Search

This study provides a comprehensive analysis of global patent trends in battery recycling, focusing on secondary batteries and related technologies across Korea, China, and the United States. The methodology involved collecting data from various patent databases, followed by quantitative analysis to identify technology trends and guide future development. The research employed statistical tools to analyze patent activities, including the frequency and scope of patent filings, and comparative analysis to highlight differences between countries. This study reveals distinct emphases on technologies such as lithium-ion and waste battery recycling, highlighting notable differences in patent activities among key companies and countries. China's large number of patents in battery manufacturing processes contrasts with the USA's focus on electrochemical cell construction and storage systems, while Korea shows significant activity in waste battery technology. The novelty of this paper lies in its detailed comparative analysis of patent trends across these three major economies, providing insights into the technological focuses and priorities of each country. The study also identifies key challenges, such as the need for consistent innovation and broader geographic coverage in Korea, enhancing patent influence and international presence in China, and ensuring high patent quality and fostering innovation in lagging sectors in the United States. Addressing these challenges through enhanced collaboration, increased R&D investments, and supportive policies is crucial for strengthening the global position and driving further innovation in the battery recycling sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sintered neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are essential in a number of clean energy technologies such as electric vehicles and wind turbines. The United States (US) has some manufacturing capacity for Li-ion batteries and almost no capacity for producing sintered NdFeB magnets. As a result, the US imports significant quantities of these batteries and magnets. Trade statistics on imported batteries and magnets, however, include only those materials imported in the form of batteries and magnets (referred to here as reported imports) and exclude materials embedded in intermediate and final products such as hard disk drives, electric motors, electric vehicles, and wind turbines (referred to here as embedded imports). This paper develops original estimates of embedded imports of NdFeB magnets and Li-ion batteries, leading to a more complete picture of US imports than looking at reported imports alone. It estimates that more than 90% of NdFeB magnet imports were embedded in intermediate and final products in 2021. In contrast, more than 90% of Li-ion battery imports were in the form of the batteries themselves rather than embedded in intermediate and final products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this paper is, based on the theory of complex systems (Arthur, 2009), to reconstruct the inventive activity of lead-acid batteries used in electric vehicles. Based on the information from the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) database, and based on the methodology developed by Strumsky and Lobo (2015), it is possible to represent different degrees of inventive novelty (origination, new combination, recombination and reuse), as well as measuring the increasing technological complexity of lead-acid batteries. Evidence shows that the lead-acid battery is an increasingly complex technology. It is a rival technology but is also complementary to the nickel-metal-hydride and lithium-ion batteries used by electric and hybrid vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric vehicles, which are primarily powered by lithium-ion batteries, have gained much attention as the future of transportation for their environmental and economic benefits. However, the current economy of lithium-ion battery management is quite linear. A circular economy with reusing and end-of-life recycling of lithium-ion batteries, would reduce the social and environmental costs associated with the mining of metals, decelerate the depletion of natural resources, and prevent the improper management that often accompanies disposal. This research suggests improvements to the end-of-life management of lithium-ion batteries in the US, considering current and emerging recycling technologies, current collection and transportation infrastructure, current reuse applications, and an analysis of the current regulatory policies in place. Along with providing a comprehensive overview of these topics, this research compiles and provides a set of actionable End-of-Life (EOL) management recommendations for the US on policy, infrastructure, and technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Proposed a novel reverse logistics network for LIB recycling under uncertainty. • Developed a two-stage stochastic model to facilitate strategic decision-making. • Applied simple average approximation to solve the model. • Quantified the impact of uncertainty on recycling operation and government policy. Recycling waste LIBs can be a promising option to tackle the increasing demand of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) in the United States due to the electric vehicle boom and transition towards clean energy. However, the recycling infrastructure is in its infancy in the United States, and there are inherent uncertainties in the collection volume of waste LIBs and the recovered material value that may hinder the path toward sustainable operations. The goal of this study is to maximize the recycling profit of a reverse logistics supply chain network developed considering uncertainties in feedstock volume and sales price as well as other economic challenges unique to the US market. In this study, a two-stage stochastic model is proposed to facilitate strategic decision-making. Additionally, this study quantifies the impact of uncertainties on recycling operations and government policies adopted to promote large-scale recycling of waste LIB materials in the US. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strong growth in lithium-ion battery (LIB) demand requires a robust understanding of both costs and environmental impacts across the value-chain. Recent announcements of LIB manufacturers to venture into cathode active material (CAM) synthesis and recycling expands the process segments under their influence. However, little research has yet provided combined costs and environmental impact assessments across several segments of the LIB value-chain. To address this gap, we provide a combined cost assessment and life cycle assessment (LCA), covering CAM synthesis, cell manufacturing and hydrometallurgy recycling. 1 kWh cell capacity (NMC 811 -C) is chosen as functional unit. Results for cell manufacturing in the United States show total cell costs of $94.5 kWh−1, a global warming potential (GWP) of 64.5 kgCO 2 eq kWh−1, and combined environmental impacts (normalizing and weighing 16 impact categories) of 4.0 × 10−12 kWh−1. Material use contributes 69% to costs and 93% to combined environmental impacts. Energy demand, meanwhile, accounts for 35% of GWP. Initially, hydrometallurgy recycling adds 5 to 10% to total costs, GWP, and environmental impacts. Including recycling credits, as recycled material substitutes new virgin material, shows benefits for recycling. Combined environmental impacts benefit most from recycling (−75%), followed by costs (−44%) and GWP (−37%). Further, we present a comprehensive dashboard which reveals how different scenarios, such as, using wind power instead of grid electricity, influence costs, GWP, and environmental impacts across process segments. Switching to low-carbon energy, for example, reduces GWP more than recycling would. Also, our dashboard shows that recycling or low scrap are more suitable options if reduction of costs or combined environmental impacts is the objective. [Display omitted] • CAM synthesis accounts for >45% of costs, CO2eq and combined environmental impacts. • Recycling costs of < $9 kWh-1 are small compared to manufacturing costs of $95 kWh−1. • Recycling reduces normalized & weighted environmental impact of cells by 75%. • Benefit of recycling on CO2eq emissions is comparably small. • Low scrap improves costs and environmental impacts more than low-carbon energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United States and the world are undergoing an accelerated energy transition with high stakes regarding energy security (i.e., the availability, affordability, accessibility, reliability, and acceptability of energy). Concerns about climate change and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are dominating the debate about which energy technologies are politically most acceptable to meet energy needs. Renewable energy, energy efficiency, and electric battery storage technologies appear to be the preferred technologies. However, we believe the notion that renewables and electric storage (batteries) are "clean" has been overstated. This column will shed some light on the following: what "clean energy" means; the environmental impacts of lithium‐ion batteries; and what governments and electric vehicle and battery companies must do to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and reduce environmental impacts associated with the lithium‐ion electric battery supply chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phase-transformation electrodes have desirable characteristics for lithium-ion batteries. These electrodes have been shown to be abuse resistant, have extended cycle life, and are suitable for fast-charging applications. These new materials have significantly different lithium incorporation behaviors than the more-conventional solid-solution reaction electrodes. This paper explores the implications of phase-transformation physics within a multiparticle electrode that contains a distribution of particle sizes. Phase-transformation physics is such that lithium distributions within the electrode particle ensemble is cycle-path dependent. For example, after charging, any maldistribution of lithium between particles does not naturally redistribute uniformly between all particles, as is the case for solid-solution reaction electrodes. Such maldistribution greatly influences the observed electrochemical impedance spectra. The implications of history-dependent inter-particle lithium distributions is characterized with a mesoscopic model. The model shows how the impedance spectra of a phase-transformation electrode, at a prescribed state of charge, depends on the path history to achieve the state of charge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the fast growing of the electric vehicle (EV) market and soaring production of the EV lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) in China, more and more life cycle assessment (LCA) studies has been focused on their impacts towards resources, energy and environment in recent years. As the indispensable background data, the life cycle inventories (LCIs) of the cradle-to-gate stage of the commonly used materials for the production of LiBs play an important role in the related LCA studies, since their accuracy and reliability can affect the results and conclusions greatly. However, LCIs of the LiB materials produced in China are in scarcity nowadays, which has become an obstacle for the further understanding of the eco-performances of EVs and LiBs. In this study, a general unit-process model was established firstly, and then a variety of foreground data were collected from the representative manufacturers of LiB materials in China. With a sequential calculation procedure carried out step by step, the targeted LCIs of the materials were obtained, along with the corresponding 95% confidential intervals through Monte-Carlo simulations. According to the inventories analysis, it was found that among the materials studied, the polyethylene separator made by wet drawing process, lithium hexafluorophosphate, carbon nanotubes, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide and nickel cobalt aluminum are with relatively higher primary energy demands and greenhouse gas emissions in their cradle-to-gate stage. Besides, among the cathode materials studied, lithium iron phosphate consumes the lowest non renewable mineral resources. In addition, through a comparison with GREET, we found that the energy consumptions and greenhouse gas emissions of the LiB materials in this study are significantly higher than that drawn from GREET. This will lead to 62–91% more greenhouse gas emissions from materials made in China than those in the United States in order to produce LiB cells of the same capacity. However, it was also found the discrepancies may be stemmed from many difference in the processes of modeling and data acquisition between this study and the supportive studies for GREET. • A general unit-process model was established firstly, then a variety of foreground data were collected from the representative manufacturers of LIB materials in China. • Uncertainties were assessed by estimating the data quality by the pedigree matrix DQI method, and Monte Carlo simulations were carried out to locate the 95% confidential intervals in the results. • Through a comparison with GREET it was found that the energy consumptions and greenhouse gas emissions per unit mass of LiB materials in this study are significantly higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A circular economy (CE)-inspired waste management hierarchy was proposed for end-of-life (EOL) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from electric vehicles (EVs). Life cycle eco-efficiency metrics were then applied to evaluate potential environmental and economic trade-offs that may result from managing 1,000 end-of-life EV battery packs in the United States according to this CE hierarchy. Results indicate that if technology and markets support reuse of LIBs in used EVs, the net benefit would be 200,000 megajoules of recouped cumulative energy demand, which is equivalent to avoiding the production of 11 new EV battery packs (18 kilowatt-hours each). However, these benefits are magnified almost tenfold when retired EV LIBs are cascaded in a second use for stationary energy storage, thereby replacing the need to produce and use less-efficient lead-acid batteries. Reuse and cascaded use can also provide EV owners and the utility sector with cost savings, although the magnitude of future economic benefits is uncertain, given that future prices of battery systems are still unknown. In spite of these benefits, waste policies do not currently emphasize CE strategies like reuse and cascaded use for batteries. Though loop-closing LIB recycling provides valuable metal recovery, it can prove nonprofitable if high recycling costs persist. Although much attention has been placed on landfill disposal bans for batteries, results actually indicate that direct and cascaded reuse, followed by recycling, can together reduce eco-toxicity burdens to a much greater degree than landfill bans alone. Findings underscore the importance of life cycle and eco-efficiency analysis to understand at what point in a CE hierarchy the greatest environmental benefits are accrued and identify policies and mechanisms to increase feasibility of the proposed system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Battery sorting can help maximize the concentration of cobalt-rich batteries in recycling feedstock. This can increase profitability for recyclers and drive investment in additional recycling capacity. • The greater availability of high cobalt batteries from consumer electronics between 2022 and 2030 before more nickel-rich EV batteries enter the recycling feedstock stream can represent a strong profit incentive for early recyclers. • The benefits of battery sorting for cobalt and nickel recovery rates can outweigh some variations in recycling plant operating costs or process yield. The United States has identified several lithium-ion battery materials as critical for reaching the national emission reduction targets that have been set in accordance with the 2015 Paris Agreement. However, with few natural resources available domestically, there is a rapidly growing focus on the development of a domestic recycling industry to recover these materials from end-of-life batteries. In this paper, we use the Lithium-Ion Battery Resources Assessment (LIBRA) system dynamics model to evaluate the impact of automated battery sorting technology in terms of the shares of cobalt and nickel that are recovered through recycling. Findings show that automated sorting has clear benefits over manual sorting methods by helping recyclers selectively process high-cobalt batteries. By maximizing cobalt recovery, recycling becomes more profitable and drives greater investment in recycling capacity, resulting in a higher share of nickel and cobalt recovered from EOL batteries over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand for graphite will grow with expanding use of lithium-ion batteries in the United States. Much graphite is imported, raising supply chain risks. It is therefore imperative to characterize graphite's sources and sinks. Accordingly, we present the first material flow analysis for natural and synthetic graphite in the U.S. The analysis (for 2018) begins with processed graphite trade and includes graphite production, graphite product trade, manufacturing of end products, end product use, and waste management. It considers 11 end-use applications for graphite, two waste management stages, and three recycling pathways. In 2018, 354 thousand tonnes (kt) of processed graphite were consumed in the U.S., including 60 kt natural graphite and 294 kt synthetic graphite. 145 kt of graphite were traded. Refractories and foundries consumed 56% of natural graphite; 42% of synthetic graphite went into making graphite electrodes. Batteries accounted for 10 and 5% of natural and synthetic graphite consumption, respectively; 78% of total graphite used dissipated into the environment; 22% reached the waste disposal stage of which 71% was landfilled and 29% was recycled; and 59 kt of graphite accumulated in in-use stocks. Recycling more graphite and producing graphite from lignin would favorably influence today's supply chain.

Low-order, explicit models of lithium ion cells are critical for real-time battery management system (BMS) applications. This paper presents a seventh-order, electrolyte enhanced single particle model (ESPM) with electrolyte diffusion and temperature dependent parameters (ESPM-T). The impedance transfer function coefficients are explicit in terms of the model parameters, simplifying the implementation of temperature dependence. The ESPM-T model is compared with a commercially available finite volume based model and results show accurate matching of pulse responses over a wide range of temperature (T) and C-rates (I). The voltage response to 30 s pulse charge-discharge current inputs is within 5% of the commercial code for 25°C < T < 50°C at I ≤ 12.5C and -- 10°C < T < 50°C at I ≤ IC for a graphite!nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) lithium ion cell. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study compares the costs of manufacturing high-performance 18650-size lithium-ion cells in China and in the United States. The comparison reflects all costs of constructing and staffing a stand-alone manufacturing plant under current industry practice and using modern automated production techniques. Identical materials are used for each of the cells. This study finds that, when produced at large volume using automated equipment, cell materials account for 78–80% of total cell cost; costs for highly trained personnel are similar in China and the United States. Several other major drivers of production costs (such as logistics, land acquisition and energy costs) are higher in China, making total costs for each location roughly comparable. These comparisons suggest that U.S. manufacture of advanced batteries can be cost-competitive, and that Chinese battery manufacturing plants do not offer significant advantages in terms of profitability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This research investigates the effect of global supply chain strategy on product quality and U. S. competitiveness by analyzing the case of Boeing 787 Dreamliner recent lithium-ion battery overheating incident. Boeing 787, a new and complex product, has outsourced 70% of its parts and components with a redesigned global supply chain strategy. The grounding of all 50 Boeing 787s already in service by the U. S. FAA on January 16, 2013, has trigged a renewed debate on product quality as a result of extensive outsourcing and its impact on the overall U. S. competitiveness. While this incident is a result of in-flight battery fire with Japan Airlines, along with a similar case occurred earlier in January 2013 in Boston with the same airline company, many believe Boeing's new aggressive supply chain strategy may have contributed to its quality and safety problems. Managerial implications are discussed to generalize the impact of various global supply chain strategies on product quality and overall U. S. competitiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the performances of various lithium-ion chemistries for use in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles have been investigated and compared to several other rechargeable energy storage systems technologies such as lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride and electrical-double layer capacitors. The analysis has shown the beneficial properties of lithium-ion in the terms of energy density, power density and rate capabilities. Particularly, the nickel manganese cobalt oxide cathode stands out with the high energy density up to 160 Wh/kg, compared to 70-110, 90 and 71 Wh/kg for lithium iron phosphate cathode, lithium nickel cobalt aluminum cathode and, lithium titanate oxide anode battery cells, respectively. These values are considerably higher than the lead-acid (23-28 Wh/kg) and nickel-metal hydride (44-53 Wh/kg) battery technologies. The dynamic discharge performance test shows that the energy efficiency of the lithium-ion batteries is significantly higher than the lead-acid and nickel-metal hydride technologies. The efficiency varies between 86% and 98%, with the best values obtained by pouch battery cells, ahead of cylindrical and prismatic battery design concepts. Also the power capacity of lithium-ion technology is superior compared to other technologies. The power density is in the range of 300-2400 W/kg against 200-400 and 90-120 W/kg for lead-acid and nickel-metal hydride, respectively. However, considering the influence of energy efficiency, the power density is in the range of 100-1150 W/kg. Lithium-ion batteries optimized for high energy are at the lower end of this range and are challenged to meet the United States Advanced Battery Consortium, SuperLIB and Massachusetts Institute of Technology goals. Their association with electric-double layer capacitors, which have low energy density (4-6 Wh/kg) but outstanding power capabilities, could be very interesting. The study of the rate capability of the lithium-ion batteries has allowed for a new state of charge estimation, encompassing all essential performance parameters. The rate capabilities tests are reflected by Peukert constants, which are significantly lower for lithium-ion batteries than for nickel-metal hydride and lead-acid. Furthermore, rate capabilities during charging have been investigated. Lithium-ion batteries are able to store about 80% of the capacity at current rate 2It, with high power cells accepting over 90%. At higher charging rates of 5It or more, the internal resistance impedes charge acceptance by high energy cells. The lithium titanate anode, due to its high surface area (100 m2/g compared to 3 m2/g for the graphite based anode) performs much better in this respect. The behavior of lithium-ion batteries has been investigated at different conditions. The analysis has leaded us to a new lithium ion battery model. This model will be compared to existing battery models in future research contributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the area of power storage for aerospace applications, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, has developed an all solid-state rechargeable micro-scale lithium ion battery cell (micro-battery) rated at 4.25 V, with nano-Ampere–hour capacity. One of the advantages of this development is the ability to fabricate approximately 20 000 individual micro-battery cells adjacent to each other on the same four-inch silicon wafer. To take advantage of a pre/post-fabricated series, parallel or series/parallel connection of the cells, a power management system has been developed and sub-system circuits designed using a combination of device and circuit techniques meeting high voltage switching requirements in silicon on insulator (SOI) technology to reconfigure and control the charge/discharge operation of the cells for practical application. This study will present a detailed analysis of the power management system and its sub-circuit components. The circuit components have been simulated using 3.3 V SOI SPICE models and have been fabricated in a 0.35 µm Microwave SOI process. A description of the system and the results will also be discussed and analysed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium-ion batteries have been used on a number of NASA missions and have been base-lined for use on a number of up-coming aerospace applications. The Li-ion cells and batteries that have been developed together with Yardney Technical Products are especially attractive due to their high specific energy and energy density, good performance over a wide operating temperature range, as well as their good calendar and cycle life performance. However, given that the Li-ion technology is relatively new to the aerospace community and that mature, large capacity prototype cells have continued to evolve over the last 10 years, real-time performance test data is especially valuable in demonstrating the capabilities over a number of environmental and application specific conditions. For this reason, we have focused on performing a number of generic and mission specific performance life tests to establish the viability of the technology to meet current and future applications. In this work, we will describe the results of a number of generic cycle life tests, including 100% depth-of-discharge (DOD) cycling at various temperatures, partial DOD cycling simulating planetary orbiters and low earth orbit (LEO) satellite conditions, as well as partial DOD mission specific testing. We will also describe the results obtained from a number of calendar life tests where the cells were stored under different conditions, such as at different temperatures and different storage modes (i.e. open circuit voltage (OCV) conditions and storage under trickle charge conditions). Methods to quantify the capacity degradation and impedance growth of the batteries when subjected to different electrical and environmental conditions will be discussed, as well as, possible degradation mechanisms that can lead to reduced lifetime. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the growth of the lithium-ion battery industry in the U.S. which is similar to growth of photovoltaic solar industry; and presents views of David Hochschild, commissioner of the California Energy Commission, on Lithium-ion batteries.

The article discusses how escalating oil prices and issues associated with global climate change are leading automobile manufacturers to embrace the concept of plug-in electric cars. Price concerns have led to customers purchasing more fuel efficient vehicles, and producing cars run off of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries will allow more money to remain in the U.S. national economy as opposed to being spent on imported petroleum products. This retained money could be used to bolster domestic generation of renewable energy. The science behind lithium-ion batteries is examined, and the new hybrid automobile design of the Chevrolet Volt is discussed. Quotes are provided from Mark Duvall of the Electric Power Research Institute.

• Renewable hydrogen can compete with lithium-ion batteries for seasonal storage. • Hydrogen's competitiveness depends on heat rate of plant it is replacing. • Net present value of hydrogen-fired gas turbine varies based on operation of plant. • Lack of infrastructure will impede demand growth for hydrogen in the United States. Non-emitting variable renewable energy (VRE) resources are needed on the power grid if the United States is to "deeply decarbonize" the power sector. The intermittent nature of these resources makes them difficult to integrate into the power system. Existing energy storage technologies, such as lithium-ion (LI) batteries, could be used to aid the integration of these resources, but these technologies are sized to produce power for hours at a time before needing to be charged again. While these energy storage technologies could address daily imbalances between supply and demand for electric power, they cannot address the seasonal nature of power production of VREs. This paper details a methodology to estimate the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of meeting this seasonal imbalance with either a hydrogen-fired gas turbine (HFGT) or lithium-ion battery system (LI) as a measure of economic efficiency of the technologies. Applying our model, we find the average LCOE associated with meeting this seasonal imbalance is $2400/MWh using a HFGT fueled with green hydrogen and $3000/MWh using a LI. If we allow the model to operate the HFGT with blue hydrogen the average LCOE decreases to $1560/MWh. However, we find the power prices required to justify investment in an HFGT to replace a natural gas-fired gas turbine are considerably higher than those seen in the market today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• System Dynamics modeling to understand the complexity of the economics of Li production from geothermal and other sources. • Lithium supply from geothermal could reach around 60,000 tonnes by 2030, which would represent 4% to 8% of the totalsupply. • Lithium extraction from geothermal could generate benefits up to $258/$311million with projections of 23/43million EVs, respectively by 2030. As the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) increases, demand for lithium (Li) is expected to grow over the coming decade. To satisfy the demand for rechargeable batteries, it is imperative to devise solutions for sufficient Li production. Even though commercial Li currently comes from conventional saline salar brine and spodumene ore extractions, efforts to retrieve Li from geothermal brines are increasing in popularity. In this paper, we evaluate the United States' potential to supply Li from geothermal brines using Systems Dynamics modeling. The main goals are to assess (1) the viability of US Li supply from geothermal brines and (2) the potential supply chain impact of extracting Li from this source. Results show that Li supply from geothermal brines could (1) reach around 4% to 8% of total US Li supply and (2) be economically viable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past century lithium went from being a minor metal with very limited application to being one of the core elements for the electrification revolution of the automotive sector. In spite of, or perhaps because of its strategic importance in many industrial fields, lithium extraction and trade has historically been underreported. This research aims to provide a clear analysis and data for lithium extraction and trade in the United States, which was, until a few decades ago, both the largest lithium producer and end-user in the world. The analysis covers the period 1910–2016, and reports lithium flows for the mining, chemical, and end-use sectors. The data show that lithium extraction in the United States peaked in 1974 (5.0 Gg), decreasing to 1.1 Gg by 2016, and that U.S. trade of lithium ores and brines is nearly non-existent. In the chemical sector, domestic use has remained relatively constant since the 1950′s (2.3 Gg), while exports have been significant since the 1980′s (1.8 Gg year⁻1 on average). Imports became of critical importance in 1998, with the closure of the last domestic lithium mine. The end-use sector has grown over time, reaching 6.5 Gg in 2016, and is now dominated by lithium used in batteries (2.8 Gg). Except for batteries, there appears to be little potential for lithium recovery and reuse. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy storage industry has expanded globally as costs continue to fall and opportunities in consumer, transportation, and grid applications are defined. As the rapid evolution of the industry continues, it has become increasingly important to understand how varying technologies compare in terms of cost and performance. This paper defines and evaluates cost and performance parameters of six battery energy storage technologies (BESS)—lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, redox flow batteries, sodium-sulfur batteries, sodium-metal halide batteries, and zinc-hybrid cathode batteries—four non-BESS storage systems—pumped storage hydropower, flywheels, compressed air energy storage, and ultracapacitors—and combustion turbines. Cost and performance information was compiled based on an extensive literature review, conversations with vendors and stakeholders, and costs of systems procured at sites across the United States. Detailed cost and performance estimates are presented for 2018 and projected out to 2025. Annualized costs were also calculated for each technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the ever-growing energy demands, new battery chemistries beyond lithium ion technology are required to deal with an increased power consumption and promote the vehicle electrification. However, there are still challenges in understanding the cognitive structure of evolving R&D processes. The study of the patent landscape can provide a complementary perspective on the trajectories of technological change and facilitate interdisciplinary discussions that help make future technology planning more rationally. In this study, we investigate the technological development trajectory of post-lithium-ion battery technologies based on the analysis of patent data. A data-driven approach, which comprises of patent co-classification analysis, application of link prediction algorithm and text mining technique, is used to highlight the recent research progress on selected post-lithium-ion battery technologies. These are lithium air, lithium sulfur and sodium-ion batteries. A lithium air battery is composed of a lithium metal anode, a porous carbon cathode with high catalytic activities towards electrochemical oxygen reactions, and either an aqueous or non-aqueous electrolyte. Similarly, a lithium sulfur battery consists of a lithium metal anode, a sulfur composite cathode, and an organic electrolyte. Sodium-ion batteries share the same architecture as the lithium ion-batteries, but are normally based on carbonaceous anode materials, layered transition metal oxides cathode demonstrating a minimal structural change upon intercalation, and aqueous electrolytes. The results indicate that the number of patents related to post-lithium-ion battery technologies has noticeably increased since 2008. A few East Asian countries and USA dominate the underlying patent landscape. The co-classification analysis showed that not only the amount of interacting knowledge areas but also the cross-linking with adjacent technological knowledge areas has increased. Moreover, the knowledge areas related to the electric vehicles and polymer applications are predicted to gain more relevance in the future. According to the text mining results, the most common application areas comprise vehicles, devices, energy storage, computers and phones. The main innovations of this study are as follows: First, it identified the current research trends and prospects for the post-lithium-ion battery technologies based on the insights gained from objective data, assisting R&D planners in determining their further directions for research and development. The exploration of the technological development trajectory of post-lithium-ion battery could serve as a reference for relevant researchers to better understand the dynamics and make strategic adjustments, which have profound significance for the progress of clean energy and green chemistry development. Second, it discovered the dynamics of interacting knowledge areas, which indicate an increased tendency of technology convergence. In case of lithium air and lithium sulfur batteries, notable interactions between knowledge areas pertaining to the core battery components (cell configurations and electrolytes) and application-driven knowledge fields (electric vehicles and phones) were observed. The intensity of these interactions was rather weak in case of sodium-ion battery technology. Accordingly, researchers need to seek for new knowledge outside of their traditional knowledge boundaries to accelerate the commercial breakthrough of post-lithium-ion batteries. In particular, knowledge areas related to electrical vehicles have gained in importance in all of the examined battery technologies, reflecting the drive to produce high-energy battery systems. Third, it predicted the knowledge areas that could gain more relevance in the future research by comparing the predictive power of different machine learning algorithms. This forward-looking approach can add a new empirical perspective to the discussion of sustainable technology development. Fourth, in contrast to common assumption, it showed that SIBs could also power up portable applications like mobile devices or electric vehicles. Image 10617 • Patents related to post lithium-ion battery technologies have increased since 2008. • East Asian countries and USA dominate the underlying patent landscape. • The amount of interacting knowledge areas has expanded. • An increasing trend towards application-oriented patent filings was observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]