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This experiment was conducted in rainfed semi-arid tropical Alfisol at Hayathnagar Research Farm of Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India, during the period 2005 to 2010 to study the long-term effect of varying levels of surface residue application under minimum tillage on crop yields and soil quality in sorghum-cowpea system. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with minimum tillage (MT) as main block. The experimental treatments comprised of application of four levels of dry sorghum residues (@ 0, 2, 4 and 6 t/ha) as surface application. After 6th year of the experimentation, the pooled mean sorghum grain yield varied from 1607 to 1819 kg/ha across the treatments and was significantly influenced by the residue application. The percent increase in pooled grain yields with residue application @ 2, 4 and 6 t/ha was to the extent of 5, 9 and 13.0% respectively over the control (no residue application). Similarly, the pooled mean cowpea yield varied from 335 to 541 kg/ha across the treatments and was significantly influenced by the residue application. The percent increase in cowpea grain yield with @ 2, 4 and 6 t/ha was to the extent of 28, 61 and 45% respectively no residue application. Significantly higher organic carbon (6.80 g/kg) content was recorded with the application of sorghum stover @ 6 t/ha which was 55.89% higher compared to control (4.36 g/kg). The increase in available N with the application of 6t and 4t crop residue was to the extent of 19.5 and 28% respectively while significantly higher contents of soil available P (10.67 kg/ha) and K (288.8 kg/ha) were observed with application of sorghum residue @ 4 t/ha. Among the biological properties, significantly higher microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and dehydrogenase activity (DHA) were recorded with the application of sorghum stover @ 4 t/ha. Besides reducing the bulk density, the application of residues had a significant influence on the mean weight diameter (MWD) of the soil aggregates. The highest overall soil quality index (SQI: 9.58) was observed with the residue application @ 6 t/ha. A significant positive relationship was observed between SQI and pooled cowpea seed yield (R2=0.82) and pooled sorghum grain yield (R2=0.69).

A long term study was conducted for 8 years (from 1998–2005) to quantify the influence of conjunctive nutrient management practices on soil quality indicators and indices. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with nine treatments in three replications under rice (Oryza sativa L.)-black gram (Vigna radiata L.) rotation. The nutrient management treatments selected for soil quality assessment studies comprised of T1: Control, T2: 100% recommended N (40 kg N/ha through inorganic), T3: 50% recommended N (20 kg N/ha through inorganic), T4: 25 kg N through compost, T5: 15 kg N/ha (compost) + 10 kg N/ha (inorganic), T6: 15 kg N/ha (compost) + 20 kg N/ha (inorganic), T7: 15 kg N/ha (green leaf) + 10 kg N/ha (inorganic), T8: 15 kg N/ha (green leaf) + 20 kg N/ha (inorganic). After 7 years of experimentation, the results of the study revealed that the application of 15 kg N Green leaf + 20 kg N inorganic (1.57), 15 kg N Green leaf + 10 kg N inorganic (1.56), and the application of 100% recommended N (40 kg through inorganic) significantly influenced the soil quality (SQI 1.58) compared to other treatments and maintained relatively higher soil quality indices. The indicators which emerged as key soil quality indicators and which substantially contributed towards soil quality were: EC (7%), OC (20%), available K (10%), available B (8%), DHA (15%), BD (23%) and MWD (17%). Bulk density was found to have maximum contribution towards aggrading the soil quality followed by organic carbon in these soils. The results of the present study will be highly useful to researchers, land managers, students and other stake holders associated with soil and land management.

Alfisol soils encounter diversity of constraints on account of physical, chemical, and biological soil properties because of climatic and management factors leading to low productivity. This paper summarizes the effect of integrated soil management practices (ISMP) on soil properties and yield of finger millet cropping system in hot moist Alfisol soils. The experiment site is located in Deccan (Karnataka) plateau of Central Eastern Ghats, Bengaluru which was initiated in 1998 in deep sandy Alfisols. Changes in soil properties were assessed after thirteen years using 19 soil physical, chemical and biological parameters. The treatments include 3 main treatments viz., Conventional Tillage (M1), Reduced Tillage (M2), Minimum tillage (M3) and 3 sub-plot treatments viz., 100% N through organic source (F1), 50% N through organic source + 50% N through inorganic source (F2) and 100% N through inorganic source (F3) laid out in a split plot design. The results revealed that ISMP's had a significant effect on soil chemical and biological properties viz., OC, N, P, K, MBC and LC. Among the set of nine ISMP's, the combination of MT + 100% organic N, MT + 100% inorganic N and MT + 50% organic N + 50% inorganic N were found most promising in improving the majority of soil properties. Among integrated soil management practices (ISMP), the combinations of minimum tillage + 100% organic N resulted in significantly higher SQI of 1.54. The average percent contribution of key indicators towards soil quality indices was: pH (8%), available N (12%), available P (33%), available K (7%), available Ca (28%), labile carbon (12%). A significant correlation between yield of finger millet crop and soil quality confirmed the importance of soil quality indicators and indices for achieving sustainable yields in these Alfisol soils.

Water budget under deficit rainfall years was conducted at Babhulgaon micro watershed, Parbhani district of Maharashtra state considering crop water demand, human and livestock consumption. On the main streams, there were nala bunds and farm ponds constructed for rainwater harvesting and supplemental/protective irrigation. During the year 2014, a total rainfall of 398.1 mm was received, which was 52% deficit than average normal rainfall. The major losses were occurred as soil evaporation and transpiration are 59.71 mm and 155.26 mm, respectively. The surface runoff of 29.87 mm (11%) was estimated and the soil moisture of 103.50 mm was utilized for crop growth and which was found to be insufficient for normal crop growth, thus effected the crop yields. The crop water requirements of kharif and rabi season were 339.45 and 70.10 ha-m, respectively. The total crop water requirement of the year 2014 was 409.55 ham. During 2015, an amount of 407.8 mm of rainfall received which was 51% deficit to average normal monsoon rainfall. The major losses observed were due to soil evaporation and transpiration as 61.94 mm and 161.61 mm respectively. In 2015, rainfall was well distributed and only two storms were observed in the month of September resulted in a surface runoff of 18 mm which was 4.42% of rainfall. The ground water recharge contribution was 52.36 mm (12.84% of rainfall). The soil moisture storage of 107.77 mm was observed and found to be insufficient for crop growth. The crop water requirement of kharif and rabi season was 337.55 and 81.00 ha-mm, respectively. The total crop water requirement of the year 2015 was 418.55 hamm. The outflow characteristics indicated that there is additional possibility for construction of rainwater harvesting structures like nala bunds, earthen dams and farm ponds etc., because total available water storage capacity in all existing structures is about 21 to 35% of annual runoff only. The deficiency of water resources in the Babhulgaon micro watershed can be managed by harvesting the available potential runoff and its efficient utilization through modified cropping pattern.

Soil, length of dry period and forest cover data were used as baseline information for indentifying constraints and potentials for forest development. Forest occupies 5.7 M.ha in the state. Deciduous forest are spread in large area (3.2 Mha) followed by degraded/scrub forest (2.4 Mha) and semi evergreen forests occur in very limited extent. Area distribution pattern of both deciduous and degraded forest types are high in Telengana region followed by coastal and low spread in Rayalseema region. Soils varied from shallow ( 150 cm) depth and dry period from 4 to >9 months across the state. Soil depth and length of dry period are identified as major constraints for forest development. About 2.01 lakh ha forest area which is currently identified as degraded scrub forests have potential to develop into good deciduous forest due to favourable soil and climatic conditions.

Recharging of borewells using designed filtration system was studied since 2014 on 14 borewells locations in assured rainfall zone of Marathwada region. As the specific gravity of soil is basic property and primary requisite for determination of velocities of silt contained water, it has been determined by pycnometer test and found to be 2.66. Using stokes, law, the depth of filtration material was designed and filtration efficiency was found to be in range of 93 to 96%. A long duration pumping test was conducted on representative bore well. The well characteristics like specific yield and transmissivity were determined as 0.0134 and 572.37 m2/day, respectively. The results revealed that the water level fluctuation in pre monsoon and post monsoon season in recharged bore wells are found to be in the range of 5.90 to 8.84 m. The ground water recharge in treated bore well was found to be 23.28% of annual rainfall as against 5.56% in untreated bore wells. The rise in water level in recharged bore well is found to be 2.37 m as compared to fall of 0.62 m water level in un-recharged bore wells during May 2015 to May 2016.

Subsistence rainfed agriculture is widely practiced in submontane Punjab due to high dependency on rainfall. The onset, intensity and distribution of rainfall is highly unpredictable in the region and hence, the productivity of the dryland crops is very low. In order to evaluate and disseminate the improved rainfed agro technologies, on farm trials and demonstrations under different themes viz., rainwater management, cropping systems, energy management, integrated nutrient management and alternate land use systems were conducted at village Naude Majra district Rupnagar (Punjab) during 2010–2015 under All India Coordinated Operational Research Project. Higher seed/grain yields were obtained by adopting all the improved practices for different crops in comparison to farmers’ practices. Improved agro technologies resulted in overall increase in crop production from 33 to 79% over the farmers’ practices. Higher net return and B: C ratios were also obtained with improved practices. Among different agrotechnologies demonstrated across the themes, the per cent increase in yield was highest with high yielding varieties recommended for the domain area (34–80%), followed by energy management i.e. drill sowing of wheat and oil seed crops (18–73%) and rainwater management viz., ridge sowing of maize and supplementary irrigation in wheat (25–51%). The increase in yield with integrated nutrient management in maize and with rhizobium inoculation in legume crops was 16 and 17%, respectively. Hence, on farm trials and demonstrations carried out on farmer's field to show the worth of improved rainfed varieties and management practices for horizontal spread of improved agro-technologies were successful.

Droughts are manifestations of significant shortages in all domains of the water cycle. They have adverse impacts on the environment, water availability and water quality, water supply system, hydropower generation, navigation, groundwater balances, vegetation cover, agricultural production, etc. of the affected region. Drought is a regular part of natural cycles and single-most weather related natural disaster affecting livelihoods, developmental activities, natural resources (water, soil, and biodiversity) and economy of a country (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought). Although droughts may persist for several years, even a short, intense drought can cause significant damage and severely affect local economy. This global phenomenon has a widespread impact on agriculture. Indeed drought is one of the most serious problems arising from climate variability for human societies and ecosystems (Yurekli and Kurune, 2006). The occurrence of droughts is not limited to a particular region. It has been observed that their impact has been completely different in developed and developing nations because of several socio-economic and political factors influencing both behavioral and management patterns. Even within the developing countries, the effects of droughts can vary significantly, but the fact remains that the economically weaker countries or groups in a country are most severely affected by the droughts.

In rainfed and dry regions of southern Karnataka, sole cropping is not much remunerative in the present scenario of climate change in agriculture to fulfill the diverse demands of consumers and burgeoning population. Hence, studies on intercropping systems were conducted in Alanatha cluster of villages in Ramanagara district and Chikkamaranahalli cluster in Bengaluru Rural district from 2010 to 2014 as a part of Operational Research Project (ORP) and National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA). In both the locations, finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) + pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) (8:2) with moisture conservation furrow between paired rows of pigeonpea intercropping recorded higher yield and economics as compared to the farmers’ practices of growing finger millet with akkadi crops. In groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) based cropping, groundnut+ pigeonpea (8:2) intercropping with moisture conservation furrow between paired rows of pigeonpea proved to be the better climate resilient intercropping system with higher yields in red soils of southern Karnataka. Under pulse based cropping systems, pigeonpea + cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and pigeonpea + field bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were remunerative when grown in additive series compared to sole crop of pigeonpea.

Magnesium (Mg) plays a vital role in photosynthesis, dry matter production and carbon partitioning in sink organs. Hence, four permanent manurial experiments (20–27 years of duration) under the auspices of All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA) network centres across diverse agro-ecological regions were carried out to examine the soil exchangeable Mg (ex-Mg), crop uptake and overall Mg balance. Groundnut (peanut), finger millet, rice–lentil sequence and post rainy sorghum were the major crops or cropping systems followed in four permanent manure experiments at Anantapuram, Bengaluru, Varanasi and Solapur, respectively. Nutrient management in all experiments involved control (no addition of nutrients), 100% organic, 100% chemical, and integration of organic and chemical. Except in the finger millet-based system, mean ex-Mg status in the entire profile was higher than the sufficiency level (1.0 cmol(+) kg–1 as a critical limit). Status of ex-Mg (cmol(+) kg–1 soil) in soil profiles was in the order: Solapur (3.80) > Varanasi (2.07) > Anantapuram (1.06) > Bengaluru (0.44). A uniform distribution of ex-Mg was observed in plots that received integrated application of organic and chemical fertilisers. In general, improved status of profile ex-Mg (cmol(+) kg–1) over the control was observed in soils under groundnut (0.19–0.78), finger millet (1.90–3.20), and post rainy sorghum (6.50–7.60, except 4.20 in 100% NPK) cropping. Overall, ex-Mg status and balance of different soil types under diverse crop production systems was influenced by several factors, some of which include soil type with varying mineralogy, particle size distribution, nutrient management strategies and rainfall. Significant positive relationships were observed between ex-Mg status and clay content (R2 = 0.94), soil pH (R2 = 0.92), cation exchange capacity (R2 = 0.98) and mean air temperature (R2 = 0.22), whereas a weak relationship was observed with rainfall (R2 = 0.01). The study gives an account of Mg balance in major Indian soil types and recommends further attention on Mg nutrition in current intensive agriculture.

On-farm trials were conducted during 2010 and 2011 to evaluate the effect of different interventions on productivity and profitability of rainfed farming systems of small and marginal farmers in Seethagondhi cluster, Adilabad district. Averaged across six farmers’ fields, the cotton equivalent yield (CEY) of cotton + pigeonpea intercropping was 7.99 q/ha with farmers’ practice. The CEY increased by 17.5% due to herbicide use for weed control, 28.3% with application of recommended NPK, and 35.8% with use of both herbicide and recommended NPK compared to farmers’ practice. Use of herbicide for weed control coupled with application of recommended NPK gave higher net return ( 10,300/ha) compared to other management practices. Among the farming systems of marginal farmers, integrated farming system involving crop production (cotton + pigeonpea intercropping) and livestock rearing (4 bullocks, 3 desi cows and 1 buffalo) gave higher net return ( 40,180/year) compared to other farming systems. Similarly, among the three farming systems of small farmers, integrated farming system involving crop production (cotton + pigeonpea intercropping) and livestock rearing (2 bullocks, 1 desi cow and 40 goats) performed better with a net return of 89,937/year compared to other farming systems.

An artificial well recharge system model was designed and constructed near open well for groundwater enhancement. The filtration efficiency of primary filter was determined and found to be in tune of 64 to 70% and for main filter 90 to 94%. During the year 2011, 630 mm of rainfall produced 203 mm of runoff which is 32.21% of the rainfall. Similarly, during the year 2012, 678 mm of rainfall generated 152 mm of runoff i.e. 22.41% of the rainfall. The total rainfall received during the year 2013 was 1131 mm and it produced 407 mm runoff. The water level in the well was recorded periodically at an interval of 15 days to observe the groundwater level fluctuation. Comparison of water levels of 2011 to 2013 indicated that there was an increase in water level varied between 0.3 m and 3.4 m due to artificial well recharging.

A field experiment was conducted during kharif for five years (2008 to 2012) at All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture centre, Solapur to evaluate pigeonpea based intercropping systems under Vertisols in scarcity zone of Maharashtra. Among pigeonpea based intercropping systems, pigeonpea + groundnut (1:3) was found superior with mean maximum pigeonpea equivalent yield 1425 kg/ha and mean maximum rainwater use efficiency of 3.19 kg/ha-mm compared to other intercropping systems across five years and also gave mean maximum net returns of 30,307/ha. Further, this intercropping system also recorded relatively higher land equivalent ratio of 1.29 indicating yield advantage of 29% compared to sole crops.