Search

Grape pomace (GP) of white varieties without stalks was ensiled by the method of single factor trial in the two treatments: in the first treatment, with the addition of lucerne biomass (L) of the last cut, which was harvested at the stage of forming pods with equal shares in the weight ratio and in the second with the addition of Benural S (B) in the amount of 1%. Chemical analyses were conducted on GP and L to determine the suitability of biomass for silage and to determine the chemical composition and nutritional value and the process of lactic acid fermentation. It has been found that the biomass of GP had 2 times higher concentration of water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC 140.5:69.4 gkg-1DM) relative to L, and a lower buffer capacity (BC) what makes it 10 times more favourable for ensiling (ratio WSC/BC 13.1 : 1.3). GP, as compared to L, had lower contents of CP, CF, and a lower nutritional value expressed in NEL and NEM units and a higher content of crude fat. Silage with the equal share of GP + L compared to silage with GP + B had a slightly lower CF and significantly less crude fat and ash, especially Ca. More favourable ratio Ca : P (2.93 : 1) was established in silage GP + L compared to 10.1:1 silage GP + B. Silages GP + L in the fermentation process were scored/rated one class higher according to the DLG and Zelter assessment methods, compared to the silages GP + B. The aim of the study was to investigate the possibility of ensiling grape pomace with equal proportion of biomass of lucerne and added NPN substances and to determine the detailed chemical composition, nutritive value and silage quality on the basis of the process of lactic acid fermentation.

The objective of this paper was to consider the effect of supplementary feeding of grazing dairy cows on dry matter intake (DMI), milk production and milk composition. Accurate estimations of total DMI and pasture DMI are important to the management of dairy grazing systems. The intakes of dry matter (DM) and net energy-NEL are lower on the pasture-only diet compared with cows supplementary fed with concentrate. Many pasture factors affect DMI, including pregrazing pasture mass and pasture allowance. Milk production of high producing grazing dairy cows in early lactation increases linearly as the amount of concentrate increases to 10 kg DM/day with a milk response of 1 kg milk/kg concentrate. In late lactation, increases are with a lower milk response per kilogram of supplemented concentrate. With the amount of concentrate supplementation, milk fat and protein yield increase while milk fat percentage decreases. Supplementation with rumen undegradable protein (RUP) is important for meeting requirements of grazing dairy cows, because the pasture has high ruminal crude protein (CP) degradability. Corn silage supplementation to grazing cows may increase milk production if pasture offered is restricted, but if pasture is offered ad libitum milk production does not change or can decrease. Supplementation of ruminally inert fat could have positive effect on milk production with concentrate supplemented at a lower rate.

In this study, the impact of adding Benural S (commercial supplement on urea basis, in the amount of 1 and 2%) on the parameters of the chemical composition and quality of corn silage was examined. The experiment was planned according to the model of random plan, with three treatments (CS- CONTROL - control corn silage, CS+1% NPN - corn silage supplemented with 1% Benural-S, CS+2 % NPN - corn silage supplemented with 2 % Benural-S) and three replicates per treatment. Statistical analysis of the results showed a significant increase in the amount of dry matter, crude protein, ammonia and soluble nitrogen, NFE and ash, as well as the pH, when adding Benural S. The most significant changes were in the amount of crude proteins, which was increased by 37.5% when adding 1% S Benural, and 69.8 % when adding 2 % Benural S. Increase of pH and the share of ammonia nitrogen in the treatment with 2 % Benural-S led, according to the method by Weissbach, to diminishing of the quality of silage by one class. When balancing the ration for cows, the significantly increased amount of soluble proteins should be take into account, which are closely correlated with the degree of protein degradation. U radu je ispitivan uticaj dodavanja Benurala S (komercijalnog dodatka na bazi uree, u količini 1 i 2%) na parametre hemijskog sastava i kvaliteta silaže kukuruza. Eksperiment je planiran po modelu slučajnog plana, sa tri tretmana (CS-CONTROL - kontrolna silaža kukuruza; CS+1% NPN - kukuruzna silaža sa dodatkom 1% Benurala-S; CS+2% NPN - kukuruzna silaža sa dodatkom 2% Benurala-S) i u tri ponavljanja po tretmanu. Statističkom obradom rezultata utvrđeno je signifikantno povećanje količine suve materije, sirovih proteina, amonijačnog i rastvorljivog azota, BEM- a i pepela, kao i pH vrednosti, pri dodavanju Benurala S. Najznačajnije su promene u količini sirovih proteina, koja je povećana za 37,5% pri dodavanju 1% Benurala S, odnosno za 69,8% pri dodavanju 2% Benurala S. Povećanje pH vrednosti i udela amonijačnog azota u tretmanu sa 2% Benurala S dovelo je prema Weissbach-ovoj metodi do smanjenja kvaliteta silaže za jednu klasu. Pri balansiranju obroka za krave treba voditi računa o značajno povećanoj količini rastvorljivih proteina, koji su u uskoj korelaciji sa stepenom razgradivosti proteina.

In this paper the up to date methods and regulation of goat kids feeding as the new normatives and nutrient requirements are presented. In kids feeding remarkable attention has to be made on optimal needs concerning the accurate growth and progress. In order to make the best solution the updated normatives with large number of parameters have to be used. Growing goat kids require energy, protein, vitamins and minerals for optimum growth. Determining quantities of these nutrients needed will make possible to determine how much of grain mix and hay should be used to support maintenance and growth. The nutrient requirements of growing goats show a different trend than those of mature animals. The latest investigation results on protein level recommendation in kids feeding (NRC, 2007) have grown over 45%, while energy needs only infinitesimally more in regard to goat nutrient requirement needs considering the NRC recommendation from 1981. However, it must be remembered that energy requirements are based on minimal activity needed to secure feed and the actual requirement may very. Thus, the needs of energy for growing kids with a body mass of 20 kg is 5.69 MJ ME and 75.6 g in proteins. The first three days after birth are the most critical days in the life of a newborn kid. If the mother rejects the kids, colostrum of kids should be fed three times a day, a total of 2 to 3 pint per day. After three days, the kid diet is based on milk or milk replacer, which is given twice a day and does not exceed three liters per day. Feeding with milk or milk replacer may continue until 8-12 weeks or until the time the kids are weaned and able to consume 0.2 kg grain milk per day. At weaning, for feeding the 30 days old kids we used a mixture concentrate for early suckling kids. By own nutrient compounds this grain mixtures must have better quality than concentrate mixtures used in goat kids feeding. Provide a grain mix (kid starter) containing high levels of protein (16%) and high levels of fiber (11%) as well as good quality hay to encourage rumen development. After weaning up to 6 months, continue feeding with kid starter 0.2 to 0.4 kg/day and plenty of good quality forage and pasture. When the growing kids start to use large amounts of hay or green forage in feeding, they should be given a mixture of concentrate with something simpler composition. Do not feed silage and non-protein nitrogen at this age.

The main objective of this research was to study the effect of rations containing full-fat extruded soybeans or fat-extracted heat treated soybean meal, in the nutrition of dairy cows during the period of middle lactation. The study was carried out with two groups of 15 Holstein cows. The animal’s health was controlled on the basis of body condition score, results in production, general condition of animals and some of the most important biochemical parameters of blood serum. In the case of nutrition based on rations where the total amount of soybeans was extruded or where it was partially replaced with fatextracted heat treated soybean meal, the production of 4% fat corrected milk was 28.43 and 28.78 kg. Observed differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The differences in the achieved average content of milk fat (3.38 and 3.45%) and protein (3.48 and 3.48%) were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Results of this work shows that the partial replacement of full-fat extruded soybeans with soybeans based products with lower oil content gave better production results of cows during the period of middle lactation.Key words: Soybeans, dairy cows, biochemical parameters of blood, ruminal content.

The most intensive body development of heifers occurs in period before reaching puberty when the intensity of increasing of withers height and hip height is three time higher then after puberty. Heifers with higher body weight gains until reaching the puberty are younger at calving, characterized with higher mammary mass, with greater mammary fat deposition, with no significant difference in the mass of mammary parenchyma and milk yield in the first lactation. Increasing the ration concentration of high quality protein that is available in the small intestine (RUP - rumen undegradable fraction of CP) has a positive effect on the growth rate of heifers (withers height, BW) with no negative impact on the mammary development. Female calves up to weaning that consume diet with high energy and protein concentration and higher daily gains, are characterized with larger mass of mammary parenchyma, increased mammary fat content and increased BW at calving and milk yield in the first lactation. Optimal growth rate for heifers during the rearing depends on genetic potential for growth and body size of mature animals. Najintenzivniji telesni razvoj junica odvija se u periodu pre dostizanja puberteta kada je intenzitet povećanja visine grebena i krsta tri puta veći nego posle puberteta. Junice koje u fazi odgoja do dostizanja puberteta, ostvaruju veće dnevne priraste. tele se u ranijem uzrastu, odlikuju se većom ukupnom masom vimena, većom masom deponovanog masnog tkiva u vimenu, bez značajne razlike u masi mamarnog parenhima, i mlečnosti u prvoj laktaciji. Povećanje sadržaja u obroku, proteina visoke biološke vrednosti, dostupnog u tankom crevu (RUP - frakcija SP nerazgradivog u rumenu) pozitivno utiče na povećanje intenziteta porasta kod junica (visina grebena, TM) bez negativnog uticaja na razvoj mlečne žlezde. Ženska telad koja u periodu do odlučenja konzumiraju obrok sa većim sadržajem energije i proteina, i ostvaruju veće priraste, odlikuju se većim vrednostima za masu parenhima mlečne žlezde, većim sadržajem masti u vimenu, ali i većom TM pri teljenju, i većom mlečnošću u prvoj laktaciji. Optimalan intenzitet porasta junica tokom perioda odgoja zavisi od genetskog potencijala za porast i telesnih dimenzija odraslih životinja.

Aerobic stability is a term that indicates the length of the time that silage remains cool and does not spoil after it is exposed to air. Therefore, rapid removal of air from forage mass and prevention of air infiltration into the silage during storage and feed out are the important factors that determine the duration of the silage aerobic stability. The measurement of CO2 production, separately or in combination with other measurements such as temperature, pH, lactic acid and volatile fatty acids and microbial examination, can serve as a reliable laboratory method to determine the duration of silages aerobic stability in silages. This paper work has aim to point on the importance of determination the duration of aerobic stability of silages, because quality changes and losses in the case of aerobic degradation. Aerobna stabilnost je termin kojim se definiše dužina vremena za koje silaža ostaje hladna i ne kvari se po izlaganju vazduhu. Zbog toga, brzo otklanjanje vazduha iz silaže tokom siliranja i smanjeno izlaganje vazduhu po otvaranju silosa su dva važna faktora koji određuju dužinu aerobne stabilnosti silirane stočne hrane. U proceni aerobnog kvarenja,merenje proizvodnje CO2, odvojeno ili u kombinaciji sa drugim parametrima kao što je temperatura silaže, pH vrednost, sadržaj mlečne i sirćetne kiseline i mikrobiološka analiza, mogu se koristiti kao pouzdani laboratorijski metod. Ovaj rad ima za cilj da ukaže na značaj procene vremena trajanja aerobne stabilnosti stočne hrane,zbog promena i gubitaka kvaliteta pri aerobnoj degradaciji.

Investigation was performed to observe the changes of crude protein (CP) content in lucerne plant during the first three vegetation cycles within one vegetation season, with the aim to optimize the lucerne utilization in ruminant nutrition. A total of 143 samples were collected from 7 April 2010 (the start of the spring vegetation) to 9 August 2010 (the end of the third vegetation cycle). The sampling was done by cutting a randomly chosen area of 0.1 m2. Crude protein (CP, expressed in dry matter) was analyzed in all samples with standard Kjeldahl procedure. Samples were collected in all stages of the three vegetation cycles, from the early vegetation to the ripe pod phase. There were large differences in plant protein content changes during different vegetation cycles. During the first vegetation cycle, which had the highest yield of plant green mass, there was a sudden drop in the protein content that was coinciding with optimal cutting moment. In absolute values, this drop was more than 8 percent points of CP during the 10-day period. Second and third vegetation cycles had slower and more uniform decreases in CP content during vegetation. Postponing the cutting moment in order to obtain higher yield, during the first vegetation cycle may lead to radical decrease of the nutritive value in lucerne. Adequate and rapid evaluation of the right moment for lucerne cutting is very important in order to obtain quality forage rich in protein.

Successful maize cropping in rein-fed conditions depends mainly on meteorological factors and in lesser extent on substrate (soil). The trial with 5 maize hybrids was set up during period of 2005-2010 on alluvium and hydromorphous black soil with aim to examine productive traits and silage quality from the energetic point of view. Biomass yield, stover and cob mass were measured, as well as total energy of biomass, as calculated parameter. Nutritive units, total energy and metabolic energy were determined from the silage. Positive correlation was observed between yield parameters and precipitation amount. In most of seasons, biomass yield, stover and cob mass, total energy of biomass and silage were higher on hydromorphous black soil, compared to alluvium, while the nutritive units and metabolic energy were lower on the same soil during unfavorable seasons. Achieved results indicated that unfavorable meteorological factors could be partly reduced by cropping on heavier soils, such hydromorphous black soil is. In contrast to yield parameters, energy status of produced maize and silage biomass are in lesser extent dependable on meteorological conditions and soil type, and what is more important biomass total energy increases with unevenness of growing conditions. Such situation gives advantage to lower yield crop as a source for energy production (bio-fuels), while high yielding crop have better potential for conversion as a feedstuff.

The objective of this study was to compare effects of products derived from soybeans, with different oil content, on milk production and some, more important indicators of metabolic profile, during the middle period of lactation. The experiment was conducted on two groups of Holstein cows. There were 15 cows in each group. The ration of the control group of cows (I), was based on equal amounts of full-fat and low-fat (expeller soybeans meal), heat treated soybeans. Cows in experimental group (II) were received ration, wherein full-fat heat treated soybeans, was completely replaced with expeller soybeans meal (Biopro 60). At the end of experiment, milk production in control group of cows was 29.95 kg with butterfat content 3.54%, while in the experimental group it was 31.47 kg of milk with the butterfat content 3.45%. The differences of mentioned parameters were not statistically significant (p>0.05), nor in the case of protein content which was 3.50% in control group and 3.48% in experimental group of cows. According to achieved results it can be concluded that is possible to improve production, when nutrition of cows is based on soybean products with lower fat content, during the middle period of lactation. Cilj istraživanja je bio poređenje uticaja proizvoda od soje, sa različitim sadržajem ulja, na proizvodne rezultate i važnije pokazatelje metaboličkog profila krava, u srednjem periodu laktacije. Ogled je sproveden na dve grupe krava, crno-bele rase u tipu Holštajna, sa po 15 grla u grupi. Obrok kontrolne grupe krava (I) zasnivao se na kombinaciji termički tretirane soje, punomasne i obezmašćene (sojina pogača). Krave ogledne grupe (II) konzumirale su obrok, u kome je punomasna termički tretirana soja u potpunosti zamenjena sojinom pogačom (Biopro 60). Na kraju ogleda, u kontrolnoj grupi, ostvarena je proizvodnja mleka od 29,95 kg, sa sadržajem mlečne masti od 3,54%, dok je u oglednoj grupi ostvarena proizvodnja od 31,47 kg sa 3,45% mlečne masti. Razlike u napred pomenutim proizvodnim pokazateljima nisu bile statistički značajne (p>0,05), kao ni u slučaju sadržaja proteina koji je u prvoj grupi bio 3,50%, a u drugoj grupi 3,48%. Na osnovu ostvarenih rezulata, može se zaključiti da je moguće uticati na povećanje proizvodnje mleka korišćenjem proizvoda na bazi soje sa manjim sadržajem ulja, u ishrani krava, u srednjem periodu laktacije.

U radu je prikazan značaj ribljeg brašna kao i drugih hraniva životinjskog porekla za proizvodnju smeša koncentrata, kao i mogućnost njihove suspstitucije hranivima biljnog porekla u kombinaciji sa sintetičkim aminokiselinama, ili komercijalnim „zamenama“ ribljeg brašna. Riblje brašno je do sada najviše korišćeno hranivo životinjslog porekla. Zbog opasnosti od širenja bolesti Bovine spongiform encephalopathy – BSE, u Evropskoj uniji je regulativama 999/2001 i 1234/2003 zabranjena upotreba obrađenih animalnih proteina, u koje spadaju različite vrste mesno-koštanog brašna, za sve farmske životinje koje ulaze u lanac ishrane ljudi, izuzev ribljeg brašna za nepreživare. Kod nas je u skladu sa Zakonom o veterinarstvu iz 2005. uvedena obaveza za sve fabrike hrane za životinje da odvajaju linije u kojima se pripremaju koncentrati za preživare, ili da proizvodnju obavljaju na istoj liniji ali da se pri tome odreknu upotrebe hraniva životinjskog porekla. U skladu sa tim, vrši se stalni monitoring smeša za preživare. Zadnjih godina je korišćenje ribljeg brašna u ishrani nepreživara jako smanjeno zbog navedenih zakonskih ograničenja, sve lošije hranljive i upotrebne vrednosti (zdravstvene ispravnosti), problema falsifikovanja (dodavanja hraniva niže hranljive vrednosti: sojine sačme, kukuruznog glutena, brašna od perja pa čak i uree) kao i zbog visoke cene. Osim toga, dobro je poznato da riblje brašno prenosi svoj specifičan miris na proizvode pa se obavezno isključuje iz smeša pri kraju tova brojlera. Velike količine ribljeg brašna se i danas koriste pri proizvodnji peletirane hrane za pastrmke i druge karnivore ribe. Naime, ove vrste riba zahtevaju visok nivo proteina dobre biološke vrednosti u obrocima. Ranih 90-ih godina preporučivan odnos svarljivih sirovih proteina i svarljive energije u obrocima za pastrmke je bio 22-25 g/MJ. Nasuprot tome, u zadnjoj dekadi eksperimentalno je dokazana efikasnost obroka sa većim sadržajem masti (>20%) i kada je odnos proteina i energije uži. Međutim, u tom slučaju treba obezbediti odgovarajući nivo esencijalnih aminokiselina. Objašnjenje je u specifičnom metabolizmu riba. Krajnji proizvod metabolizma proteina u riba je amonijak, za šta je potrebno manje energije. Nasuprot tome, krajnji proizvod metabolizma energije u svinja je urea, čime se objašnjava uži odnos proteina i energije (oko 14 g/KJ). Zbog svega navedenog proizvođači teže da riblje brašno zamene (delimično ili potpuno) nekim drugim proteinskim hranivom (biljnog ili životinjskog porekla), pri čemu je jedan od glavnih ciljeva što niža cena proizvodnje. Do sada je najviše pažnje poklanjano proizvodima od soje, odnosno sojinoj sačmi. Ovo hranivo ima veliku biološku vrednost proteina ali i visok sadržaj različitih antinutritivnih materija. Nasuprot tome, efikasnijim se pokazao koncentrat proteina soje. To je hranivo koje se dobija uklanjanjem masti i rastvorljivih ugljenih hidrata. Eksperimentalno je utvrđena mogućnost delimične supstitucije ribljeg brašna suncokretovom sačmom, ali je glavni nedostatak ovog hraniva u velikoj količini nerastvorljivh ugljenih hidrata. Pored ovih hraniva, u eksperimentima su ispitivane sačme pamuka, kikirikija, uljane repice, brašno lupine, kukuruzni gluten, proteini krompira i dr. Međutim, nedostatak svih ovih hraniva je nizak nivo nekih esencijalnih aminokiselina kao i prisustvo antinutritivnih, štetnih i nesvarljivih materija. Jedno od potencijalnih proteinskih hraniva za ribe i domaće životinje je bakterijski protein. U pogledu brzine rasta i produkcije proteina, bakterije imaju prednost u odnosu na kvasce. Pored toga, bakterije sadrže i više proteina (do 80%), a aminokiselinski sastav je povoljniji i sličniji proteinima životinjskog porekla. Nedostatak je velika količina nukleinskih kiselina (do 18%) koje u sisara katabolišu do mokraćne kiseline. U zaključku se ističe da su troškovi ishrane ključni za rentabilnost proizvodnje u stočarstvu i nekim oblicima ribarske proizvodnje. Supstitucija ribljeg brašna u obrocima za domaće životinje i ribe je neophodnost zbog visoke cene ovog hraniva, varijabilnog kvaliteta i eventualnog falsifikovanja jeftinijim hranivima. Za sada, najveći značaj pokazuju proizvodi prerade soje a određenu perspektivu imaju i bakterijski proteini.

The effects of physically effective fiber concentration in rations for lactating cows on chewing activity, physiological and production characteristics are reviewed in the paper. In numerous investigations negative effects of decreasing of forage particle size were found, first of all in corn silage, alfalfa haylage and hay, on total chewing activity of dairy cows, ruminal pH, ruminal acetate to propionate ratio, digestibility of diet, milk yield and composition. Aside from the minimal chemical concentration of fibers, it is necessary to meet the required content of physically effective fiber from forages, which can be achieved with adequate chopping size of feeds. Optimal rations considering physical effectiveness, supply the required total chewing activity, adequate salivation and ruminal fermentation processes, efficient utilization of the diet, adequate milk yield and composition, and health in production animals. U radu je razmatran efekat koncentracije fizički efektivnih vlakana u obrocima za krave u laktaciji na aktivnost žvakanja, fiziološke i proizvodne karakteristike. U većem broju istraživanja utvrđen je negativan efekat veće usitnjenosti kabastih hraniva, pre svega silaže cele biljke kukuruza, senaže lucerke i sena lucerke, na ukupnu aktivnost žvakanja kod krava, na ruminalnu pH vrednost, odnos koncentracije acetata i propionata u ruminalnom sadržaju, svarljivost obroka, proizvodnju i hemijski sastav mleka. Pored minimalnog hemijskog učešća vlakana, neophodno je obezbediti potreban sadržaj fizički efektivnih vlakana iz kabastog dela obroka, što se pre svega postiže odgovarajućom usitnjenošću kabastih hraniva. Optimalan obrok, sa aspekta fizičke efektivnosti, obezbeđuje potrebnu ukupnu aktivnost žvakanja, lučenje pljuvačke, normalan tok ruminalne fermentacije, efikasno iskorišćavanje konzumirane hrane, adekvatnu količinu i sastav proizvedenog mleka, i zdravlje proizvodnih životinja.

Chemical composition of lucerne (Medicago sativa) depends of the plant age. During the plant ageing protein content is decreasing while cellulose fibers increase, which is changing alfalfa digestibility. It is possible to predict nutritive value of lucerne by precise defining morphological plant growth stages. There are several methods for estimating chemical composition of the plants. All methods use system with ten lucerne morphological stages during growth. Moment for lucerne cutting should be precisely defined by using 10 morphological stage system. Chemical composition estimation is based on calculating average morphological stage for certain area, by monitoring growth stages of all shoots at control plot. Average growth stage is expressed using MSW (Mean Stage by Weight) values. Particular methods show only imposing plants at the control plot. The three methods for lucerne nutritive value estimation using crude protein content, ADF and NDF, and In vitro real digestibility are shown in the present study. The first method is based on using MSW values, the second acquire two parameters, the highest and the oldest shoot at control plot. The third method uses leaf percent per plant as a parameter for estimation, and the method is based on the fact that leaf : stem ratio decreases during plant ageing, while crude protein percent and digestibility in lucerne are strongly dependent of leaf proportion. Hemijski sastav lucerke je u velikoj zavisnosti od starosti biljaka. Sa starenjem biljaka udeo proteina se smanjuje na račun celuloznog kompleksa vlakana, što utiče na svarljivost lucerke. Preciznim definisanjem morfoloških faza razvoja biljaka može se predvideti njihova hranljiva vrednost. Postoji više metoda za procenu hemijskog sastava. Sve metode koriste sistem od deset morfoloških faza u razvoju lucerke, a njima se može precizno odrediti momenat košenja. Procena hemijskog sastava se bazira na izračunavanju prosečne morfološke faze za određenu površinu, preko sagledavanja razvojnih faza svih stabljika na kontrolnoj parcelici. Prosečna faza se izražava preko MSW vrednosti (Mean Stage by Weight). Pojedine metode sagledavaju samo markantne biljke na kontrolnoj parcelici. U ovom radu su prikazane tri metode za procenu hranljive vrednosti lucerke preko sirovih proteina, neutralnih i kiselih deterdžent vlakana, i In vitro prave svarljivosti. Prvi metod se bazira na korišćenju MSW vrednosti, drugi uzima u obzir dva parametra, najvišu i najstariju biljku na kontrolnoj parcelici, a treća metoda kao parametar za procenu uzima procenat lišća kod biljaka. Ova metoda se zasniva na činjenici da se sa starenjem biljaka smanjuje udeo lista (po masi), u odnosu na stablo, kao i da je procenat sirovih proteina i svarljivost cele biljke lucerke u najvećoj zavisnosti od lisnih delova.

The minimal content of physically effective fiber is necessary in diets for lactating cows. Physically effective fiber (peNDF) stimulates chewing activity during eating and ruminating, salivation and reticulorumen contractions. The concentration of peNDF in total mixed rations for high-producing cows affects animal health, rumen fermentation, feed intake, nutrient digestibility, milk yield and composition. Efficient system for determination of peNDF content in forages (corn silage and alfalfa haylage) and total mixed ration (TMR) for lactating cows is based on using Penn State Particle Separator (PSPS) sieve system. The cut length of corn silage mostly determines physical effectiveness of TMR and significantly affects physiological and production performances of lactating cows. A proper chop length of forages as part of total mixed ration is significant parameter for diet formulating that should be consider equally with chemical composition. U obroku krava je neophodno prisustvo minimalnog sadržaja fizički efektivnih vlakana. Fizički efektivna vlakna (peNDF) predstavljaju vlakna u obroku krava koja efektivno stimulišu aktivnost žvakanja pri konzumiranju i preživanju hrane, lučenje pljuvačke i kontrakcije retikulorumena. Sadržaj fizički efektivnih vlakana u kompletnom obroku za visokomlečne krave utiče na zdravlje životinja, ruminalnu fermentaciju, konzumiranje i svarljivost obroka, proizvodnju i hemijski sastav mleka. Efikasan sistem za utvrđivanje stepena usitnjenosti, odnosno fizičke efektivnosti kabastih hraniva (silaža kukuruza i senaža lucerke) i kompletnih obroka za krave u laktaciji, kao i koncentracije peNDF, zasniva se na primeni sistema sita Penn State Particle Separator (PSPS). Dužina odrezaka silaže cele biljke kukuruza u velikoj meri definiše fizičku efektivnost TMR-a i time značajno utiče na fiziološke i proizvodne osobine krava u laktaciji. Odgovarajuća usitnjenost kabastih hraniva u kompletnom obroku predstavlja značajan parametar pri formulisanju obroka, koji treba razmatrati ravnopravno sa njegovim hemijskim sastavom.

The researching results of forage - corn silage and alfalfa haylage physical form, at 4 dairy farms of PKB-Corporation in Belgrade, are shown in this paper. The particle size of total mixed ration (TMR) for dairy cows in the first stage of lactation (10-60 days) was also determined in this study. For forage and total mixed ration particle length determination the system of sieves-Penn State Particle Separator (PSPS) was used. It was concluded that at only one of four dairy farms the relative portion of corn silage and TMR fractions was within the recommended value. All samples of alfalfa haylage were different from the optimal ratio range for some physical fractions. The high values were found for correlation coefficients between the particle size of corn silage and TMR (r=0,97), and alfalfa haylage and TMR (r=0,94). It can be concluded that during preparation process of forages and improvement of physical form of corn silage and alfalfa haylage is necessary, and also improvement of total mixed ration physical form, using PSPS sieve system. U radu su prikazani rezultati istraživanja fizičke forme kabastih hraniva - silaže cele biljke kukuruza i senaže lucerke, na 4 farme muznih krava PKB-Korporacije Beograd. U istraživanju je determinisan i stepen usitnjenosti kompletno mešanog obroka (TMR) za krave u 1. fazi laktacije (10-60 dana). Za determinisanje stepena usitnjenosti kabastih hraniva i miksovanog obroka, korišćen je uređaj-sistem sita Penn State Particle Separator (PSPS). Samo na jednoj od 4 farme, relativno učešće frakcija silaže i TMR-a odgovara preporučenim optimalnim vrednostima. Kada je u pitanju senaža lucerke, svi uzorci odstupaju od preporučenih vrednosti, u pogledu udela pojedinih frakcija čestica. Utvrđene su i visoke vrednosti za koeficijente korelacije, između stepena usitnjenosti silaže kukuruza i kompletnog obroka (r=0,97), i senaže lucerke i kompletnog obroka (r=0,94). Kao zaključak je navedena neophodnost optimizacije fizičke forme silaže kukuruza i senaže lucerke, prilikom pripreme hraniva, kao i kompletno mešanog obroka, korišćenjem uređaja-sistema sita PSPS.

An overview of different types of damage caused in hunting grounds and agriculture in general by wildlife from the Carnivora order is given in this paper. Predators present one of the greatest problems for the hunting grounds, since they are destroying primarily progeny and eggs of game while searching for food. Most damage to the stock of game offspring is caused by jackal, who is in expansion in the recent years. Fox is feeding primarily on rodent-type vermin and predates on game offspring only in a small percent. Wolf may cause damage both on game and domestic animals stock. Wild boar may cause significant damage to game stock by predating on progeny of other game species. The brown bear may cause significant damage on corn and wheat crops. Unlike all aforementioned species, who are also scavengers, lynx feeds exclusively on living prey. One of measures for predator population control is considered hunting. Supplemental nutrition of carnivores by carrion is allowed by planning and construction of carrion baits. U radu je dat pregled različitih oblika šteta koju pravi divljač iz roda zveri, pre svega u lovištima, ali i u samoj poljoprivredi. Jedan od najvećih problema za lovišta predstavljaju predatori, koji u potrazi za hranom uništavaju pre svega podmladak i jaja divljači. Jednu od najvećih šteta na podmladku divljači čini šakal, koji je zadnjih godina u ekspanziji. Nasuprot tome, lisica se hrani pre svega mišolikim glodarima, a u manjem procentu i podmladak divljači. Štete od vuka mogu biti na divljači, ali i na svim vrstama domaćih životinja. Divlja svinja, u ograđenim lovištima, takođe, može da napravi velike štete uništavajući podmladak druge divljači. U pogledu šteta koje čini, jeste medved. Ova vrsta zveri je pre svega biljojed, pa pri ishrani pravi štete u usevima kukuruza i drugih žita, voćnjacima i pčelinjacima. U odnosu na sve pomenute vrste zveri, koje u ishrani rado koriste i lešine, ris se hrani isključivo živim plenom. Selektivni odstrel je jedna od mera za kontrolu brojnosti predatora. Planiranje i izgradnja mrciništa u lovištima omogućava dodatnu ishranu zveri, čime se smanjuju štete na lovnim vrstama divljači.

The aim of this work was to compare different computer models for dairy cow nutrition considering that they were not tested in our country. The used software packages were found on the Internet in the form of trial (demo) versions, and the NRC (2001) model was used. The data from the actual milk production were collected on the Padinska Skela farm, which is a part of PKB. The total feedstuff intake was recorded for one barn, the animal record was taken, also the daily milk production, analyses of feedstuffs and milk, and meteorological data. These real numbers were used as an input for computer models in order to see how successfully they predict the production. The following models were used: 1. NRC, 2001, 2. CNCPS v. 5.0, 3. AMTS. Cattle, 4. CPM-Dairy Beta v3, 5. Ration PRO MVP, 6. CamDairy 2002, 7. RUMNUT. There were some differences between models in prediction of milk production, although their prediction of the possible dry matter intake was precise and analogous for all models. The NRC model most closely predicted the milk production. It can be concluded that the models investigated showed high level of similarity when used to predict real production on our farm, although we still don’t have all the required data about feedstuffs used in our farms. Cilj ovog rada je bilo upoređenje različitih savremenih kompjuterskih modela za ishranu muznih krava, s obzirom da oni još uvek nisu bili testirani u našim uslovima. Korišćeni su programi koji se mogu pronaći na internetu u vidu takozvanih probnih verzija, kao i NRC (2001) softverski paket koji u suštini predstavlja normative u softverskoj formi. Podaci su sakupljeni na farmi PKB Padinska Skela. Ispraćen je kompletan unos hrane u jednu štalu, sprovedena evidencija svih grla u njoj, zabeležena dnevna proizvodnja mleka za sva grla i prikupljeni neophodni podaci o vremenskim uslovima. Ti realni podaci uneseni su u računarske modele da bi se ustanovilo u kojoj meri precizno modeli predviđaju proizvodnju. Proučavani su sledeći modeli: 1. NRC, 2001, 2. CNCPS v. 5.0, 3. AMTS.Cattle, 4. CPM-Dairy Beta v3, 5. RationPRO MVP, 6. CamDairy 2002, 7. RUMNUT. Među modelima postoje manje ili veće razlike u pogledu ostvarene proizvodnje i proizvodnje koju model predviđa za razliku od konzumiranja suve materije koju svi modeli slično predviđaju. NRC model je najpribližnije predvideo proizvodnju mleka. Može se zaključiti da su ispitivani računarski modeli za ishranu muznih krava pokazali visok stepen usaglašenosti sa stvarnom proizvodnjom na jednoj našoj farmi i pored toga što u našoj zemlji za sada ne raspolažemo sa kompletnim podacima o hranivima koja se koriste.

Influence of physical form of starter and hay in diets for suckling calves, on morphological and functional development of calves’ rumen, on the character of fermentative processes, and also on their production performances, are considered in this paper. Particularly, the significance of concentrate physical form during the period of liquid nutrition is emphasized, especially when hay was omitted from the diet. Effect of using of hay with different degree of chopping, in calves’ rations, and also using different structure of ration- proportion of concentrate and forage parts of the diet. The possibility for hay omitting from the calves’ rations during preweaning period is considered. U radu je razmatran uticaj fizičke forme početne smeše za telad, kao i sena, u obrocima za neodlučenu telad, na morfološki i funkcionalni razvoj rumena teladi, karakter fermentativnih procesa, kao i njihove proizvodne performanse. Posebno je istaknut značaj fizičke forme koncentrata koji se koristi za ishranu teladi, pogotovo u uslovima izostavljanja sena iz obroka za neodlučenu telad. Prikazan je efekat korišćenja sena različitog stepena usitnjenosti, u obrocima za telad, kao i različite strukture suvog dela obroka-odnosa koncentrovanog i kabastog dela. Ukazano je na mogućnost izostavljanja sena iz obroka za telad u fazi tečne ishrane.

The contemporary standardization concept of ruminant and non ruminant feeds is based on the exact determination of the quantity of degradable and non-degradable proteins. The optimal ratio of degradable and non-degradable proteins in the feed of ruminants is indispensable in order to settle micro-flora needs for nitrogen substances, but also to settle needs for proteins of the organism itself. With appropriate quantity of degradable proteins in rumen, the optimal activity of microorganisms is possible in sense of degradation of the dry ration what is main characteristic of non-ruminant. Degradability of the proteins in different feeds presents there specific characteristic that is possible to be modified with different measures of processing. The chemical and thermic treatment of concentrated feed can significantly reduce protein degradability, while solubility and degradability of nitrogen substances are increased by ensiling. Taking into account great importance of silage in ruminant nutrition, in the field of science the great importance is devoted to the measures for controlling of protein degradation. In up to now realized experiments it is determined that the lowest level of solubility of nitrogen substances in silage is achieved by chemical conservation and wilting. Savremeni koncepti normiranja obroka za preživare zasnivaju se na tačnom utvrđivanju količine razgradivih i nerazgradivih proteina. Optimalan odnos razgradivih i nerazgradivih proteina u obroku preživara neophodan je u cilju podmirenja potreba mikroflore buraga za azotnim materijama, ali i podmirenja potreba samog organizma preživara u proteinima. Pri odgovarajućoj količini razgradivih proteina u buragu moguća je i optimalna aktivnost mikroorganizama u smislu razlaganja kabaste hrane, što je i glavna karakteristika preživara. Razgradivost proteina različitih hraniva je njihova specifična osobina, koja se može mijenjati različitim mjerama obrade. Hemijski i termički tretman koncentrovanih hrniva može u značajnoj meri smanjiti razgradivost proteina, dok se siliranjem povećava rastvorljivost i razgradivost azotnih materija. S obzirom na veliki značaj silirane hrane u ishrani preživara, velika pažnja u struci i nauci se poklanja mjerama za kontrolu stepena razgradivosti proteina. U dosadašnjim eksperimentima je utvrđeno da se najmanji stepen rastvorljivosti azotnih materija u siliranoj hrani postiže hemijskim konzervisanjem i provenjavanjem.

Modern procedures in animal husbandry are based on using preserved forages for ruminants during the year, which provides the most stable production and milk quality. From that point of view, biological additives based on homofermentative and heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria have grate importance, as well as cellulolitic preparations. Based on temporary additives by animal feed with small amount of fermentabile carbohydrates fermentation is intensifying and targeting, fibre is degradating and aerobe stability of silage is increasing. Thanks to such results we can see the series improves in milk and meet production. Lacking of residues and positive influences on animal health and quality of animal products are advantages of biological additives. Savremeni trendovi u tehnologiji siliranja zasnivaju se na maksimalnoj kontroli proteolize, korišćenju hemijskih sredstava iz reda organskih kiselina i njihovih soli, upotrebi bioloških dodataka i povećanju aerobne stabilnosti silaža. Korišćenje hemijskih konzervanasa zadnjih godina je minimalno u Evropi, dok je u Americi u potpunosti isključeno. Danas su širom sveta najaktuelniji mikrobiološki dodaci na bazi raznih sojeva homofermentativnih bakterija, koje intenziviraju i usmeravaju fermentaciju uz maksimalno racionalnu potrošnju fermentabilnih ugljenih hidrata. Ova vrsta dodataka je važna pre svega za silaže od leguminoza, koje se odlikuju nedovoljnom količinom šećera i visokim pufernim kapacitetom. Pored bakterija biološki dodaci mogu sadržati i celulolitičke enzime, čime se povećava iskoristivost tako tretiranih silaža, kao i njihov kvalitet. Najnovija generacija mikrobioloških dodataka sadrži i heterofermentativne bakterije mlečne kiseline čiji proizvodi fermentacije šećera povećavaju aerobnu stabilnost kukuruzne silaže.

In this paper the review of sheep feeding in traditional animal production in Montenegro is described. Sheep production in Montenegro is mostly extensive and the most present is indigenous Pramenka breed. This is making possible inclusion of such producers in organic agriculture and to offer the products on the EU market. Sheep produce valuable products in modest condition of nutrition and keeping. Their important place in animal production is determined with their ability to utilize pastures that are not accessible to other animals, and possibility to use feedstuffs which other animals cannot utilize. Sheep are very adaptable to various keeping and feeding conditions, so that their production may vary from very intensive to completely extensive. They may meet their nutritive needs on quality pastures and with forages, while concentrates are given only to some categories and only in intensive productive systems. . U radu je na revijalan način dat pregled ishrane ovaca u tradicionalnom stočarstvu Crne Gore. Ovčarstvo Crne Gore karakteriše uglavnom ekstenzivan način gajenja i to autohtonih sojeva pramenke. To ne treba smatrati isključivo negativnom odlikom, već naprotiv, to pruža značajne mogućnosti za uključivanje tradicionalnog ovčarstva u programe organske poljoprivredne proizvodnje i plasman tako dobijenih proizvoda na evropsko tržište. Ovce daju vrlo značajne i kvalitetne proizvode u skromnim uslovima ishrane i gajenja. Njihovo važno mjesto u stočarskoj proizvodnji uslovljeno je time što za ishranu mogu da koriste pašnjake koji su drugim životinjama nedostupni, kao i hraniva koja druge vrste ne mogu da iskoriste. Ovce su veoma prilagodljive različitim uslovima držanja i ishrane, pa zahvaljujući tome njihovo gajenje može da varira od vrlo intenzivnog do vrlo ekstenzivnog. Ovce mogu sve svoje potrebe da zadovolje kvalitetnom pašom i kabastom hranom, dok se koncentrovanim hranivima hrane samo neke kategorije i to prije svega u uslovima intenzivne proizvodnje, kao i u nekim fazama proizvodnje. .

In aim was given actually, different additions in poultry nutrition, which correcting production results. Use of antibiotics, like stimulation additions, was prohibition in EU, well today are actually additions in type probiotics and prebiotics. Specific digestion at poultry needs enzyme of celluloid and phytase. Big significance are giving to trace elements, like selen, which level added to nutrition has positive effect on increase, reproduction characteristic, health condition. . U radu je dat pregled aktuelnih dodataka u ishrani živine, koji su značajni za poboljšanje proizvodnih rezultata, uz maksimalno moguće poštovanje zahtjeva potrošača. Uloga aditiva je nutritivna, stimulativna i preventivna, ili se koriste kao konzervansi, antioksidansi, enzimi, kiseline, arome, boje i dr. U nutritivne svrhe kao dodaci koriste se: sintetičke aminokiseline, mikroelementi i vitamini. Stimulativnu ulogu imaju probiotici i prebiotici, a preventivnu kokcidiostatici i antihelmintici. Pored nabrojanih, veliki značaj imaju i enzimski preparati (pre svega fitaze), pigmenti i zeoliti. .

The production and use of feedstuffs of animal origin in our country and the world are explained in the paper. The use of all feedstuffs of animal origin, with the exception of milk products, is forbidden in ruminant feeding due to danger of distribution of lethal disease Bovine spongiform encephalopathy-BSE, and their use is limited in nonruminant nutrition (pigs and poultry). Instead of those feedstuffs various substitutions based on combined plant feeds and synthetic amino acids, or commercial fish meal substitutes are gaining popularity in nonruminant nutrition. In ruminant nutrition there was never widely accepted practice to use animal feedstuffs in our country, aside from dried skimmed milk in milk replacer formulas for calves, lambs and kids. As an alternative, there is a practice to include some urea in concentrate mixtures or when silage is made, which is increasing the crude protein content and significantly decrease costs of feeding. . U radu je dat pregled proizvodnje i upotrebe hraniva animalnog porekla u našoj zemlji i svetu. Korišćenje hraniva animalnog porekla, sa izuzetkom mleka i proizvoda prerade mleka, zabranjeno je u ishrani preživara zbog opasnosti prenošenja i širenja bolesti Bovine spongiform encephalopathy-BSE (kravlje ludilo), a ograničeno je u ishrani nepreživara (svinja i živine). U ishrani nepreživara sve se češće koriste adekvatne zamene, na bazi kombinacije kvalitetnih hraniva biljnog porekla i sintetičkih aminokiselina, ili komercijalnih zamena za riblje brašno. U ishrani preživara kod nas nikada nije ni postojala praksa upotrebe hraniva animalnog porekla, osim mleka u prahu u zamenama za mleko za telad, jagnjad i jarad. Umesto toga, i danas se praktikuje da se u smeše koncentrata ili pri siliranju kukuruza uključuju odgovarajuće doze uree, čime se povećava količina sirovih proteina, a istovremeno značajno pojeftinjuje ishrana. .

In this paper the possibilities for using MUN as parameter for N efficiency in dairy cows and adequacy of diets formulation regard to content of crude protein fractions and energy supplying are considered. The significance of MUN for overall is also underlined for product and economic and reproductive performances in dairy cows. Significant correlation between blood urea nitrogen (BUN), MUN and urinary N is evident, and the possibility for its application, not only as performance indicator, but also in the possible reduction environment N emissions in dairy farms. It is concluded that MUN can be used successfully for accurate formulation of dairy cows rations. . U radu je razmatrana mogućnost korišćenja sadržaja N iz uree u mleku (MUN-Milk urea nitrogen) kao pokazatelja efikasnosti iskorišćavanja N iz obroka krava u laktaciji i njegove upotrebe kao indikatora za adekvatnu izbalansiranost obroka mlečnih goveda u pogledu sadržaja pojedinih frakcija sirovog proteina, kao i obezbeđenosti energijom. Ukazano je na povezanost ovog činioca sa ukupnim proizvodnim i ekonomskim rezultatima mlečnih grla, kako sa aspekta efikasnosti iskorišćavanja pojedinih hranljivih materija i energije iz konzumirane hrane, tako i sa aspekta reproduktivnih performansi krava. Naglašena je značajna korelacija između koncentracije uree u krvnoj plazmi, mleku i urinu. Ističe se i mogućnost korišćenja ove činjenice u cilju smanjenja emisije N u životnu sredinu, sa farmi mlečnih goveda, primenom adekvatnijeg formulisanja obroka koji se koriste za ishranu životinja. .

The trial was carried out during two years (2005 and 2006) on Agrostietum vulgare - type meadow in the hilly mountainous region near Valjevo (at an altitude 750 m). The investigation included six NPK fertilizer rates N0P0K0, N50P50K50, N100P50K50, N100P100K100, N150P100K100 i N200P150K150 kg ha-1. The increase in N, P, and K fertilization level resulted in corresponding increases in the quantity of grass dry matter. In particular the increases in M rate had a favorable effect on DM yield. The maximum two-year average dry matter yield of 8.17 t ha-1 was achieved with the highest MPK rate (200:150:150 kgha-1). The increase was 5.94 t ha-1 or 365% compared with the control. DM yield ratio between the highest NPK rate and control was similar in 2005 and 2006 (indices 357 and 377, respectively). Istraživanja o uticaju NPK đubriva na prinos livade tipa Agrostietum vulgaris su obavljena u dvogodišnjem periodu (2005. i 2006) u agro-ekološkim uslovima zapadne Srbije (okolina Valjeva, 750 mnv). Đubrenje je obuhvatilo 6 nivoa NPK đubriva - N0P0K0, N50P50K50, N100P50K50, N100P100K100, N150P100K100 i N200P150K150 kg ha-1 po godini. Povećanje količine N, P i K đubriva je vodilo u odgovarajuće povećanje količine SM po jedinici površine, posebno je povećan prinos SM sa većim količinama N. Maksimalni prosečan dvogodišnji prinos SM od 8,17 t ha-1 je ostvaren sa najvećom količinom NPK (N200P150K150kg ha-1 po godini). Povećanje je bilo 5,94 t ha-1 ili 365 % u poređenju sa kontrolom. Uticaj đubrenja je bio veći u prvoj godini, ali je u 2006. prinos suve mase mnogo pravilnije rastao sa povećanjem doze NPK. Odnos prinosa SM između najveće količine NPK i kontrole je bio sličan u obe godine istraživanja. Najveći prinos SM po kg primenjenog hraniva je postignut u kombinaciji N100P50K50, dajući 19,52, odnosno 18,25 kg sena po kg hraniva u 2005. i 2006. godini.

The Italian ryegrass forage quality was investigated by means of crude protein and fibre content. The Italian ryegrass was produced at the first cut of the first production year. Interrow spacing did not have any statistical significance for protein and fibre content. The protein content decreased by increasing seeding rate from 5 to 20 kg ha-1, in average from 159,8 to 144,5 g kg-1, and increased by increasing amount of N fertilizer from control to 150 kg ha-1 in average 133 - 169 g kg"1. Fibre content did not have statistical significance, i.e. it had lower variation. There is a negative correlation between the protein and fibre content (P lt 0,05), but lower correspondence r= -0,23. Earlier cutting of Italian ryegrass had more important influence on fibre content, because when heading starts, crude fibre content is increased. Ispitivana je krmna vrednost italijanskog ljulja proizvedenog u prvoj godini i prvom otkosu, preko količine sirovih proteina i celuloze. Vegetacioni prostor je formiran različitim kombinacijama međurednog rastojanja i količine semena, uz prihranu azotom u proleće. Hemijskim analizama prosečnih uzoraka je utvrđeno da je količina proteina opadala sa povećanjem setvene norme od 5 do 20 kg ha-1 u proseku od 159,8 do 144,5 g kg-1, a rasla sa povećanjem količine N od kontrole do 150 kg ha-1 u proseku 133 do 169 g kg-1. Za sirovu celulozu nije uočena statistička značajnost razlika, tj. uočavao se suprotan efekat količine semena i N nego kod proteina, ali sa manjim variranjem. Između količine proteina i celuloze postoji negativna zavisnost, ali sa malom korelativnom povezanošću (r= -0,23).

The research on fecundity, losses of calves and real gain of roe deer was carried out in the hunting ground of "Barajevska reka". The losses were found in 60 calves, fecundity in 29 does, and real gain of roe deer was monitored during three years in three different hunting reserves. The losses of calves account for 24.59% of total roe deer losses and are the result of the activity of biotic and abiotic environmental factors, as well as the influence of anthropogenic factors. Average potential roe deer fecundity in this sample was 1.54 embryos per gravid doe. Real gain of roe deer varied depending on the year and hunting reserve and ranged from 0.65 to 1.11 calves per gravid doe. The greatest influence on the real gain had, apart from the year, type of management in the hunting reserve. Proceeding from the abovementioned, hunting of roe deer in one hunting ground must be performed within hunting reserves, in accordance with the real gain within them. Istraživanja plodnosti, gubitaka lanadi i realnog prirasta srna sprovedena su u lovištu "Barajevska reka". Gubici lanadi čine 24,59% ukupnih gubitka srna, i nastaju usled dejstva biotičkih i abiotičkih faktora sredine, kao i pod uticajem antropogenog faktora. Prosečna potencijalna plodnost srna u ovom uzorku bila je 1,54 embriona po gravidnoj srni. Realni prirast srna varirao je u zavisnosti od godine i lovnog revira u rasponu od 0,65 do 1,11 lanadi po jednoj polno zreloj srni.

Fat is the milk component with greatest variability. It is confirmed that many factors have influence on it, both physiological and environmental. Nutrition has significant influence on milk fat content and somewhat its composition. The most extreme example of this influence is called milk fat depression. There are several theories which try to explain the reasons why it occurs. They may be classified as: 1. theories which explain that fat depression happens due to decrease in precursors for milk fat synthesis (deficits of acetic acid, β-hydroxybutirate and influence of insulin), 2. theories that it occurs because there is inhibition in one or more steps in the milk fat synthesis in the udder (vitamin B12 and trans-fatty acids). There is more information about these theories in the paper, with special emphasis given to the one which may give the universal explanation for milk fat depression - theory of trans-fatty acid biohyrogenation in the rumen. . Mast je komponenta mleka koja najviše varira. Dokazano je da na nju utiče niz fizioloških i faktora okoline. Putem ishrane se značajno može uticati na sadržaj, a donekle i na sastav mlečne masti. Najizrazitiji primer takvog uticaja je poznat pod nazivom depresija mlečne masti. Postoji više teorija koje objašnjavaju uzroke usled kojih ona nastaje. One mogu da se klasifikuju kao teorije koje govore: 1. da do depresije dolazi zato što mlečnoj žlezdi nedostaju prekursori za sintezu mlečne masti (nedostatak sirćetne kiseline, β-hidroksi buterne kiseline i uticaj insulina), i 2. da do depresije dolazi usled inhibicije jednog ili više koraka u toku sinteze masti u mlečnoj žlezdi (uticaj vitamina B12 i trans-masnih kiselina). U radu je dato više informacija o pomenutim teorijama, uz posebni osvrt na onu koja ima izgleda da na univerzalni način objasni zbog čega dolazi do smanjenja procenta masti u mleku - teoriju biohidrogenacije trans-masnih kiselina u buragu. Pored toga, date su preporuke za održavanje procenta mlečne masti. .

Insufficient or excessive feeding is serious error in the feeding of dairy cows. The more serious problem is when there is not enough feed in the bunk. Every limitation in daily intake of feeds leads to decreased milk production. In order have continual and fairly accurate observation of the feed intake it is necessary to introduce an appropriate scoring system of the feed bunk contents. In the free stall production system it is needed to observe the whole bunk surface, while in tie stalls only the space in front of cows is monitored. The right moment to score the bunk is one hour before feeding, regardless of the number of feeding. There are several bunk scoring systems and they are explained in this paper. Although it is relatively new method, the first obtained results demonstrate that feed bunk scoring can help farmers to timely observe the problems connected with feeds and feeding regime. Nedovoljno ili preterano davanje hrane u ishrani muznih krava su ozbiljne greške. Ozbiljniji od ova dva problema je nedostatak hrane u jaslama. Svako ograničavanje konzumiranja hrane smanjuje proizvodnju mleka. Da bi bilo moguće da se kontinuirano i relativno precizno prati konzumiranje hrane potrebno je da se uvede odgovarajuć i sistem ocene ispunjenosti jasala hranom. U slobodnom sistemu držanja treba proveravati kompletnu površinu jasala koje su dostupne kravama, dok se kod vezanog sistema pažnja poklanja prostoru ispred svake krave. Pravo vreme za ocenu ispunjenosti jasala je u toku poslednjeg sata pred hranjenje, bez obzira na to koliko puta se krave hrane u toku dana. Postoji nekoliko sistema ocene ispunjenosti jasala i oni su prikazani u ovom radu. Iako se radi o relativno novoj metodi, prvi rezultati govore da ocena ispunjenosti jasala može da pomogne odgajivačima da na vreme zapaze postojeće probleme vezane za hraniva i režim ishrane.

The importance of heat processed cereal grains in the rations for young cattle is presented in the paper. It is stressed that heat-treated feeds have favorable effects in nutrition of calves due to the improvement in their production performances, first of all by increasing utilization of efficiency and digestibility of energy and some nutrients. That way, through the increase of available energy ruminal fermentation processes are intensified ruminal microbial synthesis increased enhanced flow of ruminal microbial protein to the duodenum, and post-ruminal starch digestibility. Improvement in organic matter digestibility of the diet and feed to gain ratio (increased efficiency of energy and some nutrients utilization), provide high daily gains in spite of possible slight decreases of dry matter intake (especially in high concentrate rations). This is important especially for young animals that are intensively growing, and have increased needs in energy and nutrients. U radu je razmatran značaj termičke obrade žitarica i njihovog uključivanja u obroke za podmladak goveda. Ukazano je na efekat korišćenja termički tretiranih hraniva u ishrani podmlatka goveda u pogledu poboljšanja njihovih proizvodnih performansi, pre svega kroz poboljšanje iskoristivosti i usvojivosti pojedinih hranljivih materija i energije. Ovim putem se kroz povećanje sadržaja lako dostupne energije u obroku, postiže pre svega intenziviranje procesa fermentacije i mikrobijalne sinteze u buragu, povećava se dotok mikrobijalnog proteina u duodenum, kao i postruminalna svarljivost skroba. Na ovaj način se i pored eventualnog smanjenja dnevnog konzumiranja suve materije obroka (a što je naročito izraženo u visokokoncentrovanim obrocima), usled veće svarljivosti ukupne organske materije obroka, i bolje konverzije hrane (efikasnijeg iskorišćavanja energije i hranljivih materija) obezbeđuju visoki dnevni prirasti. Ovo je posebno značajno za mlada grla koja intenzivno rastu, i koja imaju izražene potrebe u energiji i pojedinim hranljivim materijama.

Dairy cow nutrition with conserved food during whole year is contemporary concept worldwide and include after all, use of ensiled food. Silage provide maximal stable ration and hence quantitavely and qualitatively stable dairy production. Contemporarily trends in conservation technology are mainly based on wilting, using of chemical compounds from organic acids and their salts, using of biological supplements, increasing of silage aerobic stability, mycotoxic adsorption etc. Procedure of making silage in bales with aim to simplified procedure of ensiling grasses, legumes and grass-legume mixtures is predominantly used. U svetu je aktuelan koncept ishrane mlečnih krava konzervisanom kabastom hranom preko cele godine, koji podrazumeva pre svega upotrebu silirane hrane. Korišćenjem silaže obezbeđuje se maksimalno stabilan obrok, a samim tim kvantitativno i kvalitativno stabilna proizvodnja mleka. Savremeni trendovi u tehnologiji siliranja zasnivaju se na provenjavanju, korišćenju hemijskih sredstava iz reda organskih kiselina i njihovih soli, upotrebi bioloških dodataka, povećanju aerobne stabilnosti silaža, adsorpciji mikotoksina i dr. U cilju pojednostavljenja postupka siliranja trava leguminoza i travnoleguminoznih smeša sve se više primenjuje spremanje silaže u balama.