in high-Mg olivine can provide access to the composition of the most primitive melts, but these are the most susceptible to post-entrapment modification such as 'Fe-loss'. The loss of Fe consequently decreases sulfur solubility and leads to silicate-sulfide immiscibility and formation of daughter sulfide globules, significantly affecting the initial proportions of S contained within the silicate part (glass) of melt inclusions. In this study, we investigated the budget of sulfur in heated and quenched melt inclusions hosted in primitive olivine (87–90 mol% Fo) by accounting for sulfur stored in silicate glass (melt), daughter sulfide globules and shrinkage bubbles. Melt inclusions from MORB-like olivine-phyric rocks (Kamchatsky Mys, Far East Russia) heated for 30 min at 1200 °C and 1300 °C were compared with similar experiments on olivine-hosted melt inclusions over a 5 min duration (at 1200 °C and 1350 °C). Sulfur contents were calculated in the following types of melt inclusions, containing: (i) both sulfide globules and shrinkage bubbles, (ii) only sulfide globules, (iii) only shrinkage bubbles, and (iv) completely homogenized. Our findings indicate that S content in shrinkage bubbles and its precipitates is negligible in reheated water-poor melt inclusions, whereas daughter sulfide globules are significant repositories of initial S. Therefore, when estimating initial S contents in parental melts, the amounts stored in both daughter sulfide and silicate glass should be considered. Our experiments with MORB-type melt inclusions in forsteritic olivine phenocrysts demonstrate that effective homogenization is best achieved by briefly overheating melt inclusions prior to rapid quenching. Although this technique does not allow for the Mg Fe equilibrium between melt inclusions and their host olivine to be fully achieved, it promotes the dissolution of daughter sulfide globules and shrinkage bubbles, and thus the release of initial sulfur back to the melt/glass. • Daughter sulfides in olivine-hosted melt inclusions (MI) contain up to 60% of total S • Shrinkage bubbles in water-poor MI glasses contain insignificant amounts of S • Experimental heating and quenching of MI successful in dissolving daughter sulfides • S contents in sulfide-saturated mafic melts can be accurately estimated using MI [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sophisticated research and management problems of the Estonian water environment are considered by means of holistic modelling. The model elaborated is based on the computer code Visual MODFLOW Classic. The model encompasses the entire Estonian Artesian Basin (EAB) and the border districts of Russia and Latvia. It involves all main aquifers and aquitards on an area of 88,000 km2. The main hydrogeological and hydrological characteristics of the study area, including the time-dependent three-dimensional distribution of groundwater heads, the direction, velocity and rate of subsurface fluxes, itemised water budgets, volumes of hydrogeological units, and durations of groundwater exchange have been determined by modelling. The palaeohydrological situation during the last continental glaciation of the EAB was reconstructed and the principal problems of the sustainable management of water environment were elucidated. The model has been used to simulate the local and cumulative rates of the base flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses programmes of cash allowances for children and compares their effectiveness in combating child poverty in Russia and four European Union (EU) countries representing alternative family policy models – Sweden, Germany, Belgium and the United Kingdom. Using microsimulation models, this article estimates the potential gains if the Russian system were re-designed along the policy parameters of these countries and vice versa. The results confirm that the poverty impact of the programme design is smaller than that of the level of spending. Other conditions being equal, the best distributional outcomes for children are achieved by applying the mix of universal and means-tested child benefits, such as those employed by the United Kingdom and Belgium. At the same time, the Russian design of child allowances does not appear to be less effective in terms of its impact on child poverty when transferred to European countries in place of their current arrangements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia's fiscal system was destabilized in 2015 because of the fall in national oil revenues. The budget crisis resulted in a sustained fall in personal income, which in turn led to a fall in consumption. This in turn resulted in a decline in trade and investment. These trends were present in the majority of Russia's regions. Russia's industrial slump, on the other hand, was relatively small and did not last long, in large part due to continued investment and growth in the defense industry. The sustained industrial production, combined with the buffer of a substantial pool of foreign migrant labor, allowed for stable employment figures. Overall, the Russian economy was better able to adapt to the deterioration in conditions than most expected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article aims to reconstruct the Russian government's state budget in the late 16th and 17th centuries. Topics covered include the size of the state budget of the Muscovite realm, information on the condition of the Muscovite state budget, and the reliability of the sources discussing the financial resources of the Muscovite government.

The article discusses research about the factors that need to consider to manage the federal budget investment efficiently for weapons production in Russia. Topics mentioned include incentives for involvement of employees in the defense industry complex (DIC) enterprises in innovative activity, barriers to innovative activity, and the role of strategic management in the DIC.

The article discusses the issues related to poverty situation in Russia Federation. Topics discussed include the study "Poverty and Inequality in Modern Russia: 10 Years On" conducted by the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) Institute of Sociology, statistics related to causes of poverty like drug addiction; prolonged unemployment and lack of support on the part of parents; and the poor share of housing and utilities and food in the budget of Russia.

The article discusses reproduction trends and problems of economic modernization in Russia. It states that proportions between savings and final consumption should be changed through reduction of the growth rates of final consumption, and between savings and final consumption through net corporate profits to achieve capital accumulation. It also mentions that the monograph considered figures of national accounts and financial-budget statistics for Russian economic development.

The article discusses interaction between the Russian government and international development organizations as a part of Russia's foreign policy as of 2013. According to the article, Russian cooperation with such entities gives Russia influence, assists Russia in the modernization of its economy, and permits Russian participation in the formation of global political and economic order. The article also discusses the budgetary policies of Russian president Vladimir Putin.

When the representative organs are in a weak position to check and balance the executive authorities, it is significant that decision-making processes permit additional avenues for the substantive engagement of citizens. Although significant political and legal reforms in the last 15 years engendered in Russia, at least formally, a democratic multi-party system, implementation of participatory rights still remains a significant problem. The author investigates the opportunities for participating in the conduct of public affairs provided by Russia for its citizens, analysing the activities of such advisory bodies as the ‘Public Chamber of the Russian Federation’ or the ‘Presidential Council on the Development of Civil Society and Human Rights’. Such opportunities for public participation as, for example, voluntary associations, citizen assemblies, public discussions of the regional budget and petitioning public authorities are also considered. The dynamics of the legal development of these participatory practices are assessed in the light of the conclusions drawn by the UN treaty-monitoring bodies and the European Court of Human Rights, regarding the implementation by Russia of its international legal obligations under Article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. The author will try to prove that the Russian Federation undertakes significant legislative steps in order to implement the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs. At the same time, it will be shown that law in books can differ from law in action. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The heads of the financial services of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) system discuss the core financial results of the reform of the Ministry: exclusive federal funding of Russian police, new wages structure, and program-oriented budgeting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the impact of financial support from the Russian Federation government on its regions during the global financial crisis in 2008-2010. It focuses on the major areas of support such as the legal and administrative actions to reduce the regions' financial pressure, increment fiscal grants, and loans granted to the regions. It notes that the economic crisis provides an assessment on the efficiency and flexibility of the country's fiscal system.

This article sheds light on the current status of Russia's international cooperation programs on innovation, whereby the focus is on stimulation programs for small and medium enterprises (SME)s. SMEs are the backbone of the economy among EU countries, whereas in Russia they are still in a developing phase. The analysis of bi- and multilateral tools for stimulation of SME cooperation with Russia shows that programs, projects, and budgets are increasing. This positive development takes place in spite of difficult framework conditions for businesses in Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides quantitative values of the main biological processes and experimental data for the production and destruction processes and the process of translocation. There are considered data on carbon, nitrogen and potassium element storages in the phytomass, mortmass and bog ecosystem production of the middle taiga in Western Siberia. Storages of elements are determined by their concentration in different fractions of ecosystem plant matter. In the bog ecosystems N, K and Mg decrease by two and three times while transporting from phytomass into mortmass and P and Ca are accumulated in mortmass. There is a great difference in element concentrations in phytomass in different ecosystem types. Element storages are determined by phytomass volume much more than on concentration and increase in ecosystem line: oligotrophic hollows → ridges. All these features depend on species composition of the community and on chemical composition of predominant plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author discusses the inter-relationship of Russia's civil and budgetary legislation in light of the rules and regulations governing obligations arising from state securities under conditions of a financial crisis. She argues that the redemption of state bonds (treasury bills) by exchanging them for other state debt instrument bonds does not conform to the conditions for debt novation. However, the author does not rule out the possibility for the state to make unilateral changes to the terms and conditions of a loan and, in addition, offers alternative means of resolving this (legal) issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Spatio-temporal variations in the energy budget and evapotranspiration (ET) in eastern Siberia were examined for a period of 19 years, from 1986 to 2004, for the Lena and Kolyma watersheds, which are underlain by permafrost. The energy budget and ET were calculated with a land surface model [Yamazaki, T., Yabuki, H., Ishii, Y., Ohta, T., Ohata, T., 2004. Water and energy exchanges at forests and a grassland in eastern Siberia evaluated using a one-dimensional land surface model. J. Hydrometeol. 5, 504–515] that considered vegetation, snow, and soil processes. Station data were used to compile gridded time series of forcing data. The spatial distribution of the energy budget showed that the latent heat flux (Q E) was a significant term in the surface energy budget in forested regions, while the sensible heat (Q H) was significant in the tundra region. A similar result was also obtained for the seasonal variation; in the Kolyma watershed, for instance, Q H dominated the seasonal energy budget, even during the growing season. In the Lena watershed, 53% of precipitation (P G) was lost through ET, which occurred during a very sharply pronounced growing season. Transpiration (E T) was a major component of ET in the Lena watershed, while in the Kolyma watershed, evaporation from the forest floor (E S) was dominant. This suggested clear relations between the energy budget and the difference in land surface and climate. In the Lena and Kolyma watersheds, a time series of P G exhibited strong annual variations with an increasing trend during 1986–2004. ET also exhibited an increasing trend in the two watersheds. However, the interannual variation was weaker than that of P G, reflecting the influence of extensive permafrost in the area. The ET components also showed an increasing trend. In contrast, E S decreased during 1986–2004, the trend of E S thus being inversely correlated to that of P G. Interestingly, annual ET also exhibited an inverse correlation with P G in the Lena and Kolyma watersheds, although this relationship was weak. In contrast, ET displayed a strong correlation with air temperature (T a) and the timing of the disappearance of snow. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article focuses on the Baltics. The collapse of the imperial statehood of Latvian Republic, the Baltics associated the political future with Russia wherein they elected deputies to the Constituent Assembly. After the World War II, the Baltic infrastructure was developing fast on the federal budget money at the expense of the territories of Russia for they were still getting money from these territories.

The article discusses the process of transforming a budget from an instrument for meeting national needs into an instrument primarily serving the interests of the bureaucracy in Russia. This article focuses on the essence of bureaucracy itself and the characteristic features of how it operates in Russian society. According to one definition, bureaucracy refers to a system of actual power based on a set of formal and informal relations of officialdom in the political, economic and sociocultural spheres of the activities of the state and society. The most important consequence of bureaucratization is the strengthened centralization of administration and the ever greater concentration of power.