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Giri, Varad B., Bauer, Aaron M., Mohapatra, Pratyush P., Srinivasulu, Chelmala, Agarwal, Ishan (2017): A new species of large-bodied, tuberculate Hemidactylus Oken (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from the Eastern Ghats, India. Zootaxa 4347 (2): 331-345, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4347.2.8

The occurrence of 2 ichthyophiid caecilians, Ichthyophis khumzhi Kamei, Wilkinson, Gower & Biju, 2009 and Ichthyophis moustakius Kamei, Wilkinson, Gower & Biju, 2009 in the state of Mizoram in northeast India is reported for the first time. These records significantly increase the known distribution range of these striped forms of Ichthyophis which were previously known only from their type localities in the state of Manipur.

Gaitonde, Nikhil, Giri, Varad, Kunte, Krushnamegh (2016): 'On the rocks': reproductive biology of the endemic toad Xanthophryne (Anura: Bufonidae) from the Western Ghats, India. Journal of Natural History 50: 2557-2572, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2016.1200686, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2016.1200686

Hemidactylus yajurvedi sp. nov. Figs. 1���8 Holotype. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) ZSI 25924, adult female; collected from near Saranpal village, 5 km. East of Kanker city, District Kanker, Chhattisgarh, India (20.17572 �� N, 81.31343 �� E, 416 m asl) on 29 May 2011. Collected by B.H.Channakeshava Murthy, Avrajjal Ghosh and Vishwajeet Deshbhratar. Paratypes. ZSI 25923, ZSI 25926 adult females, ZSI 25925 adult male; NCBS-AQ040, NCBS-AQ041, NCBS-AQ042 adult females, NCBS-AQ043 adult male; BNHS 2308 adult female. Collection data same as holotype. Additional Specimens (with new registration numbers). ZSI 25931, adult female collected from 4 km West of PWDIB, Kanker, Kanker district, Chhattisgarh, on 06.03.1979; ZSI 25932, ZSI 25934, adult males and ZSI 25933, ZSI 25935, adult females collected from 3 km East of PWDIB, Kanker, Kanker district, Chhattisgarh on 08.03.1979; ZSI 25938, adult male and ZSI 25936, ZSI 25937, ZSI 25939, ZSI 25940, adult females collected from Kondagaon, 86 km South of Kanker, Chhattisgarh on 07.03.1979; ZSI 25942 and ZSI 25943, adult females collected from Charama, 39 km North of Kanker, Kanker district, Chhattisgarh on 05.03.1979; ZSI 25844, adult female collected from East of PWDIB, Jagadalpur, Bastar district, Chhattisgarh on 17.02.1979; ZSI 25941, adult female from unknown locality and collected on 0 7.03. 1979. All these specimens were collected by R.C. Sharma and D.P Sanyal. Diagnosis. A large sized Hemidactylus, snout-vent averaging 81.33 �� 13.40 mm. and maximum to at least 98.0 mm. Dorsal pholidosis heterogeneous, with 10���12 irregularly arranged longitudinal rows of enlarged, rounded tubercles at midbody. First supralabial in contact with nasal. Two well-developed pairs of postmentals, the inner pair slightly larger than the outer pair and in contact behind the mental. Ventrolateral folds indistinct, about 35���39 scale rows across venter. 13���14 (manus) and 14���15 (pes) enlarged, divided scansors beneath fourth digit and 11���12 (manus) and 10���11 (pes) beneath first digit; 10���12 femoral pores on each side separated by five to eight poreless scales in males. Original tail depressed, oval in transverse section without a median dorsal furrow; scales on the tail slightly larger than dorsals of body, weakly imbricate, with a longitudinal series of six slightly enlarged, smooth, flattened tubercles of which single ventro-lateral series is largest, these tubercles are distinguishable on anterior six to seven whorls of tail and on posterior they are indistinguishable. Dorsal coloration of transversely arranged, pale grey to ashy markings on a pale, mustard-brown background. The large size (to 98.0 mm SVL) of Hemidactylus yajurvedi sp. nov. easily distinguishes it from most other Indian and Sri Lankan Hemidactylus, including H. garnotii Dum��ril & Bibron, H. platyurus (Schneider), H. aquilonius McMahan & Zug, H. scabriceps (Annandale), H. imbricatus Bauer, Giri, Greenbaum, Jackman, Dharne & Shouche, H. gracilis Blanford, H. reticulatus Beddome, H. albofasciatus Grandison & Soman, H. sataraensis Giri & Bauer, H. brookii Gray, H. gujaratensis Giri, Bauer, Vyas & Patil, H. frenatus Schlegel, H. persicus Anderson, H. robustus Heyden, H. parvimaculatus Deraniyagala, and H. treutleri Mahony, all of which reach maximum sizes of approximately 70 mm SVL or less. Several recently resurrected species known from just outside the borders of India in Pakistan (Hemidactylus gleadowi Murray, H. kushmorensis Murray) and Myanmar (H. subtrieroides Annandale [regarded by Mahony 2011 as a synonym of H. tenkatei Lidth de Jeude]), are closely related to H. brookii and are likewise of small size. Hemidactylus triedrus (Daudin), H. subtriedrus Jerdon, H. lankae Deraniyagala, H. depressus Gray, H. pieresii Kelaart, H. leschenaultii Dum��ril & Bibron, and H. flaviviridis R��ppel are also significantly smaller, with maximum snout-vent lengths of approximately 75���90 mm. In addition, the first five of these differ from H. yajurvedi sp. nov. in having 13 or more rows of regularly arranged, subtrihedral to trihedral tubercles at midbody (versus 11���12 irregularly arranged longitudinal rows of rounded tubercles), whereas H. leschenaultii and H. flaviviridis have few or no dorsal tubercles. In comparison to all of these smaller species H. yajurvedi sp. nov. also has a greater number of scansors beneath the fourth toe of the pes (some overlap of range with H. persicus, from which it also differs in having femoral pores versus precloacal pores only, and H. flaviviridis, from which it differs in having 10���12 femoral pores on each thigh versus 5���7). Among Hemidactylus from India and Sri Lanka, H. yajurvedi sp. nov. shares large adult size (adult SVL to at least 98.0 mm) only with H. giganteus Stoliczka, H. prashadi Smith, H. maculatus Dum��ril & Bibron, H. hunae Deraniyagala, H. graniticolus Agarwal, Giri & Bauer, H. acanthopholis Mirza & Sanap and H. aaronbaueri Giri. The first of these differs from the new species in the complete absence of dorsal tubercles. The remainder differ from H. yajurvedi sp. nov. in both the shape of the dorsal tubercles and the number of longitudinal rows of tubercles (differing character states indicated parenthetically): H. maculatus (20 fairly regular longitudinal rows of large trihedral tubercles), H. graniticolus (16���18 longitudinal rows of fairly regularly arranged, subtrihedral, weakly keeled, striated tubercles), H. prashadi (14 to 16 rows of enlarged subtrihedral tubercles), H. hunae (16���20 relatively regular rows of keeled, subtrihedral tubercles). Based on dorsal pholidosis and general colouration, the new species is most similar to Hemidactylus aaronbaueri, but differs with respect to (H. aaronbaueri versus H. yajurvedi sp. nov.): size (snout-vent length at least 128 mm. versus 98 mm); dorsal pholidosis (back with small granular scales and intermixed with 18 to 20 rows of enlarged, rounded tubercles versus 11 to 12 rows of irregularly arranged, rounded tubercles); dorsal pholidosis of tail (tail covered above with small, posteriorly-pointed, subimbricate to imbricate scales and a series of 8 enlarged tubercles versus scales on the tail slightly larger than dorsals of body, weakly imbricate, with a longitudinal series of six slightly enlarged, smooth, flattened tubercles on anterior portion of the tail); femoral pores in males (15���19 femoral pores on each side with a gap of 5 to 6 poreless scales versus 10���12 femoral pores on each side separated by 5���8 poreless scales); head (not markedly distinct from neck versus markedly distinct from neck). Description. The holotype is generally in good condition with some minor exceptions (Fig. 1). The body shape is somewhat dorsoventrally flattened, tail is curved in a sigmoid manner, 4 th and 5 th fingers of left hand are slightly upturned, eyes are slightly sunken; all artefacts of preservation. Head short (HL/SVL ratio 0.29), slightly elongate (HW/HL ratio 0.70), not strongly depressed (HH/HL ratio 0.39), relatively broad (HW/BW ratio 0.86), distinct from neck (Fig. 2 A). Loreal region slightly inflated, canthus rostralis not prominent. Snout short (SE/HL ratio 0.46); slightly shorter than eye diameter (OD/SE ratio 0.40); scales on snout, canthus rostralis, forehead and interorbital region granular, homogeneous; scales on snout, canthus rostralis twice the size of those on the occipital, frontal and interorbital region (Fig. 2 B). Eye small (OD/HL ratio 0.18); pupil vertical with crenate margins; superciliaries large, mucronate, pointed, those at the anterior end of orbit slightly larger. Ear opening oval (greatest diameter 1.9 mm); eye to ear distance greater than diameter of eye (EE/OD ratio 1.81). Rostral wider (3.6 mm) than deep (2.2 mm), incompletely divided dorsally by weakly developed rostral groove; two enlarged internasals separated by 3 smaller scales, one supranasal on each side which is slightly smaller than internasal, a single similar sized postnasal on either side; rostral in contact with nostril, supralabial I, internasal and one small scale between the internasal; nostrils large, slightly oval, each surrounded by supranasal, internasal, rostral, supralabial I and postnasal. Mental slightly longer (4.2) than wide (3.4), triangular, two well developed postmentals, the inner pair shorter (3.2 mm) than mental and narrowly in contact with each other (1.0 mm) behind mental, outer pair little more than half the size of the inner pair, separated from each other by inner pair (Fig. 2 C). Inner postmentals bordered by mental, infralabial I and II, outer postmental and three gular scales; outer postmental bordered by inner postmental, infralabial II, and 6 left 7 right gular scales. Infralabials bordered by a two to three rows of enlarged scales, which are longer than broad. Supralabials (to midorbital position) 10 (right) ��� 9 (left); supralabials (to angle of jaw) 12 (right) ��� 12 (left); infralabials (to angle of jaw) 10 (right) ��� 10 (left). Body stout, trunk not elongate (TRL/SVL ratio 0.40), with indistinct ventrolateral folds without denticulate scales. Dorsal pholidosis heterogeneous, composed of conical, granular scales intermixed with enlarged, irregularly arranged, longitudinal rows of 11���12 slightly larger, rounded, weakly keeled tubercles at midbody, extending from nape to tail, each enlarged tubercle roughly two to three times longer than adjacent granules, surrounded by rosette of 8���9 small granules, 4���7 granules between two adjacent enlarged tubercles; enlarged tubercles are more or less the same size on back, few scattered tubercles on flanks (Fig. 3). Ventral scales much larger than dorsal, smooth, imbricate, largest on precloacal and femoral region; midbody scale rows across belly 30���31; gular region with still smaller, granular scales, posterior gular scales slightly larger than the rest (Fig. 2 C). Femoral and precloacal pores absent. Scales on the palm and sole smooth, granular, rounded; scales on dorsal aspect of upper arm larger than granules on dorsum and subimbricate, posterior portion of forearm with much smaller, conical and granular scales, anterior portion with much larger, smooth, imbricate scales which continues on upper part of the hand; those on dorsal part of thigh and shank are similar like dorsum, with conical, granular scales, intermixed with enlarged, rounded, feebly keeled tubercles, which are bit larger in size on thigh than shank, posterior portion lacks enlarged tubercles, anterior aspect of thigh with much larger, smooth, imbricate scales. Fore- and hind limbs relatively stout; forearm short (FL/SVL ratio 0.16); tibia short (CL/SVL ratio 0.17); digits moderately long, strongly clawed; all digits of manus and digits I���IV of pes indistinctly webbed; terminal phalanx of all digits curved, arising angularly from distal portion of expanded lamellar pad, half or more than half as long as associated toepad; scansors beneath each toe in straight transverse series, divided except a distal and three to four basal scansors on digit I and one or two in all digits are single; scansors from proximal most at least twice the diameter of palmar scales to distalmost single scansor: 12 - 12-13 - 13 -14 (left manus) 12 - 12-13 - 13 -14 (right manus; Fig. 5 A), 10-13 - 14 - 14 -15 (left pes) 10-14 - 14 - 14 -15 (right pes; Fig. 5 B). Relative length of digits (measurements in mm in parentheses): IV (8.4)> III (8.3)> V (8.2)> II (8.0)> I (7.0) (left manus); V (10.5)> III (9.5)> II (9.5) = IV (10.0)> I (6.7) (left pes). Tail depressed, flat beneath, verticillate, without median furrow; length of tail slightly less than snout-vent length (TL/SVL ratio 0.98); tail covered above with small (slightly larger than dorsal granules), posteriorlypointed, weakly imbricate scales, becoming gradually more flattened, imbricate and larger towards tip, intermixed with a longitudinal series of six slightly enlarged, smooth, flattened tubercles of which single ventro-lateral series is largest, these tubercles are two to three times larger than adjacent scales and distinguishable on anterior seven to eight whorls of tail, on posterior portion they are indistinguishable; ventral scales larger, imbricate, median row (subcaudal plate) slightly broader, not extending across width of the tail proximally, but distally they extend almost across the width of the tail. ......continued on the next page Paratypes Spec No NCBS-AQ042 NCBS-AQ043 BNHS 2308 Sex Female Male Female SVL 79.5 76.5 65.2 TRL 34.0 33.0 28.0 BW 18.4 19.2 14.5 CL 14.6 14.3 12.0 TL 59.0* 87.0 23.0* TW 11.6 * 11.0 8.0 HL 24.0 23.0 19.5 HW 16.1 15.5 13.7 ......continued on the next page Coloration (in preservative). Dorsum a mottled brownish-grey with a paler, narrow, broken vertebral stripe extending from the shoulder to the level of the hind limb insertion. Diffuse, irregular ashy blotches weakly discernible on middorsum, flanks, and limbs, more prominent on shoulders and sacrum. Dorsum of head predominantly light greyish-brown with faded whitish to ashy, irregular markings on occiput and crown. Antorbital region mostly unmarked above, with paler markings across loreal region. A dark brown stripe extending from posterior margin of orbit to occiput. Labials and adjacent scale rows cream, unmarked. Distal portions of limbs with darker brownish markings, digits with alternating brown and pale greyish bands. Dorsum of tail (regenerated) mottled dark grey with a brownish suffusion, especially middorsally, and irregular, diffuse pale grey blotches. Venter, including that of tail, off-white, tending to cream on the mental and postmental scales with the palms, soles, and precloacal region slightly darker than surrounding areas (Fig. 1). Coloration (in life) (based on specimen other than the holotype, not collected). Dorsum a slightly mustardybrown with a series of four irregular transverse sets of grayish markings between shoulder and sacrum. Each transverse marking comprised of a discrete, mostly oblong vertebral mark, and less regularly-shaped paravertebral and flank blotches, all linked by a very pale ashy suffusion. The anterior extent of each set of transverse markings delineated by an irregular thin dark brown border. The exposed background coloration between the paler markings forming irregular chevrons mottled with dark brown flecks and reticulations, except for vertebral pale stripe. Nape with a bolder pale marking consisting of a series of bright white spots interconnected by a more diffuse greyish Vshaped marking. Crown with numerous small, whitish markings, mostly at the periphery and posteromedial portion of the parietal table. More diffuse ashy markings interorbitally, on mid-snout and in loreal regions. Irregular dark brown postocular stripes more-or-less confluent with anterior brown border of pale nape marking. Labial scales and infraorbital regions pale greyish. Limbs with dark brown reticulations enclosing pale grey to ashy, irregular, mostly ovoid blotches, largest on posterior margins of thighs; pattern bolder and with pale blotches more regularly alternating with background coloration on distal portions of limbs. Digits with greyish markings alternating with base coloration. A pale transverse set of markings, like those on sacrum, on pygal portion of tail base. Original portion of tail similar in colour and pattern to body dorsum, with V-shaped pale grey markings alternating with more extensive mustard-brown bands. Regenerated portion of tail with irregular, but largely alternating greyish and dark brown markings. Iris copper-colored (Fig. 6). Etymology. The specific epithet is a patronym, applied in the genitive singular case, honoring Dr. Hanumnth Narasimhachar Yajurvedi, Professor, Department of Studies and Research in Zoology, Manasagangotri, University of Mysore for his contribution in the field of reproductive biology of reptiles and mammals. Suggested common name. Kanker Rock Gecko Variation and additional information from type series. Mensural data for the type series and additional material is given in Table 1. There are six females and two males, ranging in size from 63.0 mm to at least 98.0 mm. Males have a series of 11���12 femoral pores separated mesially by 7���8 poreless scales (ZSI 25925 ��� 12 / 12 pores on left/right side separated by seven poreless scales, NCBS-AQ043��� 11 / 11 pores on left/right side separated by eight poreless scales). All paratypes resemble the holotype in most of the morphological characters except as follows: length of original tail is slightly less than snout vent length in holotype (TL/SVL ratio 0.98), an exception as in other paratypes tail is slightly longer than snout vent length (ZSI 25923 ��� 1.04, ZSI 25925 ��� 1.12, SI 25926 ��� 1.09, NCBS-AQ040��� 1.01, NCBS-AQ043��� 1.13), other paratypes with short tail (NCBS-AQ041��� 0.84, NCBS-AQ042��� 0.74, BNHS 2308 ��� 0.35) has regenerated or broken tail. Range of supralabials is from 10���13 (9��� 10 below eye) and infralabials from 10���11. The scales across belly range from 25���30 in the paratypes. Colouration. Adult colouration variation primarily due to relative prominence of the dorsal pattern elements. Juvenile pattern very bold, brighter than in adults. Phylogenetic relationships. Hemidactylus yajurvedi sp. nov. is recovered as a member of the H. flaviviridis group (Bansal and Karanth 2010), sister to the species pair H. leschenaultii + H. flaviviridis, these three species in turn are sister to Hemidactylus giganteus (Fig. 9). These relationships are supported by high bootstrap (> 95 %) and posterior probability values (> 0.99). H. yajurvedi sp. nov. is genetically distinct from its two closest relatives, with average uncorrected p-distance from the cyt b data of 0.12 from H. flaviviridis and 0.16 from H. leschenaultii. Distribution. Hemidactylus yajurvedi sp. nov. is known from five localities in Chhattisgarh, India (Fig. 7). The type series was collected from Saranpal village, Kanker District, Chhattisgarh. The other localities are Charama, Kondagaon, Jagadalpur, and east and west of Kanker city; based on the historical specimens in collected of the ZSI, Kolkata, collected by R.C. Sharma and D.P. Sanyal in 1979. The first author (BHCKM) was able to observe the species at Charama and areas west of Kanker city, both localities in the Kanker District within a radius of approximately 35 km of the type locality. The other historic localities are farther away from the type locality include Kondagon, approximately 82 km south and Jagdalpur, about 156 km south. The habitat at the type locality, as well as at Charama and Kanker, is mixture of dry deciduous forest and scrub vegetation with assemblages of large rock boulders in between. Natural history. The type locality is characterized by large boulder outcrops, Published as part of Murthy, B. H. C. K., Bauer, Aaron, Lajmi, Aparna, Agarwal, Ishan & Giri, Varad B., 2015, A new rock dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Chhattisgarh, India, pp. 334-350 in Zootaxa 4021 (2) on pages 335-348, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4021.2.5, http://zenodo.org/record/241231, {"references":["Mahony, S. (2011) Taxonomic revision of Hemidactylus brookii Gray: a re-examination of the type series and some Asian synonyms, and a discussion of the obscure species Hemidactylus subtriedrus Jerdon (Reptilia: Gekkonidae). Zootaxa, 3042, 37 - 67.","Bansal, R. & Karanth, K. P. (2010) Molecular phylogeny of Hemidactylus geckos (Squamata: Gekkonidae) of the Indian subcontinent reveals a unique Indian radiation and an Indian origin of Asian house geckos. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 57, 459 - 465. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1016 / j. ympev. 2010.06.008","Smith, M. A. (1935) The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II. Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London, xiii + 440 pp., 2 folding maps, 1 pl.","Das, I. (2003) Growth of knowledge on the reptiles of India, with an introduction to systematics, taxonomy and nomenclature. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 100 (2 & 3), 446 - 501.","Agarwal, I., Giri, V. B. & Bauer, A. M. (2011) A new cryptic rock-dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from south India. Zootaxa, 2765, 21 - 37.","Mirza, Z. & Sanap, R. (2014) New cryptic species of gecko of the genus Hemidactylus Oken, 1817 (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) from Southern India. Taprobanica, 6 (1), 12 - 20. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.4038 / tapro. v 6 i 1.7056","Bauer, A. M., Jackman, T. R., Greenbaum, E., de Silva, A., Giri, V. B. & Das, I. (2010 b) Molecular evidence for the taxonomic status of Hemidactylus brookii group taxa (Squamata: Gekkonidae). The Herpetological Journal, 20, 129 - 138.","Bauer, A. M., Jackman, T. R., Greenbaum, E., Giri, V. & De Silva, A. (2010 a) South Asia supports a major endemic radiation of Hemidactylus geckos. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 57, 343 - 352. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1016 / j. ympev. 2010.06.014","Sanyal, D. P. & Dasgupta, G. (1990) On a collection of reptiles from Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh, Central India. Hamdryad, 15, 18 - 20.","Chandra, K. & Gajbe, P. U. (2005) An inventory of herpetofauna of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Zoo's Print Journal, 20, 1812 - 1819. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.11609 / JoTT. ZPJ. 1087.1812 - 9"]}

Murthy, B. H. C. K., Bauer, Aaron, Lajmi, Aparna, Agarwal, Ishan, Giri, Varad B. (2015): A new rock dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Chhattisgarh, India. Zootaxa 4021 (2): 334-350, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4021.2.5

Agarwal, Ishan, Wilkinson, Mark, Mohapatra, Pratyush P., Dutta, Sushil K., Giri, Varad B., Gower, David J. (2013): The first teresomatan caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) from the Eastern Ghats of India—a new species of Gegeneophis Peters, 1880. Zootaxa 3696 (4): 534-546, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3693.4.7

Gegeneophis orientalis sp. nov. (Figs. 1, 2, 3; Table 1) Holotype. BNHS 5413 (Fig. 2), adult female, collected near Beespuram, Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh, India (18.27 N, 82.98 E; ca. 1,170 m a.s.l.) by T. Khichi, A. D. Roy and I. Agarwal on 18 September, 2010. Paratypes (n = 8). BNHS 5409 -5410, 5412, 5414-5415, same collection data as for holotype. BNHS 5406- 5408, collected from Deomali, Koraput District, Odisha (18.64 N, 83.01 E; ca. 1,240 m a.s.l.) by S. K. Dutta and P. P. Mohapatra on 21 October, 2010. All paratypes are male except BNHS 5409. Diagnosis. A Gegeneophis differing from all congeners in having only bicuspid teeth (see Remarks). Description of holotype. Meristic and morphometric data in Table 1. Condition good; shallow artefactual midventral groove along much of body, two scale pockets partially opened posterodorsally, c. 25 mm long ventral incision into coelom c. 30 mm anterior to terminus, terminus slightly dented dorsolaterally. Overall shape fairly cylindrical and uniform throughout, slightly dorsoventrally compressed (midbody width 5.4 mm, height 4.6 mm). Head more V- than U-shaped in dorsal view, sides converge sharply with straight edges from CMs to level of TAs, and more sharply in front of TAs to slightly blunt snout tip. In ventral view, lower jaw and margin of mouth on upper jaw much more rounded than snout, visibility of upper jaws gradually increasing from CM to snout. In lateral view upper lip slightly concave, its apex slightly behind TA. Eyes not visible. TAs on low, broad TPs, subcircular, a little above imaginary lines between nares and CMs; TPs but not TAs visible in dorsal and ventral views. Nares somewhat oval, approximately same size as TAs, visible in dorsal but not ventral view, clearly visible laterally, approximately equidistant from top and front and slightly further from bottom of rostrum of snout. In lateral view CMs a little closer to bottom than top of head. All teeth of all series seemingly bicuspid. No diastemata between vomerine and palatine teeth series. Choanae subcircular, narrowest part of inter-choanal gap twice transverse width of each choana at that level. Tongue not covering IMs, unattached and elevated or thickened anteriorly; narial plugs lateral, flattened, encircled (less clearly so posteriorly) by grooves. Soft tissue at border of tongue and gum posterior to narial plugs notably swollen. Nuchal region more massive than head, not noticeably more massive than adjacent annular region. C 1 about three quarters length of C 2, about one fifth longer than anteriormost annulus laterally. Nuchal grooves well marked, complete, bend anteromedially on dorsum; ventrally NG 1 bends anteromedially, NG 3 bends posteromedially. Single distinct and substantial (long enough to be visible laterally) TG on C 2, curving anteromedially. Shorter ventral transverse crease on C 1. Midventral crease extends from NG 2 to near level of CMs, accompanied by a shorter paramedian crease on each side anterior to NG 1. AGs mostly well marked. Dorsally, those parts of annuli immediately anterior to and including most PAGs and SAGs raised. Single row of pale, enlarged granular glands posterior to narrow dark band of each AG, these glands generally more conspicuous posteriorly, but notably less visible from approximately first SAG back to TT, where final AGs are increasingly faint. PAGs incomplete middorsally (mostly widely) except for approximately first and last ten, incompleteness increasing gradually over anterior third of body; PAGs mostly complete or nearly so midventrally. Anteriormost SAG (on 99 th PA) complete middorsally; SAGs complete midventrally only on 102 nd and 103 rd PA, last definitive SAG on 105 th PA restricted to dorsum. Vent interrupts the 104 th PAG narrowly and the 105 th widely. 105 th PA approximately three quarters length of 104 th PA. Posterior to the 105 th PAG a single, faint, dorsal, final AG, shorter than 105 th PAG but longer than the last definitive SAG, further behind the 105 th PAG than the distance between the last definitive secondary and either of the adjacent PAGs (the 104 th and 105 th) but not as far as the length of the adjacent PA (the 105 th). We interpret the final AG as a PAG and thus consider there to be a small, last (the 106 th) PA that lacks a SAG. Final AG approximately level with vent, distance from TT approximately 1.5 times length of 105 th PA. Terminus bluntly rounded (more so than lower jaw) in ventral view, narrows from a little in front of vent. In lateral view terminus slightly upturned ventrally, strongly downturned dorsally, from in front of vent. distance between two points. See Materials and Methods for abbreviations. *denotes holotype, other specimens are paratypes. E = datum not recorded because of partial eversion of phallodeum. Empty cell indicates datum not recorded. BNHS 5406 -08 from Odisha, others from Andhra Pradesh. OMs 21 24 or 26 25 22 21 19 20 19 19 IMs 4 4 4 4 4 3 or 4 3 3 or 4 4 Vent transverse, close to TT, depressed, more so centrally; four (each with partial subdivision) denticulations anterior, seven posterior, subequal in length, interdenticular grooves extending generally to edge of depression, beyond which disc (differentiated from adjacent skin primarily in colour) barely extends. No terminal keel. No anal papillae. Scale pockets of 99 th PAG very shallow dorsally; pocket of 101 st slightly deeper but still less than half length of adjacent PAs. Scales in single row dorsally in both pockets, wider than long (0.5 x 0.3 mm in latter). In preservative, body generally grey, paler anteriorly, darker posteriorly, paler ventrally except at TT. Except for posteriormost few, most AGs conspicuous, macroscopically darker than body. Midventral narrow dark grey line extends from C 2 to couple of PAs in front of vent, narrower anteriorly. Body with middorsal darker stripe, darker at lateral edges than middorsally, extending to level of dorsal margin of underlying m. obliquus externus superficialis; fainter dark narrow line also along lower edge of this muscle, somewhat patchy and less clear posteriorly. Microscopically, small, circular, presumed mucous glands widespread; larger, oval, presumed granular glands relatively more common on stripe. Body with extensive pale, mainly transverse scars, mainly lateral, extending onto dorsal and/or ventral surfaces. Denticulations bordering vent mostly pale grey, outer rim of disc paler. Head grey, generally paler than body, darker anterodorsal patch, darker lines at anterior margins of underlying m. depressor mandibulae. Snout tip and lower parts of upper jaw, including TAs, whitish. Lower jaw with broad whitish margins extending over all of mandibles from slightly behind CMs, these pale patches with darker medial edges posteriorly. Shape of m. interhyoideus visible externally via faint darker border, extends back onto front of 3 rd PA. Variation and additional information from paratypes. Some meristic and morphometric data for the paratypes are given in Table 1. Paratypes in varying states of preservation; BNHS 5412, 5414, 5415 similar to holotype; 5406���5608 in fair condition but somewhat dehydrated and browner; BNHS 5409, 5410 somewhat macerated, dark brown; 5410 partially skinned and dissected. Type series sample small and with skewed sex ratio (nine specimens, only two females) but indication of relatively shorter heads in females: L/H 28.7���29.8, mean = 29.3 versus 25.3���27.9, mean = 26.5 in males. Little variation in head shape; upper lip slightly more concave than in holotype in BNHS 5407, 5408 and 5409; eyes not visible except faintly on right of BNHS 5415 (smallest specimen), perhaps faintly on left of BNHS 5406 and on both sides of the poorly preserved BNHS 5409, presence under bone confirmed by dissection in BNHS 5410. Prominence of TPs variable, TAs marginally visible in dorsal view in BNHS 5412, more so in BNHS 5407. Nares barely visible dorsally in BNHS 5407. Tongue clearly observed in BNHS 5412, rounded anteriorly, plicate posteriorly, grooves around narial plugs strongest anteriorly and medially. Posteromedial plicae also visible in BNHS 5414. Swollen soft tissue at margin of tongue and gum not apparent in some specimens (e.g., BNHS 5414), and in others (e.g., BNHS 5412) it appears to be the margin of the lower jaw rather than the tongue or jaw-tongue margin that is somewhat expanded. NG 3 generally complete or nearly so, offset midventrally in BNHS 5412, perhaps slightly incomplete (at least less well-marked) midventrally in BNHS 5406, 5407, 5414. All specimens with single TG on C 2. No specimen with unambiguous TG on C 1 but seemingly superficial transverse creases present on some specimens, without any (BNHS 5406, 5408 and 5415) or with (BNHS 5407) some faint indication of deeper structure (and thus a little more similar to a true TG), more prevalent in drier Odisha specimens. Transverse crease on dorsal surface of C 1. Transverse crease on ventral surface approximately level with CMs on ventral surface of BNHS 5412 and just behind CMs on BNHS 5414. Terminus not upturned ventrally in BNHS 5407 or 5414, vent of former specimen not depressed, vent of latter specimen somewhat distorted. Minor variation seen in number of PAGs complete dorsally, no major outliers but drier Odisha specimens BNHS 5407 and 5408 with more dorsally complete PAGs anteriorly and posteriorly. Total range of middorsally complete PAGs approximately 5���20 anteriorly and posteriorly (24 middorsally complete PAGs posteriorly in BNHS 5407). No AGs complete posterior to vent. Posteriormost AG generally close to (slightly behind) level of vent, more posterior with shorter terminal cap in BNHS 5406. Posteriormost AGs always less distinct and shorter such that terminal cap appears larger, tending towards a terminal shield (see Kotharambath et al., 2012 a) superficially, evident only upon close examination. Vent denticulations similar to holotype but interdenticular grooves sometimes extend beyond depressed area of weakly demarcated disc (e.g., BNHS 5406, 5414). Mouth, skull, some aspects of superficial musculature, respiratory and cardiovascular systems, and scalation examined in more detail in BNHS 5410. All teeth strongly recurved. Largest OMs marginally stouter, longer than largest PMs. PMs fairly uniform, OMs notably smaller posteriorly. PMs extend by two teeth further than posterior OM on each side. Teeth of inner rows smaller than those of outer rows. VPs fairly uniform; one VP posterior to last PM on each side; VPs not on prominent ridge but posterior crowns visible laterally. IMs approximately subequal in size to VPs. Smallest interchoanal distance approximately twice width of each choana at that point. Tongue with fleshy tip, posteromedial plicae. Stapes imperforate, no separate premaxillae, septomaxillae or prefrontals, mesethmoid exposed slightly at junction of nasals and frontals. Tentacular groove roofed, entirely within maxilla. Eye under bone, almost entirely under (at far anterior end of) squamosal. Subdermal scales not found. Annular scales and pockets not found at midbody or three quarters along length of body. Musculus depressor mandibulae composed of partially separate pars superficialis and pars profundus (sensu Wilkinson & Nussbaum, 1997), the former originating on skull bones, the latter from fascia overlying trunk muscles and more vertically oriented. Musculus interhyoideus posterior extending as far as fourth trunk myomere dorsally and just onto the seventh ventrolaterally. Musculus intermandibularis with broad origin on mandible, meeting its antimere along the ventral midline. Musculus pterygoideus small, barely visible superficially. Musculus cephalodorsosubpharyngeus lacking a distinct pars posterosuperficialis. Adjacent units of m. rectus abdominus and m. rectus lateralis separated by broad, heavily pigmented septa, antimeres of latter separated middorsally except anteriorly. Notches separating dorsal halves of adjacent units of m. obliquus externus superficialis. The 9.9 mm long heart lies about 50 mm behind the ST, extending between the 20 th and 25 th AGs, the ventricle (5.5 mm) longer than the atrium (4,7 mm) and attached posteriorly to the pericardium by a cardiac ligament. The sinus venosus is horizontal; the atrium has no trace of external division; anterior pericardial space moderate (2.6 mm), conus arteriosus short (0.7 mm) with single row of valves. The elongate truncus arteriosus divides within the pericardium into an unpaired right pulmonary artery and a systemicocarotid trunk. Where the aortic arches pierce the pericardium the latter is already divided into paired, anteriorly running systemicocarotid arteries, the right larger than the left. The pulmonary artery bends sharply posteriorly and extends across the dorsal surface of the pericardium and provides a small branch to the vestigial (length 2 mm) left lung before entering the right lung (length 33 mm). The holotype is an outlier in the paleness of its head; darker parts of head of paratypes generally greyer than more brownish body. More extensive pigmented areas of head of paratypes (including darker anteromedial patch dorsally that extends back to larger patches in front of m. depressor mandibulae) associated with more distinct pale stripe extending from TA to position expected of eye, and pale patches around TAs, ST (including nares) and margins of upper lip (e.g., BNHS 5412, 5414 and 5415). Lower jaw also more pigmented in several paratypes, most notably those from Odisha, all of which lack broad whitish areas over lateral surfaces of mandibles, instead with central dark longitudinal streak on each mandible below pale lower border to lower lip; BNHS 5410 also more like this than holotype. Denticulations more whitish in Odisha specimens. Pale scars are common on all Andhra Pradesh specimens except the almost pristine smallest specimen BNHS 5415; notably fewer scars on Odisha specimens. Colour in life. See Fig. 3. Greyish (to grey-brown) pink, anterior of head and posterior of body more grey, posterior AGs more conspicuously whitish. Weakly indicated middorsal band darker than rest of body but also with more abundant whitish glands. Pale areas on head and body seen in preservation whitish in life. Eye visible in at least smallest specimens, inconspicuous or not visible in at least some larger specimens. Remarks. Based on their investigations using scanning electron microscopy, Wake & Wurst (1979) reported that there is no evidence of a second cusp on the teeth of Gegeneophis ramaswamii. In contrast, Greven (1984) showed that all VPs and IMs, and most PMs of G. ramaswamii are bicuspid, and all but the posteriormost OMs are monocuspid. Our observations of the teeth of other species of Gegeneophis have been limited to light microscopy, and by small sample sizes, and in some cases it has been difficult to determine whether teeth are mono- or bicuspid. Nonetheless we are confident that we have (i) seen at least some monocuspid OMs in all other species of Gegeneophis, and (ii) never seen any bicuspid OMs in the anterior half of this series in any other Gegeneophis, Thus the presence of only bicuspid teeth provides a compelling diagnostic character for G. orientalis. Gegeneophis orientalis also differs substantially from most of its congeners in one or more aspects of its annulation pattern. It differs from G. seshachari Ravichandran, Gower & Wilkinson, 2003, G. pareshi Giri, Gower, Gaikwad & Wilkinson, 2011, and G. primus Kotharambath, Gower, Oommen & Wilkinson, 2012 in having SAGs; from G. krishni Pillai & Ravichandran, 1999, G. goaensis Bhatta, Dinesh, Prashanth & Kulkarni, 2007, and G. mhadeiensis Bhatta, Dinesh, Prashanth & Kulkarni, 2007 in having fewer than 110 versus more than 120 PAs; and differs from G. danieli Giri, Wilkinson & Gower, 2003, G. madhavai Bhatta & Srinivasa, 2004, G. goaensis, and G. mhadeiensis in having fewer than 10 versus more than 20 PAs subdivided by SAGs. In terms of basic annulation meristics, G. orientalis is most similar to two of the three most southerly Western Ghats species, G. c a r n os u s (Beddome, 1870) and G. ramaswamii Taylor, 1964, although the relatively small differences will need to be checked when data for larger samples (especially of G. carnosus and the new species) are available. Gegeneophis carnosus has 112���119 PAs with the anteriormost SAG occurring 7���10 PAs from the terminus (n = 3, the two types plus specimen 42 reported by Gower et al., 2011), and G. ramaswamii 96���114 (mean = 102) PAs with the anteriormost SAG 7���17 (mean = 12.2) PAs from the terminus (n = 464: Presswell, 2003) versus 104���106 and 6���10 in G. orientalis respectively. We interpret the final AG on the terminus of the holotype as a PAG and thus the last PA (the 106 th) as lacking a SAG, whereas other workers might count 105 PAs and consider that there is an isolated groove (possibly a SAG) on the dorsal surface of the terminus behind the last definitive PA (e.g., Wilkinson et al., 2013). We do not think this final AG is a SAG in this case because whereas it is shorter (transversely) than the preceding definitive PAG (the 105 th) it is longer than the preceding definitive SAG (against a trend of increasingly shorter SAGs over the last few preceding PAs) and because the annulus it delimits is longer (longitudinally) than would be expected if it were a SAG. Irrespective of how it is interpreted, either as a final PA that lacks any SAG preceded by PA that have SAGs or as an isolated transverse groove on a terminal cap, the phenotypic feature represents an unusual condition in caecilians and it may be worthwhile paying more attention to the grooves in this region in caecilian taxonomy. Although G. orientalis differs from other Gegeneophis in its terminal grooves and also in a substantial dentitional feature, these do not necessitate any generic rediagnosis, and G. orientalis is otherwise, as far as we can judge, very similar to other species of Gegeneophis. With the exception of the exposure of the mesethmoid, the skull of G. orientalis appears very similar to Ramaswami���s (1943) account of that of G. carnosus and Taylor���s (1969) and M��ller et al. ���s (2005) accounts of G. ramaswamii and our unpublished observations of the latter species. Features of the heart and aortic arches noted here are identical to Ramaswami���s (1944) account of them in G. carnosus. Ramaswami (1944) did not specify which localities he obtained his material from or report vouchers but, based on his other published work on Gegeneophis anatomy (e.g., Ramaswami, 1943), he likely included specimens from southernmost Kerala that would probably have been G. ramaswamii and not G. carnosus, and the features reported by Ramaswami are identical to our (MW, unpublished data) observations of the heart of G. ramaswamii. The OMs are small posteriorly in the new species and were difficult to count. This might explain why the highest count for OMs was determined for the skinned and partly dissected specimen BNHS 5410. The possibility of underestimating tooth counts when specimens are exa, Published as part of Agarwal, Ishan, Wilkinson, Mark, Mohapatra, Pratyush P., Dutta, Sushil K., Giri, Varad B. & Gower, David J., 2013, The first teresomatan caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) from the Eastern Ghats of India ��� a new species of Gegeneophis Peters, 1880, pp. 534-546 in Zootaxa 3696 (4) on pages 536-543, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3693.4.7, http://zenodo.org/record/223530

Smith, Eric N., Ogale, Hemant, Giri, Varad B. (2012): A new species of coralsnake of the genus Calliophis (Squamata: Elapidae) from the west coast of peninsular India. Zootaxa 3437: 51-68, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.211535

Calliophis castoe sp. nov. (Figs. 1���7) Callophis nigrescens (Phipson 1887: 245, 248, Carwar [Karwar], Bombay Presidency specimen; Vidal 1890: 65 ���66, in part, North Kanara specimen) Hemibungarus nigrescens variety khandallensis (Wall 1913: 638, in part, Karwar specimen) Hemibungarus nigrescens (Wall 1928: 22, 35, in part) Hemibungarus nigrescens variety A (Wall 1928: 36, Karwar specimen) Holotype. BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, Maharashtra, India) 3461, an adult male from Amboli, Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra, India, [ca. 715 m] (ca. 15.958790 �� N 73.994686 �� E), collected 12 September 2009 by Hemant Ogale (Figs. 3 ���4, 6��� 7). Paratypes (2). BNHS 2191, an adult male from Karwar, Karwar [Uttara Kannada district], Karnataka, India, [ca. 15 m] (ca. 14.804947 �� N 74.133317 �� E), collected between 1880 and 1887 by G. Vidal (1907 date of collection in BNHS catalogue in error, specimen reported by Phipson in 1887 and Vidal in 1890) (Fig. 5). BNHS 3474, a subadult female from Ambe Ghat, South Goa district, Goa, India, 295 m (15.06400�� N 74.16578 �� E), collected 30 June 2010 by Ravindra Bhambure, Harish Kulkarni, and Varad B. Giri (Fig. 2). Referred digital photo (1). UTADC (Digital Collection, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, United States of America) 6738 ��� 45, photos of adult male from Dicholi (Bicholim), North Goa district, Goa, India, ca. 10 m (ca. 15.59 �� N 73.95 �� E), photographed on 29 July 2009 by Hemant Ogale (Fig. 1). Diagnosis. A medium (536���540 mm TL, mature males), brownish, terrestrial coralsnake in which the tail comprises 12.4 ���14.0% of the TL in the two known male vouchered specimens and 12.0% in the known female. The maxilla bears 4 maxillary teeth behind the fang, the dentary 10, the palatine 9 and the pterygoid 2. It has sublabial-chin-shield contact variable, usually 7 supralabials (8 on one side of one specimen), 6 / 6 infralabials, two postoculars, 240���254 ventrals, a divided anal, 45���53 divided subcaudals, dorsal scale rows arranged in 13 rows along entire body, and a color pattern of a wide parietal orange band, an unpatterned vinaceous-brown dorsum, a white lower lip, and Salmon Color to Flame Scarlet ventral and lateral areas (from neck to tail). The new species can be distinguished from all Asian and American coralsnakes, except for Sinomicrurus japonicus (S. j. boettgeri [Fritze, 1894], S. j. japonicus [G��nther, 1868], S. j. takarai [Ota, Ito & Lin, 1999]) and some Calliophis maculiceps (G��nther, 1868), in having the highest number of maxillary teeth behind the fang, four on each side. The species of coralsnakes with the next highest counts are C. beddomei Smith, 1943 and C. nigrescens G��nther, 1862 with two or three, S. hatori (Takahashi, 1930) and S. sauteri (Steindachner, 1913) with two, C. maculiceps with one, two and rarely four, and some populations of S. macclellandii (Reinhardt, 1844) with none, one, or two teeth. Sinomicrurus japonicus can have from 3 to 5 maxillary teeth behind the fang. The new species can additionally be distinguished from all species of Asian coralsnakes (Calliophis Gray, 1835 [Maticora Gray, 1835] and Sinomicrurus Slowinski, Boundy & Lawson 2001), except some C. beddomei, in lacking contact between the preocular and nasal, allowing the prefrontal and third supralabial to touch. Calliophis bibroni (Jan, 1858) also has the prefrontals touching the supralabials but lacks preoculars and has a banded body pattern. Calliophis castoe also differs from all other Indian coralsnakes, including C. beddomei and with the exception of some individuals of S. macclellandi, in having an unpatterned body, no dark pigmentation on the last supralabial, and a wide post-temporal light band. Calliophis beddomei has a pattern of dorsal spots adjacent to a middorsal stripe, never being dorsally unicolored. Calliophis nigrescens usually has a striped pattern but occasionally (variety C. n, khandallensis [Wall, 1913]) has an obscured pattern that seems unicolored black. Nevertheless, these always have a dark stripe or spot covering part of the last supralabial and a dark nuchal band fused or very close to the head cap, both never the case in C. castoe. The underside of the tail differs between C. castoe and C. nigrescens, being uniformly orange in the former and red with white-bordered scales in the later. Some specimens of C. melanurus (Shaw, 1802) have a nearly unicolored dorsal pattern, but always possess two tail bands, absent in the new species, and the nuchal band and the head cap are broadly fused (widely separated in the new species). The new species can be further distinguished from other coralsnakes. From species in the C. melanurus group, according to Smith et al. (2008) (C. haematoetron Smith, Manamendra-Arachchi & Somaweera, 2008, C. melanurus, and C. maculiceps), the new species differs in lacking a bluish ventral tail color and melanized tail base muscles and associated tissues. It can also be distinguished from C. melanurus, in having more supralabials (6 vs. 7 or 8) and subcaudal scales (24���37 vs. 45���53). From C. maculiceps it can also be distinguished by its high number of ventrals (240���254 vs. 169���222) and subcaudals (45���53 vs. 20���31). From C. bibroni it can be distinguished by having a preocular (vs. no preocular), two postoculars (vs. 1), no tail bands (vs. 3���9), a divided anal (vs. single), and higher ventral (240���254 vs. 220���234) and subcaudal counts (45���53 vs. 26���37). Besides differing in dentition, color pattern and head scalation the new species differs from C. nigrescens in having relatively higher subcaudal counts (45���53 vs. 29���48) and fewer pterygoid teeth (2 vs. 5���8). Calliophis beddomei also has more pterygoid teeth (2 vs. 4). Calliophis castoe differs from C. gracilis Gray, 1835 in possessing fewer ventral scales (240���254 vs. 303���320), more subcaudal scales (45���53 vs. 21���23), a unicolored dorsal pattern (vs. large and paired paravertebral spots and 5���7 well-defined stripes), and a venter with no bands (vs. numerous regularly spaced wide bands). From the long-glanded coralsnakes Calliophis bivirgata (Boie, 1827) and C. intestinalis (Laurenti 1768), previously in the genus Maticora (see Slowinski et al. 2001), the new species differs in having a venom gland that is confined to the temporal region (vs. extending behind the head), a Harderian gland with a moderately developed posterior extension (vs. enlarged posterior extension, larger than the eyeball), and a unicolored dorsum (vs. striped). From species in the genus Sinomicrurus, i.e., S. hatori, S. japonicus, S. kelloggi (Pope, 1928), S. macclellandi, and S. sauteri (sensu Slowinski et al. 2001), the new taxon differs in possessing no protuberant sclerified tail tip, and a Harderian gland with a moderately developed posterior extension (vs. no extension). It can further be distinguished from S. hatori, S. japonicus, and S. sauteri in having no pattern of stripes, and from S. kelloggi and S. macclellandi in having no white band anterior to the nuchal band. Etymology. It is a pleasure for us to name this beautiful coralsnake after Todd A. Castoe, a talented and prolific scientist, and a partner in the study of coralsnake and pitviper systematics. The first author has worked on venomous snakes with him and shared ���coralsnake trips��� to Colombia, M��xico and India. During a trip to India, we first examined and realized the uniqueness of the species herein described. Because the Latin word castus means pure, the specific epithet is also reminiscent of the unmarked dorsum characteristic of the species. Suggested English name. Castoe���s coralsnake Description of holotype and variation. Features of the adult male holotype are followed in parentheses by variation of the adult male and subadult female paratypes. Total length 536 mm (540, 313); tail length 75 mm (67, 38); head length 8.0 mm (10.0, 6.5) from anterior edge of rostral to posterior end of mandible; head width 6.1 mm (5.6, 3.7) at broadest point; head slightly distinct from neck; snout 3.4 mm (3.4, 2.3) from front of rostral to anterior edge of eye; eye 0.2 (0.2, 0.2) times length of snout; pupil round; rostral 1.3 (1.4, 1.2) times wider than high; internasals 1.1 (1.1, 1.4) times wider than long, contacting only the nasals laterally; length of internasal suture 1.1 times diameter of eye (1.3, 0.9); prefrontals slightly wider than long (as wide as long, slightly wider than long), in contact laterally with nasal, third supralabial, preocular, and supraocular; prefrontal suture 1.8 (2.0, 1.5) times diameter of eye; frontal 1.6 (1.5, 1.4) times longer than wide; supraoculars 1.6 (1.4, 1.6) times longer than wide; parietals 2.1 (2.1, 2.3) times longer than wide; parietal suture 0.6 (0.7, 0.6) times length of parietals, 0.9 (1.1, 1.1) times longer than frontal; 1 +0 temporals and one posttemporal, shields touching parietal laterally, large and elongated; temporal 2.3 (2.1, 2.5) times longer than wide; single preocular, 1.0 (1.4, 1.2) times longer than wide, lanceolate (rhomboidal), with apex rostrally, located mostly above line between center of eye and posterior border of naris; two postoculars, of about the same size, upper and lower, reaching beyond upper (or just reaching) and lower borders of eye, respectively; no loreal, preocular and nasal not in contact, prefrontal touching third supralabial; 7 / 7 (8 / 7 [higher count due to what appears to be a scale split due to injury], 7 / 7) supralabials, seventh largest and longest, first in contact with anterior nasal, second in contact with both nasal plates; third in contact with posterior nasal, prefrontal, preocular, and fraction of orbit; fourth below orbit and contacting lower postocular, fifth in contact with lower postocular and temporal, sixth in contact with temporal, and seventh in contact with temporal and posttemporal; mental 1.5 (1.4, 1.2) times as broad as long; anterior chin-shields 2.0 (2.1, 1.8) times longer than wide; posterior chin-shields 2.0 (2.6, 2.6) times longer than wide; 6 / 6 infralabials, first pair in contact behind mental, second small, second and third touching anterior chin-shields, fourth largest and contacting anterior and posterior chin-shields and first sublabial, fifth and sixth contacting sublabials; first sublabial touching chinshields (or not, in adult paratype); 2 (2, 2) gulars and 1 (1, 2) preventrals at midline between posterior chin-shields and first ventral; with few tubercles on head scales, concentrated anteriorly; dorsals in 13 rows, smooth, unreduced; apical pits absent; ventrals 240 (254, 254); anal divided; preanal single; subcaudals 53 (45, 46), paired; tail complete, tip round; no anal ridges or tubercles; no umbilical scar noticeable. Dentition of paratype BNHS 2191 examined in detail: maxillae bearing one fang 1.1 mm long, arising below supralabials 2 and 3, slanted backward; four posterior maxillary teeth on each side, first at about one fang length behind fang and largest, caudally smaller, slanted backward, below supralabials 3���5; 9 / 9 palatine teeth; 2 / 2 pterygoid teeth; 10 / 10 dentary teeth, decreasing in size from front to rear. Holotype also with four posterior maxillary teeth on right side, other teeth bearing bones not examined. Head glands examined on right side of holotype by reflecting head skin (UTADC 6733 ��� 34, Fig. 6): granular gland situated under rostral shield; salivary gland developed under supralabials 1���3; nasal gland occupying area below prefrontal shields (prefrontal shields, posterior nasal, and preocular), 1.18 mm wide, 1.93 mm long, rhomboid; Harderian gland under anterolateral portion of parietal (and posterior of supraocular, upper postocular, and anterior area of temporal), 1.41 mm long, 0.80 mm wide, triangular, apex caudal, with a moderate posterior extension; venom gland triangular (rounded anteriorly and posteriorly), corners at middle of border between fourth and fifth supralabial, middle and back of sixth supralabial, and middle of temporal at level of middle of eye, 1.45 mm wide, 2.70 mm long, not inflected ventrally and confined to head; venom duct 2.73 mm in length; infralabial gland bordering mouth under lateral tips of mental to middle of fifth infralabial, with two areas differentiated, one anterior and longer, and one posterior under the fourth and fifth infralabials; the anterior infralabial area is 3.11 mm in length, overlapping with the posterior infralabial area of 1.59 mm in length; salivary, nasal, Harderian and infralabial glands yellowish and of irregular texture (granular), venom gland whitish and smooth; m. adductor mandibulae externus superficialis (AES) forming a continuous loop, from upper parietal surface above and behind Harderian gland to insertion on compound bone. Left hemipenis of holotype exposed in situ, slightly bifurcated, spinous, reaching level of subcaudal 6; hemipenis and associated muscles (m. retractor penis magnus, m. propulsor, and subvertebral and medial hypaxial musculature) and m. constrictor sacculi ani not covered by melanic epymisium; spines numerous, present throughout the length of the organ, from base (level of subcaudal 1) to tip, spines slightly larger at level of third and fourth subcaudal; cloacal scent glands oval, ending at level of subcaudal 2. Right hemipenis of holotype, removed, fully everted and partially expanded (Fig. 7, UTADC 6733 ��� 34), is bilobed, about 6.2 mm in length, and 1.3 mm in width, at apices. The organ includes a pedicel with tiny spines for the first 1.5���2 mm. Between 1.5 mm and the tips of the lobes there are spines all around the hemipenis. At midhemipenis there are 17 spines around the organ. Spines diminish in size distally, from about 0.4 mm at about 2 mm from the base to about 0.1 mm near the tips. The hemipenis bifurcates 0.3 mm before the terminus and the sulcus spermaticus bifurcates approximately 0.1 mm before the hemipenial furcation. The sulcus spermaticus is bordered at the base (sinistrally) by a flap-like fold, is centripetal, and terminates distally on each lobe. There are no grooves, flounces, papillae, or calyces. Hemipenes of male paratype BNHS 2191 exposed in situ and dissected, differ from those of holotype in being relatively larger, reaching level of subcaudal 7 and also bifurcating at this level; also without any melanic epymisium; level of insertion of m. retractor penis magnus not examined; spines also numerous, throughout the length of the organ; cloacal scent glands slender and dessicated, difficult to examine. Color (Figs. 1���5). Holotype, coloration of recently killed specimen as recorded with a Nikon D 90 digital camera, UTADC 6724 ��� 31: Dorsum of head and body Dusky Brown (19), turning Burnt Sienna (132) towards sides of body, with no dorsal bands or blotches over body; dark color extending to upper half of scale row 2, on body, and one half scale more in neck area; Dusky Brown (19) color on top of head extends as suborbital and temporal markings, restricted to rostronasal, circumorbital, frontal, and anterior and medial parietal surfaces; small dark markings covering part of lower edge of seventh supralabial, on right side, and upper edge of fourth infralabials; chin and area between supralabials 2 and 3 Pale Horn Color (92); subtemporal surface Chamois (123 D) to Yellow Ocher (123 C), turning whitish Pale Horn ventrally; head band interrupted by interparietal Dusky Brown (19) coloration, band occupying posterolateral surface of parietal, posttemporal, posterior labials, and first two rows of lower neck scales, Spectrum Orange (17) above, Chamois (123 D) to Yellow Ocher (123 C) laterally, whitish Pale Horn ventrally; body flanks, first two scale rows, Salmon Color (106) anteriorly to Flame Scarlet (15) posteriorly; no spots on ventral scales; body venter Salmon Color (106), anteriorly, to Flame Scarlet (15), towards anal plate; underside of tail and first row of dorsal scales on tail Burnt Orange (116), slightly darker near vent. Referred specimen, in life, as recorded with a Nikon D 90 digital camera, UTADC 6738 ��� 45 (Fig. 1): Similar to holotype; Dorsum of head, neck, and tail Dusky Brown (19) to Warm Sepia (221 A); dorsum of body Deep Vinaceous (4), slightly darker and brownish middorsally, with no dorsal bands or blotches; dark color extending to upper half of scale row 2, on body, and one more scale on tail area; Warm Sepia (221 A) color on top of head extends as suborbital and temporal markings, restricted to rostronasal, circumorbital, frontal, and anterior and medial parietal surfaces; chin and area between supralabials 2 and 3 pale Flesh Color (5); Dusky Brown (19) interparietal mark not interrupting posterior half of head band; subtemporal and posttemporal surfaces Spectrum Orange (17), turning Vinaceous (3) ventrally; body flanks, first two scale rows, Vinaceous (3) anteriorly to Flame Scarlet (15) posteriorly; no spots on ventral scales; first row of dorsal scales on tail Burnt Orange (110), slightly darker near vent. Subadult female paratype (BNHS 3474) coloration, in life, as recorded with a Nikon D 300 S digital camera, UTADC 6831 ��� 32 (Fig. 2): Dorsum of head and body Burnt Sienna (132), turning Raw Umber (223) towards sides of body, with no dorsal bands or blotches over body; dark color extending to upper half of scale row 2, on body, and one half scale more in neck area; Burnt Sienna (132) color on top of head extends as suborbital and temporal markings, restricted to rostronasal, circumorbital, frontal, and anterior and medial parietal surfaces; small dark markings covering part of upper edge of third and fourth infralabials, on right side; underside of head Pink (7); subtemporal and middle of third infralabial surface Chamois (123 D), turning Pale Horn ventrally; head band interrupted partially by interparietal Burnt Sienna (132) coloration, band occupying posterolateral surface of parietal, posterior surface of temporal, posttemporal, posterior labials, and first two rows of lower neck scales, Chamois (123 D) above, Pale Horn ventrally; body flanks, first two scale rows, Warm Buff (118) to Vinaceous (3), towards venter; no spots on ventral scales; body venter Vinaceous (3) anteriorly, Deep Vinaceous (4) at midbody, Salmon Color (106) at posterior third of body, to Spectrum Orange (17), before anal plate; anal plate Pale Horn Color (92); tail venter Spectrum Orange (17). Holotype in preservative (Figs. 3���4): Dorsum Sepia (119), with Pale Horn Color (92) markings on head; chin Pearl Gray (81); body venter Beige (219 D) anteriorly, turning Vinaceous Pink (221 C) posteriorly; underside of tail Vinaceous Pink (221 C), anal plates slightly lighter. Male paratype, after more than 100 years in preservative (Fig. 5): Dorsum Antique Brown (37), darker above, with Pale Horn Color (92) markings on head; chin Pearl Gray (81); body venter Drab-Gray (119, Published as part of Smith, Eric N., Ogale, Hemant & Giri, Varad B., 2012, A new species of coralsnake of the genus Calliophis (Squamata: Elapidae) from the west coast of peninsular India, pp. 51-68 in Zootaxa 3437 on pages 53-63, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.211535, {"references":["Phipson, H. M. (1887) The poisonous snakes of the Bombay Presidency. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 2, 244 - 250.","Vidal, G. W. (1890) A list of the venomous snakes of Kanara; with remarks as to the imperfections of existing records of the distribution of snakes, and facts and statistics showing the influence of Echis carinata on the death-rate of the Bombay Presidency. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 5, 64 - 71.","Wall, F. (1913) Varieties of Hemibungarus nigrescens and Hydrophis torquatus. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 22, 638 - 639.","Wall, F. (1928) The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions (including Ceylon) and how to recognize them. With symptoms of snake poisoning and treatment. Fourth edition, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 173 pp.","Fritze, A. (1894) Die Fauna der Liu-Kiu-Insel Okinawa. Zoologische Jahrbucher, Abteilung fur Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Tiere, 7 (5), 852 - 926.","Gunther, A. (1868) Sixth account of new species of snakes in the collection of the British Museum. The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Including Zoology, Botany, and Geology, (4) 1, 413 - 429.","Ota, H., Ito, A. & Lin, J. - T. (1999) Systematic review of the Elapid snakes allied to Hemibungarus japonicus (Gunther, 1868) in the East Asian Islands, with description of a new subspecies from the central Ryukyus. Journal of Herpetology, 33 (4), 675 - 687.","Smith, M. A. (1943) The Fauna of British India Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia Volume III. - Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London, 584 pp.","Gunther, A. (1862) On new species of snakes in the collection of the British Museum. The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Including Zoology, Botany, and Geology, (3) 9, 124 - 132.","Takahashi, S. (1930) Synopsis of the terrestrial snakes of Japan [in Japanese]. Shunyo-do, Tokyo, 310 pp.","Steindachner, F. (1913) Uber zwei neue Schlangenarten aus Formosa. Anzeiger der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe, 50, 218 - 220.","Reinhardt, J. T. (1844) Description of a new species of venomous snake, Elaps macclellandi. Calcutta Journal of Natural History and Miscellany of the Arts and Sciences in India, 4, 532 - 534.","Gray, J. E. (1835) Illustrations of Indian Zoology; Chiefly Selected from the Collection of Major-General Hardwicke, Vol. II. (parts XI - XX). Adolphus Richter and Co. & Parbury, Allen, and Co., London, Pls. 1 - 102.","Slowinski, J. B., Boundy, J. & Lawson, R. (2001) The phylogenetic relationships of Asian coral snakes (Elapidae: Calliophis and Maticora) based on morphological and molecular characters. Herpetologica, 57 (2), 233 - 245.","Jan, G. (1858) Plan d'une iconographie descriptive des ophidiens et description sommaire de nouvelles especes des serpents. La Revue et Magasin de Zoologie, Paris (2) 10, 438 - 449, 514 - 527.","Shaw, G. (1802) General Zoology, or Systematic Natural History. Printed for G. Kearsley, London Vol. 3, Amphibia, 615 pp.","Smith, E. N., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., & Somaweera, R. (2008) A new species of coralsnake of the genus Calliophis (Squamata: Elapidae) from the Central Province of Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 1847, 19 - 33.","Boie, F. (1827) Bemerkungen uber Merrem's Versuch eines Systems der Amphibien. Marburg. 1820. Erste Lieferung: Ophidier. Isis von Oken, 20 (10), col. 508 - 566.","Laurenti, J. N. (1768) Specimen Medicum, Exhibens Synopsin Reptilium Emendatam cum Experimentis circa Venena et Antidota Reptilium Austriacorum. Vienna, Joan. Thomae, 214 pp, Pls. I - V.","Pope, C. H. (1928) Seven new reptiles from Fukien Province, China. American Museum Novitates, 320, 1 - 6.","Yadav, S. R. & Sardesai, M. M. 2002. Flora of Kolhapur District. Shivaji University, Kolhapur, India.","Jog, S. K. (2009) Sahyadris - flora and ethnobotany. Report, William L. Brown Fellowship 2007 - 2008. Department of Biology, The University of Texas at Tyler, 34 pp.","Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968) A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Government of India Press, New Delhi, 404 pp.","Champion, H. G. (1936) A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian Forest Record (New Series), 1, 1 - 286."]}

Gegeneophis pareshi sp. nov. (Figs. 1���5; Table 1) Holotype. BNHS 5264, adult female, collected in the village of Kuske near Cotigaon Wildlife Sanctuary, Canacona Taluka, South Goa District, Goa (15 ˚ 01��� N, 74 ˚ 12.5 E, 140 m a.s.l.) by R. Bhambure, M. Bhise and R. Korgaonkar on 11 August, 2009. Paratypes (n = 15). BNHS 5263 collected from the type locality, Kuske, by R. Bhambure, M. Bhise and R. Korgaonkar on 12 August, 2009. BNHS 5373, 5375���5378, collected from the type locality, Kuske, by R. Bhambure, A Norohna and H. Kulkarni on 6 August, 2010. BNHS 5198���5200 collected from Hatipaul, Poinguinim, Canacona, South Goa District, Goa (14 ˚ 59.1 N, 74 ˚ 0 6.5 E, 48 m a.s.l.) by V. Giri, P. Porob, R. Bhanbure and K. Gaikwad on 25 June, 2009. BNHS 5265 collected from Poinguinim by R. Bhambure, M. Bhise and R. Korgaonkar on 13 August, 2009. BNHS 5331 collected from Poinguinim by R. Bhambure and V. Giri on 29 June, 2010. BNHS 5370-5372 collected from Poinguinim by R. Bhambure, A Norohna and H. Kulkarni on 5 August, 2010. BNHS 5289 collected from Neturlim, Sanguem, South Goa District, Goa (15 ˚ 0 5.8 N, 74 ˚ 12.7 E, 67 m a.s.l.) by R. Bhambure, M. Bhise and H. Ogale on 31 August, 2009. The three localities are all within 20 km of each other. Diagnosis. A Gegeneophis differing from G. seshachari Ravichandran, Gower & Wilkinson, 2003 in having many more primary annuli (> 140 vs Gegeneophis in lacking scales and secondary annular grooves, and in having the vent situated within an unsegmented terminal ���shield���. Description of holotype. Some meristic and morphometric data presented in Table 1. Condition good; 10 mm midventral incision into coelom c. 40 mm anterior to the vent; mouth preserved slightly open, some tooth crowns broken, small piece of tissue missing from front of lower jaw. Overall shape fairly cylindrical and uniform throughout, very slightly dorsoventrally compressed. Head bullet-shaped in dorsal view; sides converge, particularly so anterior to TAs. In ventral view, lower jaw more bluntly rounded than snout. In lateral view, margins of mouth not strongly curved. Eyes not visible. TAs on imaginary lines between nares and CMs. In lateral view, nares approximately equidistant from top, front and bottom of snout. Nares barely visible in dorsal view, not in ventral view. TA slightly larger than naris on right, subequal on left; on raised bulges visible in dorsal and ventral views. Teeth broken in several places, especially outer rows, but do not appear to differ notably from those of paratypes. Clear diastema between vomerine and palatine teeth at position of choana on right, small tooth sits within what would otherwise be a left diastema. Choanae subcircular, separated by just over the width of single choana. Tongue pigmented; narial plugs obvious with encircling grooves. Nuchal region scarcely more massive than head and anterior body. C 1 shorter than C 2. Collar grooves faint but seemingly orthoplicate, probably incomplete middorsally and complete midventrally. Single TG faintly indicated on dorsum of each collar. Midventral crease extends from behind mandibular symphysis onto C 1. AGs well marked laterally; mostly incomplete middorsally and midventrally, sporadically complete, slightly more so posteriorly, last few notably shorter, confined to dorsolateral surface. Each groove with single row of enlarged granular glands posterior to a narrow darker band on some. No scale pockets or scales. Granular glands more dense and conspicuous on posterior annuli. Bounds of terminal shield not associated with marked change in shape; end of body gently tapers before bluntly rounded terminus, blunter than head. End of terminus including vent slightly upturned. Terminal keel absent. Disc around vent weakly circumscribed; subcircular; vent more or less transverse; denticulations approximately symmetrical about long axis, six anteriorly, five posteriorly. Head cream to pale tan. Pigmentation largely absent on head and anterior of body, anteriormost approximately seven annuli very pale, pigmentation stronger posteriorly. Dorsum of body darker than venter, without abrupt transition laterally. Midventral darker narrow line on anterior half of body. Tip of body terminus pale. Disc around vent slightly paler but denticulations with some peripheral pigmentation. In preservative, colour pattern of holotype is more or less the same as in life (see below) except annular grooves on anteriormost part are more conspicuous. Variation and additional information from paratypes. See Table 1 for meristic and morphometric data. The paratypes are mostly very similar to the holotype; PAs 145���151; L/W c. 50���80. The nuchal region is slightly more massive in some specimens. Visibility and completeness of nuchal grooves are variable, though they are never very well marked dorsally. In BNHS 5376 the nuchal grooves are more clearly marked, with N 1 and N 2 complete and N 3 incomplete ventrally. In BNHS 5375 N 1 is barely visible. In BNHS 5372 N 1 and N 2 are well marked and complete ventrally, but not dorsally. TGs are never well marked. A TG on the first collar is visible either clearly (e.g., BNHS 5372, 5373), or faintly (e.g., BNHS 5198, 5371). Similarly, a TG on C 2 may be very faint (BNHS 5373) or absent (BNHS 5236). A ventromedial groove on the throat extends to N 2 on BNHS 5370 and 5378 but is not visible on BNHS 5375. In one paratype (BNHS 5377) the nares are not visible dorsally. Eyes are just visible through the skin as minute dark dots in BNHS 5375 - 8, as small dark spots in BNHS 5370, and are more clearly visible in BNHS 5371 and BNHS 5372, where they are slightly larger than nares and TAs. Eye covered by bone even where clearly visible, as determined by probing with pin. TAs just below (touching) an imaginary line between eye and naris, more so (not touching) in BNHS 5370. = circumference; D = dentary teeth; E = eye; HW = head width; IM = inner mandibular teeth; L = length; N = naris; PM = premaxillary-maxillary teeth; VP = vomeropalatine teeth. BNHS 5289 (Fig. 4), a male, is the largest known specimen of G. p a re s h i (228 mm). It matches the holotype closely except in having a notably curved upper lip (in lateral view), with the naris substantially further from the lip than from the top and front of the snout; and in having relatively more widely spaced choanae, approximately 1.5 times the width of each choana. The next largest male (BNHS 5371, 201 mm) has a similar head morphology. Smaller males BNHS 5377 and 3570 are more similar to the holotype. We interpret the differences between BNHS 5289 and 5371 and the rest of the type series as a combination of ontogenetic and sexually dimorphic variation. We did not detect any other notable sexual dimorphism. Inside of mouth observed in more detail in some paratypes, especially those with broken jaws. All teeth stongly recurved. Dentary teeth most robust, recumbent and largest, largest of which are anterolateral; corresponding premaxillary maxillary teeth about two-thirds their size; teeth of inner rows substantially smaller. Vomerine and palatine teeth more uniform in size, small diastema at choanae generally present, four or five palatine teeth on each side. Teeth of outer series monocuspid, palatine and IMs bicuspid; accessory cusp not detected on vomerine teeth. Where more than one IM on either side, more lateral teeth very small and set close to larger inner teeth. In lateral view, tips of crowns of some vomerine and palatine teeth just visible posteriorly. Choanae generally separated by little more than width of each choana. Tongue darkly pigmented with pale, elongate narial plugs surrounded (except posteriorly) by well-defined grooves. Length of tongue anterior to narial plugs much less than behind, and about half width of each plug. Anterior of tongue with broad, free tip. Posterior of tongue with medial cleft and few longitudinal grooves (one on each side in BNHS 5265). The vent is clearly transverse in most specimens but approaches a circular condition in BNHS 5377. Disc surrounding vent not strongly circumscribed in any specimens, denticulations often lightly pigmented. Paired papillae on anterolateral parts of disc variably present in some males (e.g., BNHS 5199, 5263, 5289) and some females (e.g., BNHS 5198). Area of vent not notably upturned in most specimens (e.g., BNHS 5373). Colour generally similar to holotype, though one specimen (BNHS 5371) is a clear outlier in being much darker throughout. Several specimens (BNHS 5199, 5200, 5265, 5331, 5370, 5371, 5372) differ from the holotype in having some pigmentation on the head and lower jaw, though this is generally faint and scattered and never encroaches onto the skin overlying the mandibles. In most specimens the m. interhyoideus posterior are visible through the skin. The skin on the head was removed in BNHS 5198. The mesethmoid is not exposed middorsally. The eye is under the squamosal. The m. depressor mandibulae have a weakly developed and/or concealed posterior part. The m. intermandibularis and m. interhyoideus form a solid sheet. There is no middorsal fascial window or gap within the m. rectus lateralis. Colour in life. Observations were made of BNHS 5331 in anaesthesia (MS 222) and before fixation. Head unpigmented, pale pink. Tongue very pink. Body darker pink anteriorly, darkening posteriorly to purple and greylilac, slightly paler grey on terminal shield. Body slightly darker above than below, more notable posteriorly (including terminus) with weak, darker, broad middorsal stripe. Eye clearly visible; not within paler eye-tentacle stripe. Disc around vent pale pinkish grey. Short, slightly darker midventral streak just anterior to vent. Photographs of the species in life are shown in Fig. 5. The smallest specimen (BNHS 5372, 115 mm; Fig. 5) seems to have had a more prominent middorsal stripe. Etymology. Named in honour of Range Forest Officer Mr. Paresh Porob, in recognition of his dedicated efforts to conserve and promote a love and understanding of wildlife and the natural environment, especially in Goa. For nomenclatural purposes the species epithet is considered a noun in apposition. Suggested common names. Paresh���s Gegeneophis (English). Distribution, conservation and natural history. BNHS 5263 has large and well-developed testicular lobes and lobules. The holotype (BNHS 5264) has yolky eggs, as does BNHS 5198 (1mm diameter). The holotype and paratopotypes were collected from moist soil under a large tree and under piles of compost in an open area behind houses in the village. The Poinguinim and Naturlim paratypes were dug from moist soil beneath compost around the bases of trees (mostly areca nut, coconut and banana) in gardens (Fig. 6). The occurrence of G. pareshi in human modified habitats (some close to the protected forest of Cotigaon Wildlife Sanctuary) is a source of optimism that it is not an immediate conservation concern, but until additional field surveys are carried out the species will likely need to be classified as Data Deficient under IUCN criteria. As with many caecilians, for which detailed ecological data are not immediately available or readily obtained (e.g., Gower & Wilkinson, 2005; Loader et al., 2011), the best prospect of G. pareshi being given some other IUCN categorization is to obtain better data on its distribution ��� either not occurring far beyond the type locality (threatened) or found over a substantially broader area (Least Concern). Finding the species in the nearby Wildlife Sanctuary would also improve its conservation status., Published as part of Giri, Varad, Gower, David J., Gaikwad, Kshamata & Wilkinson, Mark, 2011, A second species of Gegeneophis Peters (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) lacking secondary annular grooves, pp. 49-58 in Zootaxa 2815 on pages 50-56, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.201904, {"references":["Ravichandran, M. S., Gower, D. J. & Wilkinson, M. (2003) A new species of Gegeneophis Peters (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) from Maharashtra, India. Zootaxa, 350, 1 - 8.","Gower, D. J. & Wilkinson, M. (2005) Conservation biology of caecilian amphibians. Conservation Biology, 19, 45 - 55.","Loader, S. P., Wilkinson, M., Cotton, J. A., Measey, G. J., Menegon, M., Howell, K. M., Muller, H. & Gower, D. J. (2011) Molecular phylogenetics of Boulengerula (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) and implications for taxonomy, biogeography and conservation. Herpetological Journal, 21, 5 - 16."]}

Hemidactylus graniticolus sp. nov. Figs. 1���7 Holotype. Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) 1850, adult female; collected from hills near Harohalli, Bangalore Rural District, Karnataka, India (12 �� 40 ��� 57.97 ������N, 77 �� 29 ��� 21.30 ������E, 913 m asl) on 9 June 2008. Collected by I. Agarwal, V. Mistry, N. Page and P. Chanchani. Paratypes. BNHS 1859, adult male, BNHS 1858, adult female and BNHS 1860, juvenile female, collected along with holotype; BNHS 1826, adult female, collected from adjacent hill on 11 November 2007 by I. Agarwal and V. Mistry. BNHS 2016, adult female, collected from near Yercaud, Salem District, Tamil Nadu (11 �� 45 ��� 3.02 ������ N 78 �� 11 ��� 18.78 ������ E, 606 m asl) on 5 December 2009 by I. Agarwal and A. D. Roy; BMNH 1946.8.23.70��� 71 and BMNH 1946.8.23.73��� 75, four adult females, and BMNH 1946.8. 23.72, adult male, collected from Salem District, Tamil Nadu, India by R. H. Beddome; BMNH 1946.8. 23.76, adult male, collected from ���Malabar���, India by R. H. Beddome. Diagnosis. A large sized Hemidactylus, snout-vent to at least 110.6 mm. Dorsal pholidosis heterogeneous, with 16���18 fairly regularly arranged longitudinal rows of subtrihedral, striated tubercles at midbody (Fig. 1). First supralabial in broad contact with nasal. Two well-developed pairs of postmentals, the inner pair longer than the outer pair and mental, and in broad contact behind the mental. Ventrolateral folds distinct, about 40���46 scale rows across venter. 12���13 enlarged, divided scansors beneath fourth digit and 9���10 (rarely 11) beneath first digit of both manus and pes. 23���28 femoral pores on each side separated by one to three poreless scales in males. Original tail depressed, oval in transverse section with a median dorsal furrow; scales on the tail slightly larger than dorsals of body, striated, imbricate, with a longitudinal series of two enlarged, weakly keeled, striated, flattened tubercles on either side of the median dorsal furrow. Body dorsum with a series of pale saddles from occiput to sacrum, tail with distinct alternating light and dark bands. Hemidactylus graniticolus sp. nov. may be distinguished from all other Indian and Sri Lankan congeners on the basis of (taxa with differing or non-overlapping character states indicated parenthetically): dorsum with conical, granular, striated scales intermixed with enlarged, fairly regularly arranged, longitudinal rows of 16���18 sub-trihedral, weakly keeled, striated tubercles (dorsum with small granules usually intermixed with scattered, rounded, feebly keeled or conical tubercles in H. frenatus Schlegel; enlarged dorsal tubercles usually few or sometimes absent in H. leschenaultii Dum��ril & Bibron; dorsum with very few enlarged tubercles, more often absent altogether in H. flaviviridis; small, uniform, granular dorsal scales except along the sides where they may form a single line of larger rounded tubercles in H. garnotii Dum��ril & Bibron; no enlarged dorsal tubercles in H. anamallensis (G��nther), H. giganteus Stoliczka, H. platyurus (Schneider) and H. aquilonius McMahan & Zug; dorsum with uniform, imbricate, scales in H. scabriceps (Annandale) and H. imbricatus (Bauer, Giri, Greenbaum, Jackman, Dharne & Shouche), 23���28 femoral pores on each side in males (9���13 precloacal pores in H. persicus Anderson; angular series of 6 precloacal pores in H. porbandarensis Sharma; 6 precloacal pores in H. gracilis Blanford; 6-12 precloacal pores in H. reticulatus Beddome; 7���10 precloacal pores in H. albofasciatus Grandison & Soman; and 4���6 precloacal pores in H. sataraensis Giri & Bauer, 7���16 femoral pores on each side in H. brookii Gray and parvimaculatus Deraniyagala; 6���14 femoral pores on each side in H. lankae Deraniyagala, H. subtriedrus Jerdon and H. triedrus (Daudin); 14 femoral pores in H. treutleri Mahony; 12���14 femoral pores on each side in H. gujaratensis Giri, Bauer, Vyas & Patil; 16���19 femoral pores on each side in H. depressus Gray). Hemidactylus graniticolus sp. nov. may also be distinguished from all the above mentioned species on the basis of its large size (adult SVL to at least 110.6 mm). The only four Indian and Sri Lanka congeners that grow beyond 100 mm SVL are H. aaronbaueri Giri, H. prashadi, H. maculatus and H. hunae. H. aaronbaueri can be distinguished from Hemidactylus graniticolus sp. nov. by the presence of 15���19 femoral pores on each side separated by 6 poreless scales in males (vs. 23���28 femoral pores on each side separated by 1���3 poreless scales in males) and 18���20 rows of irregularly arranged, enlarged, rounded and feebly keeled tubercles on dorsum (vs. 16���18 rows of fairly regularly arranged sub-trihedral, weakly keeled, striated tubercles on dorsum). H. prashadi can be distinguished from the new species by the presence of 17���20 femoral pores separated by 3 poreless scales in H. prashadi (vs. 23���28 femoral pores on each side separated by 1���3 poreless scales in males) and lamellae beneath first toe 8 and fourth toe 10 (vs. lamellae beneath first toe 9���11 and fourth toe 12���13). The new species is similar in size and general appearance to Hemidactylus maculatus, but differs with respect to (H. maculatus versus H. graniticolus sp. nov.): dorsal pholidosis (back with small juxtaposed, conical, granular scales and large trihedral tubercles arranged in 20 fairly regular longitudinal rows versus back with conical, granular, striated scales intermixed with enlarged, fairly regularly arranged, longitudinal rows of 16���18 sub-trihedral, weakly keeled, striated tubercles (Fig. 2)); dorsal pholidosis of tail (small, irregular, more or less pointed, keeled scales and a series of six or eight large, keeled, trihedral tubercles versus small, imbricate, striated scales and a series of four enlarged, keeled and weakly striated and flattened tubercles (Fig. 3)); femoral pores in males (16���19 femoral pores on each side with a gap of 5 to 9 scales versus 23���28 femoral pores on each side separated by 1���3 scales (Fig. 4)); colouration (brown above with darker spots, dorsal pattern with a series of dark, transverse undulating crossbars versus dorsal pattern with a series of alternating broad pale saddle-markings and narrower, darker, interspaces; no scattered dark spots. The new species most closely resembles the Sri Lankan Hemidactylus hunae, but differs with respect to (H. hunae versus H. graniticolus sp. nov.): dorsal pholidosis of tail (a series of six large, keeled, pointed/recurved tubercles, dorsolateral rows largest versus a series of four enlarged, keeled, weakly striated and flattened tubercles, dorsolateral row absent; femoral pores in males (22���24 femoral pores on each side with a gap of 3���6 scales versus 23���28 femoral pores on each side separated by 1���3 scales). Description. The holotype is generally in good condition with some minor exceptions (Fig. 1). The body shape is somewhat dorsoventrally flattened. A fold of skin is present on the right side of the gular region, running from below the eye to the axilla, an artefact of preservation. The tail is partially regenerated and the tail tip is missing (stored for phylogenetic analysis in the personal collection of IA). Head short (HL/SVL ratio 0.28), slightly elongate (HW/HL ratio 0.71), not strongly depressed (HH/HL ratio 0.41), distinct from neck (Fig. 5 A). Loreal region slightly inflated, canthus rostralis not prominent. Snout short (SE/HL ratio 0.43); slightly longer than eye diameter (OD/SE ratio 0.52); scales on snout, canthus rostralis, forehead and between eyes homogenous, juxtaposed, and weakly pointed; scales on snout, canthus rostralis and forehead twice the size of those on the occipital and interorbital region, canthus rostralis with slightly enlarged patch of scales (Fig. 5 B). Eye small (OD/HL ratio 0.22); pupil vertical with crenulated margins; supraciliaries small, pointed, those at the anterior end of orbit slightly larger. Ear opening oval (greatest diameter 2.5 mm); eye to ear distance slightly greater than diameter of eye (EE/OD ratio 1.22). Rostral wider (4.1 mm) than deep (2.3 mm), incompletely divided dorsally by weakly developed rostral groove; two internasals, enlarged, in contact anteriorly, posteriorly separated by a single scale, one supranasal on each side which is smaller than internasal, one pair of still smaller postnasals; rostral in contact with nostril, supralabial I, and internasal; nostrils large (1.1 mm), circular, each surrounded by supranasal, internasal, rostral, supralabial I and postnasal; 3���4 rows of scales separate orbit from supralabials. Mental triangular, two well developed postmentals, the inner pair slightly longer (4.1 mm) than mental (3.8 mm), and in extensive contact with each other (2.5 mm) behind mental, outer pair about half the size of the inner pair, separated from each other by inner pair (Fig. 5 C). Inner postmental bordered by mental, infralabial I, outer postmental and three gular scales; outer postmental bordered by infralabials I and II, inner postmental, and 6 gular scales of which the outer 2 are enlarged and continue as a single row of enlarged scales below infralabials. Infralabials bordered by a single row of enlarged scales, about 2 to 8 rows of scales below infralabials III to VIII are enlarged and weakly imbricate. Supralabials (to midorbital position) 9 (right) ��� 9 (left); supralabials (to angle of jaw) 13 (right) ��� 12 (left); infralabials (to angle of jaw) 9 (right) ��� 9 (left). Body relatively stout, not elongate (TRL/SVL ratio 0.40), with ventrolateral folds without denticulate scales. Dorsal pholidosis heterogeneous, composed of conical, granular, striated scales intermixed with enlarged, fairly regularly arranged, longitudinal rows of 16���18 subtrihedral, weakly keeled, striated tubercles at midbody, extending from occipital region to tail, each enlarged tubercle roughly two to three times longer than adjacent granules, surrounded by rosette of 10���13 small granules, 2���5 granules between two adjacent enlarged tubercles; enlarged tubercles on back smallest on two most medial parasagittal rows, increasing in size toward the flanks, the last row on flank smallest after medial rows; enlarged tubercles more strongly keeled and slightly larger on flanks and close to the tail than on the dorsum; enlarged tubercles on nape, shoulder small and pointed, those on occipital, temporal region still smaller, strongly pointed. Ventral scales larger than dorsal, smooth, imbricate, slightly larger on precloacal and femoral region than on chest and abdominal region; midbody scale rows across belly 42���46; gular region with still smaller, sub-imbricate scales, those on lateral aspect of neck granular, anterior gular scales slightly larger than the rest. Scales on the palm and sole smooth, imbricate, rounded; scales on dorsal aspect of upper arm larger than granules on dorsum, subimbricate and striated, dorsal aspect of forearm with smaller, striated, conical and granular scales, intermixed with a few enlarged conical tubercles; those on dorsal part of thigh and shank conical, granular, striated, intermixed with enlarged, striated, sub trihedral tubercles, which are numerous on shank compared to anterior aspect of thigh, posterior aspect of thigh lacks enlarged tubercles. Fore- and hind limbs relatively short, stout; forearm short (FL/SVL ratio 0.14); tibia short (CL/SVL ratio 0.14); digits moderately short, strongly clawed; all digits of manus and digits I���IV of pes indistinctly webbed; terminal phalanx of all digits curved, arising angularly from distal portion of expanded lamellar pad, half or more than half as long as associated toepad; scansors beneath each toe in straight transverse series, divided except for distal and three to four basal scansors on digit I and one or two in all digits that are single; scansors from proximal most at least twice diameter of palmar scales to distalmost single scansor: 10-13 - 13 - 13 - 13 (right manus; Fig. 6 A), 9-13 - 13 - 13 - 13 (right pes; Fig. 6 B). Relative length of digits (measurements in mm in parentheses): III (8.9)> IV (8.8) = V (8.8)> II (8.7)> I (7.0) (right manus); II (10.0)> III (9.9)> V (9.6)> IV (9.4)> I (7.6) (right pes). Tail depressed, flat beneath, verticillate, with well defined median furrow; length of the partially regenerated and slightly broken tail less than snout-vent length (TL/SVL ratio 0.73); tail covered above with small (slightly larger than those on the dorsal granules), posteriorly-pointed, imbricate, striated scales and a series of two enlarged, keeled and weakly striated, posteriorly pointed and flattened tubercles on either side of the median furrow (Fig. 3 A); ventral scales larger, imbricate, median row (subcaudal plates) slightly broader, about twice as broad as adjacent scales, not extending across width of the tail proximally, but distally they extend almost across the width of the tail. Coloration (in preservative). Dorsum grayish- brown with a vague, pale beige vertebral stripe and a series of narrow, wavy, mid-brown transverse markings defining the edges of somewhat paler saddles (indistinct saddle on occiput, one across shoulders, two between fore- and hindlimb insertions, and one on sacrum). Dorsolateral tubercle rows mostly dark brown, those on flanks predominantly ashy to white. Crown of head with scattered vague mid-brown markings. A cream stripe, bordered above and below by a narrow (one scale wide) dark brown margin, extending from nostril to midorbital rim, through eye, and on to temporal region, confluent with posterior edge of pale occipital marking. Infralabials and posterior supralabials pale, anterior supralabials with scattered dark pigment, anterior three scales darkest. Limbs pale, yellowish-gray with vague irregular dark markings, more distinctly alternating with pale interspaces distally, especially on metapodial and phalangeal segments. Original tail mostly gray-brown with lighter mottling; distal portion of original tail with alternating vague lighter and darker bands. Regenerated portion of tail unmarked. Venter cream with scattered patches of diffusely pigmented scales, particularly under thighs; palms and soles grayish. Ventrolateral surfaces of tail darkly pigmented, with scattered speckling on proximal portions of midventral scutes. Coloration (in life). In life dorsal markings much more evident, especially in light phase, although vertebral stripe not visible. Saddle-shaped markings ashy with dark brown edges. Interspaces between saddles with diffuse orangey-brown highlights. Tail distinctly banded, with alternating light and dark bands similar to trunk dorsum in colour; darker bands somewhat wider than pale bands. Mottled pattern of limb bases and banding of distal limbs clearly demarcated. In dark phase dorsal colours much less contrasting; paler saddles light brown, darker interspaces a dark, slightly reddish-brown (Fig. 7 A). Iris marbled greenish-silver suffused with brown-rust veination that is most prominent near the pupil. Etymology. The species is named for the conspicuous granite rock formations upon which it lives. The specific epithet is a masculine adjective. Variation and additional information from type series. Mensural data for the type series and additional material is given in Table 1. There is one male, and four females including a juvenile, ranging in size from 39.2 mm to 110.6 mm. All paratypes resemble the holotype except as follows: internasals separated by two (BNHS 1858) or three (BNHS 1826, 1859, 1860) scales. Range of supralabials is from 12���14 (9���10 below eye) and infralabials is from 9���11. The scales across belly also range from 40���46 in the paratypes. Males have a series of 23���28 femoral pores separated mesially by 1-3 poreless scales (BNHS 1859 ��� 25 / 27 pores on left/right side separated by a single poreless scale, BMNH 1946.8. 23.72 ��� 27 / 28 pores separated by 2 scales, BMNH 1946.8. 23.76 ��� 25 / 23 pores separated by 3 scales). Colouration. Adult colouration variation primarily due to relative prominence of the dorsal pattern elements. Light and dark phases physiological so may be seen in the same individual (Fig. 7 A, B). Juvenile pattern very bold, brighter than in adults, with very sharp edges to dorsal markings (Fig. 7 C). Light markings on head, edges of dorsal pale saddles, and lateral tubercles pale yellowish. Darker portions of trunk and limbs purplish-brown. Crown distinctly lighter than nape and temporal region. Tail very boldly banded with alternating dark chocolate and ashy (proximal) to white (distal) bands; 10 pale bands from tail base to tip. Venter in dark phase heavily mottled with brown. Holotype Paratypes continued. Distribution. Hemidactylus graniticolus is known based on voucher specimens from the following localities (Fig. 8), in Karnataka state: Bangalore Rural District (Harohalli), Ramnagaram District (Ramnagaram); and Tamil Nadu state: Nilgiri District (Masanagudi-Ooty road), Salem District (near Yercaud). This species has also been visually observed in the following localities (Fig. 8), in Andhra Pradesh: Chittoor District (Kangundi); Karnataka: Mysore District (Chamundi Hills, Kollegal); and Tamil Nadu: Vellore District (near Vellore), Villupuram District (near Gingee). Natural history. The type locality is a rocky hillock in the outskirts of Bangalore, Karanataka, India (Fig. 9). These broken hills are a conspicuous feature of this landscape. Hemidactylus graniticolus appears to be strictly rupicolous, recorded only from boulders. The boulder habitats of this species are both in hills and rocky outcrops in the plains; localities around Bangalore lie on the Mysore plateau and may be above 1000 m asl while localities further south such as in Salem District are as low as 200 m. These areas are characterized by sparse scrub vegetation and few trees or occasionally deciduous forests. The average annual rainfall at the type locality is about 889 mm (Hegde et al. 2008), and the altitude is 830 m. The species is active after dark on rock faces and occasionally culverts, in the day they may be found in crevices among boulders. These fast-moving geckos are relatively abundant and widespread within their range, found on even isolated outcrops. H. graniticolus is the most commonly seen gecko at the type locality. These large geckos have fragile skin that is easily damaged by handling. Juveniles have been observed in June. Sympatric congeners at the type locality include Hemidactylus cf. brookii, H. frenatus, and H. triedrus. The ground-dwelling H. reticulatus occurs in the same habitats at various other localities; and the large rupicolous H. giganteus is sympatric with H. graniticolus at Ramnagaram (Karnataka) and Kangundi (Andhra Pradesh)., Published as part of Agarwal, Ishan, Giri, Varad B. & Bauer, Aaron M., 2011, A new cryptic rock-dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from south India, pp. 21-37 in Zootaxa 2765 on pages 23-32, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.202466, {"references":["Hegde, R., Anilkumar, K. S., Kumar, S. C. R., Devaraju, M. & Gouda, R. (2008) Characteristics and Classification of Soils of Amani Shivpurkere Watershed (Linganahalli Village) Doddaballapur Taluk, Bangalore Rural District. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 21, 373 - 378."]}

Although anurans exhibit major variation in reproductive behaviour, a form of amplexus, i.e. the male grasping the female, is nearly always present. This behaviour is important in synchronizing egg deposition with fertilization, since the latter is performed externally in nearly all frogs. However, studies in N. humayuni and N. petraeus, two nyctibatrachid frogs endemic to the Western Ghats of India, have shown that these species have no amplexus in the strict sense. Instead, the grasping is absent, or replaced by a short and loose contact between male and female that is aborted before the eggs are deposited. To pinpoint the moment of fertilization in this unusual anuran behaviour, we studied in detail the reproductive behaviour of Nyctibatrachus humayuni. Surprisingly, our study indicates that eggs are fertilized a few seconds after oviposition, even though the male is not present at that moment. This strongly suggests that male semen release takes place on the back of the female before the male dismounts the female and the eggs are deposited. The female remains motionless after deposition, allowing the sperm to reach and fertilize the eggs. This behaviour is similar to observations in the Madagascan frog genus Mantidactylus. Because both genera have independently evolved femoral glands, whose biological function is still unknown, we hypothesize that this structure is involved in courtship behaviour without amplexus.

Cnemaspis kolhapurensis sp. nov. Figures 1���4, Plate 1. Holotype. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai (BNHS) 1855, adult male; under a rock near Dajipur, Kolhapur District, Maharashtra, India (16 �� 22 ��� 17 ��� N, 73 �� 51 ��� 52 ��� E; 647 m a.s.l.); collected on 6 June 2008 by Ravindra Bhambure and Harish Kulkarni. Paratypes. BNHS 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846 and 1847; same locality as holotype under stones and leaf litter collected on 27 September, 2005 by Varad Giri, Harish Kulkarni, Raman Kulkarni, Dhananjay Jadhav, Swapnil Pawar, Ravindra Bhambure and Faruk Mehtar; BNHS 1854 and 1856; same data as holotype. Diagnosis. A moderately sized Cnemaspis, snout-vent length to at least 40 mm. Dorsal scales on midbody homogenous, small and feebly keeled; no spine-like tubercles on flank. Ventrals smooth, imbricate, 20���23 scale rows across venter between lowest rows of dorsal scales. Supralabial I narrowly contacting nasal. Paired postmentals separated by one or two enlarged gular scales. A continuous series of 24���28 precloacalfemoral pores. Subdigital scansors entire, unnotched, those on the basal part are larger than on distal portion, which are narrow; an enlarged scansor present near proximal interphalangeal joint; narrow distal lamellae under digit IV of pes 10���12. Original tail cylindrical, covered above with large (larger than those on dorsum), flat, smooth, slightly imbricate scales, ventrally with three rows of smooth, imbricate, enlarged plates, of which the median row is slightly larger than the others. Yellowish- and purplish-brown dorsal color pattern with flank and vertebral markings variably developed. Original tail with a dorsal, or dorsal and lateral stripes, distinctly iridescent in oblique light. Juveniles with a broad pale dorsal stripe, fading during ontogeny. Cnemaspis kolhapurensis may be distinguished from all other peninsular Indian congeners on the basis of (sympatric taxa with differing or non-overlapping character stats indicated parenthetically): spine-like tubercles absent on flanks (spine-like tubercles present on flanks in C. jerdonii, C. littoralis, C. heteropholis, C. gracilis, C. monticola, C. nilagirica, C. goaensis, C. mysoriensis, C. indraneildasii), dorsal scales on midbody homogeneous (dorsal scales on mid-body heterogeneous in C. gracilis, C. ornata, C. beddomei, C. goaensis, C. heteropholis, C. monticola and C. australis), a continuous series of 26���28 precloacal-femoral pores (no precloacal or femoral pores in either sex in C. boiei; 4 precloacal and 3 femoral pores on each thigh in C. yercaudensis, no precloacal pores in C. indica, C. sisparensis, C. wynadensis; no femoral pores in C. ornata, C. beddomei, C. nairi); enlarged tubercles absent on the tail (present in C. otai). For comparisons with Sri Lankan Cnemaspis, as well C. assamensis Das & Sengupta from Assam and C. wicksii (Stoliczka) and C. andersonii (Annandale) from the Andaman Islands, see Manamendra-Arachchi et al. (2007). Description of Holotype. Adult male, SVL 40.9 mm (Fig. 1). Head moderately short (HeadL/SVL = 0.26), slightly wide (HeadW/HeadL = 0.59), somewhat depressed (HeadD/HeadL = 0.38), very distinct from moderately elongate neck. Loreal region not inflated, canthus rostralis not prominent. Snout relatively short (SnEye/HeadL = 0.41); much longer than eye diameter (OrbD/SnEye = 0.41); scales on snout, canthus rostralis and forehead region granular to slightly conical; interorbital and occipital region with much smaller, conical and granular scales (Plate 1 a). Eye relatively small (OrbD/HeadL = 0.17); pupil round; supraciliary scales conical, much enlarged over anterodorsal portion of orbit where they form a distinct overhanging lobe (Plate 1 b, e). Ear opening semicircular, slightly obliquely oriented, very small (EarL/HeadL = 0.02); eye to ear distance much greater than diameter of eyes (EyeEar/OrbD = 2.05). Rostral wider (1.8 mm) than deep (1.0 mm), swollen, incompletely divided dorsally by strongly developed rostral groove; two enlarged swollen supranasals, approximately twice the size of postnasals, which are also swollen; supranasals separated from one another by a single, slightly rounded internasal; rostral in contact with supralabial I, supranasals and internasal; nostrils oval, each surrounded by postnasal, supranasal, rostral, supralabial I, and nasal; two rows of scales separate the orbit from the supralabials. Mental triangular, slightly wider (2.2 mm) than long (2.0 mm); one pair of enlarged postmentals, each surrrounded laterally by first infralabial and anteromedially by mental; a single enlarged gular scale prevents the posterior contact of left and right postmentals (Plate 1 c). Infralabials bordered by a row of slightly enlarged scales, decreasing in size posteriorly. Enlarged supralabials to angle of jaw 6 (right) ��� 6 (left), at midorbital position 5 (right) ��� 5 (left); infralabials 6 (left) ��� 6 (right); interorbital scale rows across narrowest point of frontal bone 10���11; 14 scale rows between left and right supraciliaries at midorbit. PLATE 1. Holotype of Cnemaspis kolhapurensis sp. nov. (BNHS 1855). a) Dorsal view of head. b) Lateral view of head. c) Ventral view of head. d) Dorsal pholidosis at midbody, anterior towards top. Note homogeneous scalation. e) Dorsal view of orbital region showing enlarged supraciliary scales on lobe over anterior portion of orbit. f) Pericloacal region showing continuous series of precloacal-femoral pores. g) Ventral view of right manus. h) Ventral view of right pes. i) Ventral view of tail showing enlarged median subcaudal scale row and bold patterning or original portion of tail. Body relatively slender, short (TrunkL/SVL = 0.47) without ventrolateral folds or spine-like tubercles on flanks. Dorsal scales homogeneous, granular, conical, weakly keeled (Plate 1 d); scales of paravertebral rows slightly smaller (approximately half the size) of those on flanks, which are also more flattened; scales arranged in 50���52 longitudinal rows at midbody. Scales on nape slightly smaller than those in paravertrebral rows, smaller still on occiput. Ventral scales much larger than dorsals, those on belly weakly subimbricate, roughly hexagonal, with straight free margins, approximately subequal from chest to vent; midbody scale rows across belly to ventrolateral margin 19���20; scales on pectoral region more elongated and subimbricate; throat scales smaller and subconical; gular region with slightly smaller subconical granules, those on chin bordering postmentals enlarged, juxtaposed and flattened. A continuous series of 26 precloacal-femoral pores (Plate 1 f). Scales on palm and sole smooth, slightly conical. Fore and hind limbs relatively long, slender (ForeaL/SVL = 0.12; CrusL/SVL = 0.13); digits long, strongly clawed, unwebbed, strongly kinked, distal portions inconspicuously laterally compressed. No adhesive scansors beneath digits; series of unpaired lamellae on basal portion of digits separated from narrower distal lamellae by a single larger scale beneath the penultimate interphalangeal joint; distal lamellae 8���9 ��� 10 ��� 10 ��� 9 (left manus), 8���9 ��� 11 ��� 11 ��� 9 (right manus; Plate 1g), 8���10 ��� 12 ��� 12 ��� 12 (left pes), 8���9 ��� 11���12 ��� 12 (right pes; Plate 1 h)). Relative length of digits (measurements in mm in parentheses): IV (3.70)> V (3.60)> III (3.40)> II (3.10)> I (2.50) (right manus); IV (3.80)> III (3.70)> V (3.60)> II (3.10)> I (2.60) (right pes). Tail cylindrical, relatively slender, slightly longer than body (TailL/SVL = 1.04); tail covered above with more or less uniform scales; those at base granular, keeled and same size as those on dorsum, followed by enlarged, smooth, sub-imbricate scales arranged in regular transverse series, distally scales become more elongate, irregular and imbricate. Subcaudals larger, smooth, imbricate; those at the base are comparatively smaller and imbricate; post-pygal subcaudals much enlarged, in three longitudinal rows, those of median row slightly larger and hexagonal (Plate 1 i). A single enlarged cloacal spur on either side of the tail base. Coloration (based on holotype in preservative). Body dorsum brown with traces of irregular grayishbrown markings (Fig. 1). A paler brown oval marking with darker brown margins over dorsum between shoulders. Posterior portion of mandible and lateral surface of neck with indistinct whitish spots. Head midbrown with tiny, evenly-distributed darker speckles; labial scales more-or-less uniform mid-brown. Limbs mottled brown, not distinctly patterned. Original portion of tail medium brown with a dark brown dorsal stripe, flanked by series of whitish markings; regenerated distal portion of tail without distinct pattern. Venter brownish anteriorly with a paler pectoral blotch, becoming grayish over abdomen; all ventral body scales densely speckled with brown pigment; faint irregular whitish reticulations on abdomen. Gular region light brown with a pair of dark brown longitudinal stripes and covered with small whitish spots, coalescing on the throat to form an opalescent reticulation. Ventral aspect of limbs somewhat darker than pectoral region. Tail venter a mottled dark brown; original portion of tail with irregular, bright white markings; distal portion of tail somewhat lighter brown without distinct white markings. Appearance of all dorsal surfaces strongly influenced by nature of incident light, suggesting that elements of structural as well as pigment-based color are present. Color in Life. Holotype mottled yellowish and purplish-brown dorsally, becoming mostly dull yellowishbrown on flanks, brighter on side of neck and lower flanks (Fig. 2). A series of irregular purplish-brown dashes and blotches on the lateral surfaces, the larger of these with pinkish-brown centers. A more-or-less regularly spaced series of irregular, dull grayish-mustard markings from shoulder to sacrum. Limb insertions pinkish-brown, limbs with irregular, alternating, yellowish- and purplish-brown mottling. Darker markings on lateral and ventral surfaces of head purplish brown. Loreal region and supraciliary lobe yellowish-brown; iris with dull orange rim. Original tail with a thin dorsal, dark-brown to blackish stripe and a similar, but dark brown, lateral stripe, each with a broken, narrow, irregular, bright white border; intervening areas with irregular mid-brown and dull yellowish-brown markings. Regenerated portion of tail mottled brown with scattered whitish scales. Cloacal spurs a pale yellow. When viewed in oblique light, the tail dorsum exhibits an iridescent sheen. Iridescence is known from a variety of burrowing or subfossorial squamates, especially snakes and skinks (Gans & Biac 1977; G��nther & Manthey 1995), but has not been previously reported in geckos. Variation. Mensural data for the type series is given in Table 1. Adult specimens range in size from 31 to 41 mm. All paratypes resemble the holotype except as follows: the number of lamellae on digit I of the manus is 7 and on digit IV it is 8���11, on digit I of the pes it is 7���8 and on digit IV 10���12. Male specimen BNHS 1854 has a continuous series of 24 precloacal and femoral pores. BNHS 1847, a male, is the smallest specimen (SVL 25.3 mm), with a continuous series of 28 precloacal and femoral pores. In BNHS 1844 the right and left postmentals are separated by two enlarged gular scales. Some paratypes much duller in overall appearance. Dorsum cinnamon to purplish-brown. Dark dorsolateral markings forming an almost continuous stripe from nape to tail, vertebral region forming a paler broad field between dorsolateral stripes, with a series of dark, purplish-brown middorsal spots from occiput to sacrum, confluent with dorsal tail stripe (Fig. 3). No bright white markings on any portion of body. Dull yellowish-brown coloration limited to lateral surface of neck and distal bands on shanks, feet, and hands as well as loreals and supraciliaries, brightest on ventrolateral margins on neck and onto throat, where small clusters of yellowish scales form spots on a purplish background. As in the holotype the tail, when viewed in certain lighting is a brilliant iridescent blue. Juvenile color pattern boldly contrasting (Fig. 4). Dorsum cream to beige, becoming darker on nape and onto head as suffusion of brown pigmentation increases, crown and nasal region light purplish-brown. Broad pale vertebral stripe bordered laterally by a narrower dark chocolate stripe which anteriorly is confluent with the weakly mottled dark lateral and ventrolateral surface of the head, and posteriorly with a thin, poorly defined dark stripe on the tail. Faint dark markings on the cream dorsal stripe becoming darker posteriorly and continuing onto the tail as a distinct thin dorsal stripe. Tail straw to yellowish basally, becoming orangey-pink near tip. Labial scales and toes with purplish-white markings. In other juveniles the contrast between dorsum and tail is less pronounced, with a more yellowish brown dorsum and a brighter tail. In a third juvenile the dark brown tail stripes are not well developed and there is a small dark brown spot at the posterior edge of the parietal table. Holotype Paratypes Etymology. Named for the Kolhapur District, Maharashtra, India from which the type series was collected. Distribution. At present this species is only known from the type locality, which is in the south-central part of the northern Western Ghats (Fig. 5). The forest here is mostly of semi-evergreen type and is a largely contiguous to the south with little fragmentation, although portions are notably degraded (Rodgers & Panwar 1988). Based on the extent of this forest patch, which extends to the Belgaum district, Karnataka and the South Goa district of Goa state, it is possible that actual range of C. kolhapurensis may stretch from the forests of Goa to somewhat north of the type locality in the Kolhapur district. The type locality is close to the Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary. Natural History. All the specimens were found inactive, sheltering under rocks near an old temple in a semi-evergreen patch of forest (Fig. 6; holotype and some paratypes) or in leaf litter (Fig. 7) at the same locality (remaining paratypes) during active diurnal searches by the collectors. Interestingly, these geckos are mostly seen during the monsoon and were uncommon during non-monsoon seasons. We conducted an intensive search in the same area during February and March, 2007 but could not locate a single specimen of this species. Our observations confirm that this is a ground dwelling species that actively escapes into leaf litter, rock crevices or under rocks when disturbed. Like many ground dwelling geckos, C. kolhapurensis sp nov. adopts an alert posture when at rest or during pauses while moving, with its head, neck and fore-body raised above the ground. It is capable of turning the head through a wide arc on its elongate and flexible neck. This species was never seen climbing on walls or trees. Sometimes, while walking, they flick their tongue on or towards the ground. A similar behavior has been observed in Eublepharis fuscus B��rner and other gekkotans in association with reproduction and the investigation of novel surroundings (Mason & Gutzke 1990; Brillet 1990; V. Giri, pers. obs.), but not in conjunction with predator or prey detection, which in geckos appears to be accomplished using olfaction rather than vomerolfaction (Schwenk 1993). The types were found sympatrically with Cnemaspis cf. indraneildasii, Geckoella deccanensis (G��nther), and Hemidactylus cf. brookii Gray., Published as part of Giri, Varad B., Bauer, Aaron M. & Gaikwad, Kshamata S., 2009, A new ground-dwelling species of Cnemaspis Strauch (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from the northern Western Ghats, Maharashtra, India, pp. 49-60 in Zootaxa 2164 on pages 50-58, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.189040, {"references":["Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Batuwita, S. & Pethiagoda, R. (2007) A taxonomic revision of the Sri Lankan day-geckos (Reptilia: Gekkonidae: Cnemaspis), with description of new species from Sri Lanka & southern India. Zeylanica, 7, 9 - 122.","Gans, C. & Biac, D. (1977) Regional specialization of reptilian scale surfaces: relation of texture and biologic role. Science, 195, 1348 - 1350.","Gunther, R. & Manthey, U. (1995) Xenophidion, a new genus with two new species of snakes from Malaysia (Serpentes, Colubridae). Amphibia-Reptilia, 16, 229 - 240.","Rodgers, W. A. & Panwar, H. S. (1988) Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India Vol. II. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. 267 pp.","Mason, R. T. & Gutzke, W. H. N. (1990) Sex recognition in the leopard gecko, Eublepharus macularius (Sauria: Gekkonidae). Possible mediation by skin-derived semiochemicals. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 16, 27 - 36.","Brillet, C. (1990) Role des informations olfactives et visuelles dans la discrimination du sexe chez deux especes de geckos nocturnes: Eublepharus macularius et Paroedura pictus. Biology of Behavouir, 15, 1 - 22.","Schwenk, K. (1993) Are geckos olfactory specialists? Journal of Zoology, London, 229, 289 - 302."]}

Hemidactylus sataraensis sp. nov. Figs. 1���9 Holotype��� Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai (BNHS) 1743, adult female; under a rock near Chalakewadi, Satara District, Maharashtra, India (17 �� 34 ��� 40 ��� N, 73 �� 49 ��� 28 ��� E) on 22 January, 2006. Collected by Varad Giri, Dilipkumar Dongare and Rajan More. Paratype ��� BNHS 1742 collected from the same locality on 18 September 2005 by Varad Giri, Dilipkumar Dongare, V. Y. Deshpande, Yashodhan Parakhe and Rajan More. Diagnosis ��� A small sized Hemidactylus, snout-vent length at least 46.4 mm. Back with small, keeled and granular scales, intermixed with irregularly arranged, enlarged keeled tubercles (Fig. 4). First supralabial touching nasal (Fig. 5). Two well developed postmentals, the inner pair is larger and in extensive contact behind the mental. Ventrolateral folds very feebly developed, about 26���28 scale rows across venter between lowest rows of tubercles. Free distal phalanx of all digits short and about half as long as its lamellar pad (dilated portion); ten to eleven enlarged scansors beneath fourth toe of pes, of which the penultimate and two more proximal plates are notched but undivided (Fig. 6). Original tail depressed, oval in transverse section, constricted at base, swollen distal to constriction, then tapering to a fine point, with a median dorsal furrow; scales on the tail much larger than dorsals of body, smooth, strongly imbricate, with a series of two or four longitudinal series of enlarged, keeled scales on either side of the median dorsal furrow (Fig. 7). Coloration highly distinctive, dark background colour with pale yellow to bright white paravertebral and lateral stripes and orangish-red to brown or buff oval spots on the head, dorsum, flanks and limbs (Figs. 1, 3, 8���9). Venter white with pronounced blackish longitudinal stripes and throat and chin markings (Fig. 2). Hemidactylus sataraensis may be distinguished from all other mainland Indian congeners on the basis of (sympatric taxa with differing or non-overlapping character states indicated parenthetically): free distal phalanx of all digits short, less than half as long as corresponding dilated portion of subdigital pad, subdigital lamellae undivided except for the penultimate and two or three more proximal plates which are notched (subdigital lamellae undivided in H. anamallensis; free distal phalanx of all digits at least half as long as subdigital pad, subdigital lamellae divided in H. maculatus, H. persicus, H. porbandarensis, H. triedrus, H. subtriedrus, H. brookii, H. prashadi, H. leschenaultii, H. flaviviridis, H. giganteus, H. aaronbaueri, H. bowringii; only distal phalanx of digit I short, lamellae divided in H. frenatus, H.garnotii, H. karenorum), back with small, keeled and granular scales, intermixed with irregularly arranged, enlarged keeled tubercles, smaller than those on belly (back with uniform, imbricate, slightly elongated, striated and feebly keeled scales, a little larger than those on the belly in H. scabriceps; back with small irregular scales and 10 to 20 longitudinal series of more or less oval, strongly keeled tubercles in H. gracilis; with small, more-or-less erect, keeled granules, intermixed with larger pointed, keeled tubercles in H. reticulatus). This new species is most similar in general appearance to Hemidactylus albofasciatus, but differs with respect to (H. albofasciatus versus H. sataraensis): maximum size (36 versus 46 mm maximum SVL), tail (round in section, tapering, verticillate, covered above with faintly keeled, pointed, imbricate scales, two longitudinal rows of larger, pointed, keeled scales on either side of median furrow versus smooth, pointed, strongly imbricate scales, two to four rows of much larger, pointed, keeled scales on either side of median furrow), scansors beneath the fourth toe (9 versus 10���11). The new species also differs markedly from T. albofasciatus in dorsal and ventral colour pattern. Hemidactylus sataraensis sp. nov. is similar in colour pattern to the Pakistani species Teratolepis fasciata (currently under taxonomic revision and known to be embedded within Hemidactylus, Bauer et al. 2008), but differs from this species in its less broadly-dialated and more finelyscaled tail, absence of imbricating scales on the dorsum and flanks, and more vibrant coloration. Description ��� The holotype is in generally good condition. The body shape somewhat dorsoventrally flattened. The terminal portion of the tail is slightly bent as an artefact of preservation (Fig. 1). The skin on the belly is bit loose. Mouth is slightly open. The paratype is likewise in good condition, although the tail has been broken after preservation (Fig. 3). The description is based chiefly on the holotype; the paratype differs significantly form the holotype only in features indicated. Head short (HL/SVL ratio 0.27), wide (HW/HL ratio 0.21), not strongly depressed (HH/HL ratio 0.47), and markedly distinct from neck. Loreal region slightly inflated, canthus rostralis not prominent. Snout short (SE/HL ratio 0.39); longer than eye diameter (OD/SE ratio 0.46); scales on snout and fore head granular, keeled, larger than those on occipital region, which are smaller and granular; scales on canthus rostralis slightly larger than those on snout and keeled (Fig. 5). Eye small (OD/HL ratio 0.18); pupil vertical with crenulated margins; supraciliaries small, pointed, those at the anterior end of orbit slightly larger. Ear opening semicircular and small; eye to ear distance much greater than diameter of eye (EE/OD ratio 2.00). Rostral slightly wider (1.9 mm) than deep (1.2 mm), incompletely divided dorsally by weakly developed rostral groove; one enlarged supranasal, internasal single and slightly smaller than supranasal, two postnasals, of which the posterior is larger; rostral in contact with nostril, supralabial I, supranasal, and internasal; nostrils circular, each surrounded by supranasal, rostral, supralabial I and postnasals; 2-3 rows of scales separate orbit from supralabials. Mental triangular; two pairs of postmentals, inner pair single, larger and in contact behind mental; there is a scar on right inner postmental which vaguely continues anteriorly onto the mental; outer postmental small, half the length of the inner; inner postmental bordered anteriorly by first infralabial, medially by mental, anterolaterally by postmental and posterolaterally by a series of three enlarged chin shields, of which the anteriormost, which also contacts the outer postmental, is slightly larger; outer postmental bordered anteriorly by first and second infralabials, medially by inner mental and laterally by four chin shields. Infralabials bordered by a row of equal sized enlarged scales. Supralabials (to midorbital position) 7 (right) ��� 7 (left); supralabials (to angle of jaw) 9 (right) - 9 (left); infralabials (to angle of jaw) 7 (right) - 7 (left). Body moderately elongate (TRL/SVL ratio 0.54), with inconspicuous ventrolateral folds without denticulate scales. Dorsal scales heterogeneous, with small, keeled granules, intermixed with irregularly arranged, slightly larger, trihedral tubercles extending from occipital region to tail; tubercles more or less uniform across dorsum, somewhat less prominent on flanks (Fig. 4); 2-4 smaller scales between two adjacent enlarged tubercles. Ventral scales larger than dorsal, smooth, roughly pentagonal to rounded, imbricate, a bit larger on abdomen than on chest (Fig. 3); midbody scale rows across belly to lowest row of tubercles 27; gular region with still smaller and granular scales, anterior gular scales are much larger than the rest. There are no precloacal or femoral pores. Scales on palm and sole smooth, rounded; scales on dorsal aspect of fore limb larger than trihedral tubercles on the back, keeled, imbricate; those on the hind limbs heterogeneous, larger than those on the back, intermixed with still larger trihedral tubercles. Fore- and hindlimbs relatively short, stout; forearm short (FL/SVL ratio 0.13); tibia short (CL/SVL ratio 0.15); digits moderately short, strongly clawed; all digits of manus and digits I-IV of pes indistinctly webbed, moderately dilated; terminal phalanx of all digits curved, arising angularly from distal portion of expanded lamellar pad, short ��� less than half as long as associated toepad; scansors beneath each toe undivided, the lamella adjacent to terminal scansor is, however, deeply notched and the two next proximal lamellae are less strongly so (Fig. 6); scansors from proximal most at least twice diameter of palmar scales to distalmost divided/notched scansor: 5-7 - 7 - 7 - 7 (right manus), 6-7 - 8-9 - 7 (right pes) in holotype, 6 - 6-8 - 8 - 8 (right manus), 6-7 - 8-9 - 7 (right pes) in paratype. Relative length of digits (measurements in mm in parentheses): IV (3.15)> III (2.94)> II (2.87)> IV (2.86)> I (2.54) (right manus); IV (4.30)> III (3.81)> V (3.50)> II (3.28)> I (2.31) (right pes). Tail strongly constricted at base, notably swollen distal to constriction, tapering to a fine point, tubercular, with a median dorsal furrow, original portion of tail (18.8 mm) slightly depressed, oval in section, flat beneath; regenerated portion (13.60 mm) not depressed; length of partly regenerated tail less than snout-vent length (TL/SVL ratio 0.70); original part of the tail covered above with large (much larger than those on the dorsum), smooth, pointed, strongly imbricate scales; a series of two to four rows of much larger, pointed, keeled scales on either side of median furrow, beginning on swollen part; constricted portion is covered above with small scales with larger keeled and pointed scales, which are continued from dorsum (Fig. 7); ventral scales much larger than above, smooth, pointed and strongly imbricate; one enlarged cloacal spur on either side of tail base. Regenerated portion of tail is covered above with small, pointed, smooth scales, without enlarged keeled scales, below with smaller (than original portion) imbricate, smooth scales. Mensural data (holotype / paratype; in mm). SVL 46.4 / 40.8; TRL 24.9 / 18.8; BW 11.8 / 8.4; TL (including regenerated portion) 32.4 /36.0; TW 6.3 / 6.4; FL 6.2 / 5.9; CL 7.0/ 6.2; HL 12.5 / 12.1; HW 9.8 / 8.2; HH 5.8 / 5.3; OD 2.2 / 2.3; EE 4.5 / 3.6; SE 4.9 / 4.7; NE 3.7 / 3.6; IO 4.2 / 3.8; IN 1.6 / 1.3. Coloration (in preservative) ���Dorsal background coloration reddish-brown. A pair of prominent, narrow, cream paravertebral stripes extending from the occiput, where each terminates in a white circular spot, to the sacrum, where they converge somewhat, and onto the original portion of the tail (Fig. 1). A series of eight oval markings along the dorsal midline between the pale stripes (nine in paratype; Fig. 3); each oval pale orange with a narrow dark brown border; anterior two ovals above shoulder and in close proximity, with dark borders in contact; sacral marking smaller than others, rounded, contacting both paravertebral stripes; central five ovals subequal and evenly spaced along the body axis. A similar series of oval spots lateral to each paravertebral stripe; seven on left side, eight on right; anteriormost at level of occiput; ovals above shoulder small, increasing in size onto posterior trunk, smaller again over sacrum; each approximately equal in size to corresponding vertebral oval marking. Lateral rows of ovals bordered laterally by a thick, cream colored stripe that bears a series of irregular, dark reddish brown longitudinal dashes and short stripes. Dorsum of head reddish brown. Lateral pale body stripes continue onto head, becoming narrower and brighter white, passing above ear and through orbit to rostral scale. Pale lateral stripes bordered below by a thick, dark brown stripe that passes above the ear and through the ventral part of the orbit onto the snout. Posterior to the angle of the jaw a dark narrow stripe passes obliquely beneath the ear opening and onto the anterior forelimb insertion. A second narrow dark stripe parallels the first and extends from the posterior lower jaw onto the ventrolateral margin of the neck (Fig. 5). A few small, irregular brown spots occupy the whitish area between these dark stripes and between the dorsal of the stripes and the lower margin of the broad dark lateral stripe. A posteriorly bowed, cream band extending across parietal region from one white lateral stripe to the other, just anterior to the level of the ear. Another, similarly bowed, more whitish transverse band just anterior to eyes, and a third, narrower, straighter band halfway between anterior margin of orbit and tip of snout. Addition, less regular and less pronounced whitish markings above eyes and between the two antorbital transverse bands. In paratype there are two light transverse markings between the occipital and antorbital bands. These, along with the occipital band are incomplete, each consisting of a series of three discrete, darkedged spots representing the continuation of the three rows of ovals of the body dorsum onto the head. Upper half of supralabials and lower half of infralabials with dark brown markings; labial margins pale except for first and second supralabials and rostral. Forelimbs predominately reddish brown with irregular, narrow white bands above and below elbows and on hands and digits. Beneath mostly buff above elbow, irregularly striped below elbow, with scattered dark flecks on the base of the palm and distal subdigital scansors. Hindlimbs mottled dark brown on a buff background, resulting in pale, irregular spots above and below knee and alternating banding on feet and digits (Fig. 7). Beneath with mottling continuing on thigh and faint dark stripes on shank; scattered fine dark punctuations on sole and subdigital scansors. Light markings on dorsum of limbs forming more discrete spots in paratype. Tail dorsum dark reddish brown with a pair of whitish-cream paravertebral stripes and a pair of similar lateral stripes continuing from sacrum. Enlarged, flattened, triangular scales between paravertebral and lateral stripes also whitish, yielding broad, incomplete transverse bands on original portion of tail. Regenerated portion of tail similiarly striped, but lacking enlarged whitish scales and resulting transverse markings (Fig. 7). Body venter greyish-buff, semi-translucent, bearing approximately seven, more-or-less complete narrow, brownish longitudinal stripes. Midventral stripe continues across groin and vent and onto tail. Tail venter with a series of five narrow, charcoal stripes, midventral boldest, paraxial faintes, lateral pair intermediate in definition (Fig. 2). Venter of chin whitish with numerous faint brown markings, mostly longitudinally oriented. A midventral brown stripe extends from anterior portion of mental scale onto anterior chin shields. Coloration (in life) ��� Holotype with dark, almost black dorsal background coloration (Fig. 8). Pale paravertebral and lateral stripes a dull pale yellow, lateral stripes on head bright white. Dorsal oval spots and dorsal head markings orangish-red, bolder along vertebral line and on head, lateral rows of ovals and markings on tail and limbs paler. Pale banding on limbs whitish to pale rose. Venter white with pronounced blackish longitudinal stripes and throat and chin markings. Paratype with background color less dark: dark brown to dark reddish-brown with blackish margins surrounding dorsal ovals (Fig. 9). Ovals and other light markings duller orangish-red, becoming buff faintly tinted with orange on the shoulders, limbs and head. Paler stripes on tail dull reddish-brown alternating with dark brown, almost blackish ground colour. Enlarged scales of tail dorsum a pale yellowish-buff. Iris silvery. Etymology ���The species is named for Satara, the district in the Indian State of Maharashtra within which the type locality is located. Distribution ��� At present this species is only known from the type locality, which lies in the south-central part of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra (Fig. 10). This region is unique in the presence of large laterite or basaltic plateaus on the crests of mountains. Mostly semi-evergreen forest characterises the valley vegetation. Most of the plateaus support sparse vegetation, which is mostly evident in monsoon and in summer they look barren. Apart from their unique ecological features, these plateaus have a unique floral and faunal diversity. The herpetofaunal species seen on these plateaus are mostly the representatives of drier regions such as Ophisops sp., Lygosoma sp. and Echis carinata. But a few plateaus are also home to some unique and uncommon species of amphibians including Bufo koynayensis and Indotyphlus maharashtraensis (Giri et al. 2004, pers. obs.). At present, this species appears restricted to the type locality. It has not been seen on other plateaus near the study area. Natural history ��� The type locality is a well known tourist destination due to the presence of windmills on the plateau (Fig. 11). The holotype was caught during daylight hours (10 h 30) under a small rock on an extensive rocky slope which is bordered by sparse vegetation. The gecko was seen sitting in an ���S��� shape and remained motionless after its covering rock was removed, making no effort to escape. The paratype was collected from the same locality in a heap of small rocks. It was quite active. Locals indicated that this gecko is always found under rocks and that it is commonly seen in the drier months of the year. This is reflected in the fact that first author visited this locality twice, once in monsoon and second visit was in winter and encountered only the two type specimens. Two eggs (minimum maximum dimension 6 mm as measured through intact body wall) were seen in the holotype which was collected in November 2007, suggesting that this is the breeding season for this species and that oviposition occurs in early winter. The types were found sympatrically with H. cf. brookii and Sitana ponticeriana. Discussion ��� Carraza and Arnold (2006) established patterns of relationship among several major groups within Hemidactylus. This study, however, did not sample the majority of Indian species and of those sampled, none were endemic. The smaller size, relatively elongated body and unique toe morphology indicates that this is a member of the ground dwelling group of Hemidactylus. These characters are also present in H. gracilis, H. reticulatus and H. albofasciatus, as well as the Indus Delta plain species Teratolepis fasciata (taxonomy of this species is under revision, Bauer et al. 2008). All of these taxa are ground dwelling and mostly found sheltering under rocks or other cover objects on the ground (Smith, 1935, Grandison & Soman 1963; Anderson 1964; Tikader & Sharma 1992; Bauer et al. 2005). Together these species form a monophyletic group (Bauer et al. 2008) to which H. sataraensis probably also belongs. Based on superficial resemblance, scale pattern, and overlapping numbers of supralabials and digital scansors, H. sataraensis may be most closely allied to H. albofasciatus or perhaps T. fasciata. Apart from differences in mo, Published as part of Giri, Varad B. & Bauer, Aaron M., 2008, A new ground-dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Maharashtra, with a key to the Hemidactylus of India, pp. 21-34 in Zootaxa 1700 on pages 22-31, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.180794, {"references":["Bauer, A. M., Giri, V. B., Greenbaum, E., Jackman, T. R., Dharne, M. S. & Shouche, Y. S. (2008) On the systematics of the gekkonid genus Teratolepis Gunther, 1869: another one bites the dust. Hamadryad, 32, 13 - 27.","Carranza, S. & Arnold, E. N. (2006) Systematics, biogeography, and evolution of Hemidactylus geckos (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) elucidated using mitochondrial DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 38, 531 - 545.","Smith, M. A. (1935) The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II. - Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London. xiii + 440 pp., 2 folding maps, 1 pl.","Grandison, A. G. C. & Soman, P. W. (1963) Description of a new geckonid lizard from Maharashtra, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 60, 322 - 325, pls. I - II.","Anderson, J. A. (1964) A report on the gecko Teratolepis fasciata (Blyth, 1853). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 61, 161 - 171.","Tikader, B. K. & Sharma, R. C. (1992) Handbook of Indian Lizards. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. xv + 250 pp., 42 pls.","Bauer, A. M., Giri, V., Kehimkar, S. & Agarwal, I. (2005) Notes on Hemidactylus gracilis Blanford 1870, a poorly known Indian gecko. Gekko, 4 (2), 2 - 7.","Minton, S. A., Jr. (1966) A contribution to the herpetology of West Pakistan. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 134, 27 - 184, pls. 9 - 36.","Mertens, R. (1969) Die Amphibien und Reptilien West-Pakistans. Suttgarter Beitrage zur Naturkunde, 197, 1 - 96.","Jerdon, T. C. (1853) Catalogue of reptiles inhabiting the peninsular of India. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 22, 462 - 479, 522 - 534.","Theobald, W. (1876) Descriptive Catalogue of the Reptiles of British India. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta. x + 238 + xxxviii + xiii pp.","Das, I., Dattagupta, B & Gayen, N. C. (1998) History and catalogue of reptile types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India. Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3, 121 - 172.","Giri, V., Wilkinson, M. & Gower, D. J. (2003) A new species of Gegeneophis Peters (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) from southern Maharashtra, India, with a key to the species of the genus. Zootaxa, 351, 1 - 10.","Ravichandran, M. S., Gower, D. J. & Wilkinson, M. (2003) A new species of Gegeneophis Peters (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) from Maharashtra, India. Zootaxa, 350, 1 - 8.","Rodgers, W. A. & Panwar, H. S. (1988) Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India Vol. II. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. 267 pp."]}

Key to the genus Hemidactylus Oken, 1817 from India Modified after Smith (1935). Excludes H. mahendrai, the validity of which has been questioned (see Zug et al. 2007) but does include H. karenorum, which may not actually occur within the borders of India (Mahony & Zug, 2008). 1 a. Digits narrow or moderately dilated with undivided transverse lamellae, or with only distal lamellae divided or deeply notched........................................................................................................................ 2 1 b. All but single terminal lamellae paired.................................................................................................... 6 2 a. All subdigital lamellae undivided ........................................................................................ anamallensis 2 b. Only distal lamellae divided or notched; free distal phalanx of each digit less than half the length of its associated subdigital pad; femoral pores absent..................................................................................... 3 3 a. Median subcaudal scales forming a series of transversely enlarged plates; dorsal granules small, irregu- lar, intermixed with 10 to 12 longitudinal series of more or less oval strongly keeled tubercles; dorsum with quadrangular spots ................................................................................................................ gracilis 3 b. Tail venter without transversely enlarged plates..................................................................................... 4 4 a. Original tail clearly divided into segments; dorsum with dark reticulations .......................... reticulatus 4 b. Original tail not obviously segmented; dorsum without dark reticulations............................................ 5 5 a. Dorsal granules small, intermixed with irregularly arranged, enlarged tubercles; back and tail cross- banded with light streaks; maximum SVL 36 mm .............................................................. albofasciatus 5 b. Dorsal granules small, intermixed with irregularly arranged, enlarged tubercles; back with four stripes and transversely arranged spots; maximum SVL 46 mm .......................................... sataraensis sp. nov. 6 a. Digits relatively narrow; scales of dorsum uniform, imbricate, slightly elongated, striated and feebly keeled ....................................................................................................................................... scabriceps 6 b. Digits moderately to broadly dilated; dorsal scales not imbricate........................................................... 7 7 a. Dorsum with numerous, strongly keeled, enlarged tubercles arranged in more or less regular longitudi- nal series.................................................................................................................................................. 8 7 b. Dorsal tubercles absent or, if present, rounded, smooth, or feebly keeled, not regularly arranged...... 14 8 a. Males with precloacal pores only............................................................................................................ 9 8 b. Males with precloacal-femoral pores..................................................................................................... 10 9 a. 12���14 lamellae under the fourth toe; 9���13 precloacal pores in males ......................................... persicus 9 b. 10���11 lamellae under the fourth toe; 6 precloacal pores in males .................................... porbandarensis 10 a. Very large (> 100 mm SVL); subdigital lamellae in straight, transverse series 9���10 lamellae under first toe; dorsal tubercles large, trihedral, arranged in ~ 20 fairly longitudinal series ..................... maculatus 10 b. Small to moderately sized (.................................................................... triedrus 12 b. 12 lamellae under the fourth toe; 10 infralabials.................................................................... subtriedrus 13 a. Digits distinctly webbed at base, males with 17���20 precloacal-femoral pores on each side; dorsal pat- tern of white spots on a dark background ................................................................................... prashadi 13 b. Digits not webbed, males with 7���16 precloacal-femoral pores on each side; dorsal pattern of dark spots or blotches on a pale background .................................................................................................. brookii 14 a. Digit I of manus half or less the length of digit II................................................................................. 15 14 b. Digit I of manus more than half the length of digit II............................................................................ 17 15 a. Tail weakly depressed, without denticulate lateral edge; male with a continuous series of 26���36 preclo- acal-femoral pores; 9���10 lamellae under fourth toe ..................................................................... frenatus 15 b. Tail strongly depressed, with sharply denticulated lateral edge; males (when present) with medial inter- ruption of precloacal-femoral pore series; 11���13 lamellae under fourth toe........................................ 16 16 a. Dorsum with uniform small granules; second postmentals do not contact infralabials; all-female species...................................................................................................................................................... garnotii 16 b. Dorsum with small granules and numerous larger rounded tubercles; second postmental contact infrala- bials; males with 18���20 precloacal-femoral pores on each side ............................................. karenorum 17 a. Tail and sometimes body dorsum with enlarged tubercles.................................................................... 18 17 b. Dorsum and tail lacking enlarged dorsal tubercles................................................................................ 20 18 a. Dorsal scalation of small granules, intermixed with 18���20 rows of irregularly arranged enlarged tuber- cles; 11���13 lamellae under fourth toe; 15���19 femoral pores on each side in males ............... aaronbaueri 18 b. Enlarged tubercles (if present), few, scattered....................................................................................... 19 19 a. 9���11 lamellae under the fourth toe; 10���17 femoral pores on each side ............................... leschenaultii 19 b. 11���14 lamellae under the fourth toe; 5���7 femoral pores on each side ..................................... flaviviridis 20 a. 13���15 lamellae under the fourth toe; 18���22 femoral pores on each side in males; SVL to 115 mm.................................................................................................................................................................... giganteus 20 b. 9���11 lamellae under fourth toe; 12���15 femoral pores on each side in males; SVL to bowringii *, Published as part of Giri, Varad B. & Bauer, Aaron M., 2008, A new ground-dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Maharashtra, with a key to the Hemidactylus of India, pp. 21-34 in Zootaxa 1700 on pages 31-33, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.180794, {"references":["Smith, M. A. (1935) The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II. - Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London. xiii + 440 pp., 2 folding maps, 1 pl.","Mahony, S. & Zug, G. R. (2008) Hemidactylus karenorum (Squamata, Gekkonidae) in India. Hamadryad, 32, 84 - 86."]}

No abstract available

No abstract available

Key to the species of Indotyphlus The following key is based on readily observable annulation characters. At least adults of the two species should also be distinguishable on examination of the region surrounding the vent, which in I. maharashtraensis has a smoother, depressed preanal strip (longer in males). 1 More than 130 primary annuli, with secondary grooves restricted to the posteriormost part of the body, not on the anteriormost 100 primaries ................................. battersbyi ­ May have fewer than 130 primary annuli, with secondary grooves on more than the posteriormost part of the body, beginning anterior to the 100 th primary annulus......... ............................................................................................................ maharashtraensis

Indotyphlus maharashtraensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1���3, Table 1) Holotype: Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India (BNHS) 4217. A female, collected near Dhanagarwada, Humbarli village, near Koyna, Satara District, Maharashtra, India, by Varad Giri, Sameer Kehimkar, Ishan Agarwal and Vithoba Hegade, 19 th June 2003. The specimen was found on a plateau (Fig. 4), under a rock in an open patch of grass surrounded by semievergreen forest. The locality is situated in the Western Ghats at approximately 1042 m above sea level. Specimen number (BNHS prefix) 4217 * 4200 4218 4219 4220 4221 Sex f f m f m? f Total length 181 197 78 138 72 100 Number of primary annuli 127 133 129 131 126 129 Anteriormost primary annulus with indication of secondary groove 70 77 70 88 68 69 Anteriormost primary bearing dorsally complete secondary groove 87 96 79 101 74 78 Anteriormost primary bearing ventrally complete secondary groove 111 114 c. 114 118 113 112 Head length (snout tip to first nuchal groove, laterally) 5.3 5.5 3.3 4.7 3.6 4.0 Distance between snout tip and angle of jaws 4.1 4.5 3.0 3.4 2.8 3.4 Distance between tip of lower jaw and first nuchal groove (laterally) 4.7 4.9 3.0 4.0 3.4 3.4 Distance between tip of lower jaw and angle of jaws 3.7 3.3 2.7 3.1 2.7 2.7 Length of first nuchal collar (measured laterally) 1.5 1.7 0.9 1.5 0.9 1.0 Length of second nuchal collar (measured laterally) 2.1 2.1 1.3 1.8 1.2 1.5 Head width at first nuchal groove 3.6 3.7 2.2 2.7 2.1 2.3 Head width at angle of jaws 3.3 3.5 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.2 Distance between external nares 1.2 1.2 0.8 1.3 0.9 0.9 Distance between tentacles 2.3 2.1 1.3 2.0 1.5 1.6 Distance between eyes (where visible) 2.2 na 1.3 1.8 1.4 1.5 Distance between external naris and tentacle 1.4 1.3 0.9 1.2 0.9 0.9 Distance between external naris and eye 1.9 na 1.1 1.6 1.3 1.3 Distance between tentacle and eye 0.5 na 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.4 Distance between tentacle and margin of upper lip 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 Distance between external naris and first nuchal collar groove 4.7 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.2 3.4 Distance between external naris and angle of jaws 3.4 3.3 2.1 2.8 2.4 2.7 Distance between tentacle and tip of snout 2.0 1.8 1.3 1.9 1.3 1.5 Distance between tentacle and angle of jaws 2.1 2.2 1.3 1.8 1.7 1.6 Distance between eye and angle of jaws 1.5 na 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.2 Distance between snout tip and anterior margin of mouth 0.8 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 Width at midbody 3.8 3.6 1.7 2.8 1.5 2.5 Body width at level of vent 2.7 2.4 1.4 2.0 1.1 1.7 Distance from vent to body terminus 1.7 1.5 1.0 1.4 0.8 1.0 Circumference at midbody 14 14 6 10 8 8 Premaxillary��maxillary teeth 25 24 19 22 22 20 Vomeropalatine teeth 24 26 20 23 22 22 Dentary teeth 20 21 19 22 19 21 Splenial teeth 4 3 4 4 3 3 ......continued on the next page Specimen number (BNHS prefix) 4222 4223 4224 4225 4333 4334 Sex f? m m f f f Total length 70 179 205 123 145 193 Number of primary annuli 129 124 125 131 128 133 Anteriormost primary annulus with indication of secondary groove 68 58 72 81 66 64 Anteriormost primary bearing dorsally complete secondary groove 76 71 85 100 83 91 Anteriormost primary bearing ventrally complete secondary groove 108 100 107 113 107 118 Head length (snout tip to first nuchal groove, laterally) 3.6 6.0 7.0 4.4 4.4 5.5 Distance between snout tip and angle of jaws 2.9 4.4 5.4 3.6 3.4 4.4 Distance between tip of lower jaw and first nuchal groove (laterally) 3.3 5.2 6.0 3.9 4.0 4.8 Distance between tip of lower jaw and angle of jaws 2.3 3.5 4.6 3.2 2.8 3.9 Length of first nuchal collar (measured laterally) 1.0 1.5 1.9 1.4 1.4 1.5 Length of second nuchal collar (measured laterally) 1.3 2.0 2.3 1.7 1.7 2.0 Head width at first nuchal groove 2.0 3.1 3.8 2.7 3.1 3.6 Head width at angle of jaws 2.0 3.0 3.7 2.5 2.5 3.1 Distance between external nares 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.0 1.4 Distance between tentacles 1.4 2.3 2.6 1.9 1.9 2.4 Distance between eyes (where visible) 1.3 2.2 2.5 1.8 1.6 2.4 Distance between external naris and tentacle 0.9 1.5 1.9 1.0 1.0 1.6 Distance between external naris and eye 1.2 2.1 2.4 1.5 1.6 2.5 Distance between tentacle and eye 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 Distance between tentacle and margin of upper lip 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.8 Distance between external naris and first nuchal collar groove 3.9 5.2 6.5 3.9 4.0 4.9 Distance between external naris and angle of jaws 2.4 3.9 4.5 3.1 2.9 3.9 Distance between tentacle and tip of snout 1.4 2.2 2.4 1.7 1.5 2.1 Distance between tentacle and angle of jaws 1.4 2.5 2.4 2.0 1.9 2.4 Distance between eye and angle of jaws 1.2 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.2 2.0 Distance between snout tip and anterior margin of mouth 0.6 0.8 1.1 0.8 0.5 0.9 Width at midbody 2.2 3.6 4.6 2.7 4.0 5.0 Body width at level of vent 1.1 3.2 3.9 2.0 2.6 3.2 Distance from vent to body terminus 0.8 2.0 2.3 1.3 1.5 2.0 Circumference at midbody 6 13 15 9 13 16 Premaxillary��maxillary teeth 20 22 25 22 22 26 Vomeropalatine teeth 23 24 28 ��� 24 23 24 ��� Dentary teeth 20 19 21 21 19 20 Splenial teeth 4 4 2 4 4 4 Paratopotypes: Eleven further specimens collected either on the same day (or within two days) as the holotype (BNHS 4200, 4218 to 4225) or on 20 th August 2004 (BNHS 4333, 4334), all from the same locality and habitat as the holotype. Diagnosis: An Indotyphlus differing from I. battersbyi in having secondary annular grooves present anterior to the 100 th primary annulus behind the nuchal collars, and in having a depressed preanal strip (longer in adult males) anterior to the disc surrounding the vent. Description of the holotype: Some morphometric and meristic data are given in Table 1. The holotype is in good condition generally. It is a little dehydrated so that the skin throughout much of the body is roughened by raised glands, especially on the dorsum. Dehydration has also caused a darkening in colour, and is probably responsible for an intermittent midventral groove that is not present in life. There is a small (7 mm) midventral longitudinal incision into the body cavity 65 mm in front of the vent. There is a small V��shaped scar on the posterior part of the dorsal surface of the head. The natural body shape is subcylindrical, slightly dorsoventrally compressed throughout most of the body (a little more so in preservative), distinctly flattened on the ventral surface for approximately the terminal 20 mm. It is fairly uniform in width, but gently narrowing in the anterior fifth (where it is less dorsoventrally compressed). The body also narrows gradually for its posterior third, narrowing strongly in lateral view from just anterior to the level of the vent. In dorsal view, the head tapers strongly from the level of the occiput to the external nares, with a slight bulging in the region of the tentacles. Anterior to the nares, it terminates in a rounded, narrow snout tip. In lateral view, the top of the head is straight, with no strong bulges. The margin of the upper lip is not markedly concave in lateral view. The snout tip is bluntly rounded, and its apex lies just below the horizontal level of the naris. The distance between the jaw angle (the corner of the mouth) and the top of the head is marginally (less than one and a half times) greater than the distance between the jaw angle and the lower surface of the lower jaw. The eyes are visible (more clearly visible in life) through the skin as small dark spots (no lens visible) at the posterior end of a whitish (pale pink in life) stripe extending from immediately posterior to the eye to immediately anterior to the tentacle. In lateral view, the eye lies approximately halfway between the margin of the upper lip and the top of the head. In dorsal view, the eyes are inset from the lateral margins of the head. The eye region is not elevated or depressed. In life, the tentacles are short and globular (i.e. non��filamentous) but with a pointed tip. The tentacular apertures are horseshoe shaped (posteriorly concave) when occluded by a distinct flap that is continuous posteriorly with the skin. They are raised and dorsolaterally positioned, clearly visible in dorsal view, visible only as a bulge in ventral view. In lateral view, each tentacle appears approximately twice as close to the top of the head as to the margin of the upper lip (0.6 mm), and just above an imaginary straight line between eye and naris. In lateral view, an imaginary straight line extending backwards from the naris through the position of the tentacular aperture crosses the upper margin of the head at about the second nuchal groove. The tentacular apertures are far posterior to the anteriormost margin of the mouth, 2 mm from the tip of the snout. The distance between tentacle and eye (0.5 mm) is substantially smaller than between tentacle and naris (1.4 mm). The very small (0.2 mm) subcircular nares are set back slightly from the tip of the snout. They are not notably closer to the anteriormost margin of the mouth than to the level of the snout tip or vice versa. They are 1.2 mm apart, visible dorsally, anteriorly and laterally, but not ventrally. Each naris lies in the anteromedial part of a 0.7 mm wide whitish spot. The tip of the snout lies 0.8 mm in front of the anteriormost margin of the upper lip. The underside of the rostrum is essentially flat. In ventral view, the tip of the lower jaw is broadly rounded, more so than the tip of the snout. The jaw angles are not cut and tooth counts are approximate. We counted 25 premaxillary��maxillary, 24 vomeropalatine, 20 dentary, and 4 splenial teeth (including empty ���sockets���). The tooth crowns of all series are gently recurved and, as far as can be ascertained, all are bicusped with smaller labial cusps. The dentary teeth are the largest, followed by those of the premaxillary��maxillary (PMM) series. The teeth of the splenial, and vomeropalatine (VP) series are the smallest. The PMM, VP and splenial teeth show little variation in size within each series. The largest teeth in the dentary series are in the third position behind the anterior tip (symphysis) of the mandible, where they are twice the size of the largest in the PMM series. Behind this, the dentary teeth gradually decrease in size, being very small posteriorly. The VP series lacks diastemata, and is masked in lateral view by the outer, PMM series. The splenial teeth are less than one third the size of the largest dentaries. The subcircular choanae are large and separated by a distance that is approximately equal to the width of each choana. Choanal valves are not clearly visible. The fleshy tip of the tongue is unattached anteriorly and does not overlie the splenial teeth. Laterally it is separated from the gingivae by a deep groove. There is a pair of large, prominent narial plugs. Their anterior and medial margins are clearly demarcated by a groove, but posteriorly they are smoothly continuous with the surface of the rest of the tongue. The tongue lacks a midline longitudinal groove. Posterior to the narial plugs, and separated from the plugs by a gap, are a pair of grooves close, and parallel, to the lateral edges of the tongue. There are some longitudinal plicae between these grooves and the posteromedial edge of the plugs. The tongue tip is pink, the narial plugs are dark, and the region between them whitish. The nuchal region is slightly broader than the adjacent areas. The two nuchal collars are marked clearly by three nuchal grooves that have the same whitish colour (laterally and ventrally) as the following annular grooves. The second collar (2.1 mm, measured laterally) is longer than the first (1.5 mm). The first (anteriormost) nuchal groove is narrowly incomplete ventrally and more broadly incomplete middorsally. It curves forwards slightly midventrally. The second nuchal groove (between the first and second collars) is incomplete only middorsally. It is marked ventrally by a slight fold and is notably paler than the adjacent area. The third nuchal groove, marking the end of the nuchal collar region, is broadly incomplete midventrally and narrowly incomplete middorsally. The first collar bears a faint, short middorsal transverse groove. The second collar bears a faintly indicated, broad, middorsal transverse groove, more pronounced on the left and seemingly incomplete across the midline. A fainter, more superficial crease lies between this transverse groove and the back of the second collar. Neither collar bears transverse grooves ventrally or laterally. A midventral longitudinal groove extends from about halfway between the tip of the lower jaw and the first nuchal groove to the second nuchal groove. The nuchal and annular grooves are mostly perpendicular to the long axis of the body. The annuli are marked by whitish coloured (more pronounced laterally) grooves that are increasingly conspicuous posteriorly. There are 127 primary annuli. The annular grooves are mostly incomplete dorsally for the first two thirds or so of the body, and this incompleteness decreases posteriorly. Ventrally, they are mostly complete but faintly indicated. The first, second and third primary annuli bear short, faint, dorsolateral transverse grooves, clear only on the left side. These are in a position that might be expected of secondary annular grooves, but the first clear indication of a secondary annular groove behind this (which we consider the first secondary), is dorsolaterally on the left of the 70 th primary annulus. The next five primaries (71���75) also bear dorsolateral secondary grooves on the left side only, but secondary grooves are on both sides of the body behind this. The anteriormost secondary annular groove that extends across the dorsal midline is on the 87 th primary annulus, and all primary and secondary grooves posterior to this also cross the dorsum. Secondary annular grooves extend across the midline of the ventral surface from the 111 th primary annulus backwards. However, the annular groove is interrupted midventrally by the vent and surrounding disc. There are no annular grooves posterior to the vent, and there is a short terminal cap. Searches for annular scales were made at three points along the body. At the posterior groove of the 10 th primary annulus anterior to the posterior terminus, there are four scale rows dorsally. Two rounded but subquadrangular scales removed from here measured 0.6 x 0.9 mm and 0.5 x 0.6 mm. The fold or pocket holding these scales is about as deep as the length of each primary annulus in this region. Ventrally at this point, one or two scale rows lie in a fold that is less than one secondary annulus deep. At about the 75 th primary annulus (just behind where secondary grooves begin), the fold in the dorsal part of the annular groove is not well developed. It contains a single row of subcircular scales, one of which measured 0.3 x 0.2 mm. There are no scales ventrally at this position. At the 50 th primary annulus, there are no pockets or scales. The body terminus is bluntly rounded in dorsal view. In lateral view, the ventral surface appears flat, the short terminal cap tapers more steeply from the dorsum, and is upturned only slightly on its ventral surface. There is no indication of a terminal keel. The subcircular vent lies just 1.7 mm from the body terminus within a small subcircular disc. The vent is slightly irregular, but the disc has a pattern of five posterior and four anterior denticles, the posteromedial of which is the largest. No papillae are evident on any of the denticulations. The subterminal area around the disc and onto the terminal cap is flattened. There is a long (c. 6 mm), progressively narrowing and slightly depressed, mid��ventral preanal strip (Fig. 1 D) in which granular glands are conspicuously absent so that superficially annular grooves appear (but are not) incomplete. In preservative and in life the ground colour of the dorsal surface of the body is mostly brownish, but more grey/lavender posteriorly, and paler laterally and ventrally. Granular glands are visible as white flecks scattered over much of the body. Alignment of granular glands along annular grooves makes the grooves conspicuous laterally throughout. The extent to which annuli are marked by glands, both dorsally and ventrally, increases gradually towards the posterior of the body as the annular grooves become more complete. Granular glands are much less abundant or absent on the head and the preanal strip. There is a paler, triangular gular patch on the underside of the first collar and onto the lower surface of the head between the mandibular rami. Here the longitudinal groove is enveloped by this patch. The paler patch (not visible laterally) is separated from the whitish lower lips by a darker ground colour. In dorsal view, the head is darker and more laven�� der than the nuchal region (and body), except for pale, broad eye��tentacle stripes, halos surrounding the nares, and patches in the position of the slightly bulging depressor mandibulae muscles. The snout tip is also pale, but less so than the halos around the nares, from which it is incompletely separated. The lips are edged in a whitish colour, more broadly on the lower jaw, particularly anteriorly. In dorsal and lateral views, the eye��tentacle stripes are subparallel to the longitudinal axis of the head. In dorsal view, these stripes reach the margins of the head. In life, the paler regions of the head are infused with blood and pinkish. Dorsally, the terminal cap is a darker lavender than the preceding annuli. It has a whitish tip that is continuous with pale patches extending lateral and anterior to the disc. The preanal strip is lavender grey and this extends back as a narrow area surrounding the white disc (Fig. 1 D). Areas either side of this and back onto the underside of the terminal cap are white. Etymology: The species is named for Maharashtra, the Indian State within which the type locality lies., Published as part of Giri, Varad, Gower, David J. & Wilkinson, Mark, 2004, A new species of Indotyphlus Taylor (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) from the Western Ghats, India, pp. 1-19 in Zootaxa 739 on pages 2-9, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.158097

Gegeneophis danieli sp. nov. (Figs. 1, 2, Table 1) Holotype: Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India (BNHS) 4157. Collected approximately 3 km East of Amboli, Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra, India, by Varad Giri, Sameer Kehimkar, Ishan Agarwal and Vithoba Hegade, June 2002. The specimen was found under a rock in an open patch of grassland within semievergreen forest. The locality is situated in the Western Ghats at approximately 850 m above sea level. Diagnosis: A Gegeneophis differing from all other species of the genus in having many more secondary annuli (> 50) that are strongly edged in white and present on both the anterior and posterior halves of the body. All other Gegeneophis have annuli that are less clearly marked without strong whitish edges, and they have fewer than 50 secondary annuli, restricted to the posterior part of the body. Total length 193 Distance between tentacles 3.4 Distance between eyes 3.1 Distance between eye and naris 2.8 Distance between snout tip and eye 3.4 Distance between snout tip and tentacle 2.3 Distance between snout tip and jaw angle 5.9 Distance between snout tip and midpoint between front of eyes 3.1 Distance between jaw angle and tip of lower jaw 5.3 Distance between jaw angle and eye 2.6 Distance between jaw angle and tentacle 3.8 Depth (height) of head immediately posterior to jaw angle 3.4 Distance between snout tip and lateral part of first nuchal collar groove 7.7 Head width at level of jaw angles 4.7 Head width at level of first nuchal collar groove 4.9 Circumference at midbody 16 Description of the holotype: Some morphometric and meristic data are given in Table 1. The specimen is a mature female. It is in good condition, with a few minor exceptions. There is an artefactual, approximately 40 mm long, middorsal ridge and associated groove on the left side beginning c. 30 mm behind the snout tip. There is a further, weak, 55 mm long midventral groove in the midbody region. There is a small (5 mm) midventral incision into the body cavity about 40 mm in front of the vent. The skin overlying the left side of the cranium and mandible has been reflected. The body is generally dorsoventrally compressed (at least partly artefactually), being more cylindrical anteriorly. Some teeth are missing and some remaining tooth crowns are broken. The natural body shape is probably subcylindrical and slightly dorsoventrally compressed. It is largely uniform in width (5.1 mm at midbody), though slightly narrower anteriorly. Posteriorly, the body tapers strongly (in lateral view) towards the terminus for only the ultimate 5 mm. In dorsal view, the head tapers gently from the level of the occiput to the tentacular apertures. Anterior to this, it tapers more strongly and terminates in a rounded, but narrow snout tip. In lateral view, the top of the head is straight, with no strong bulges. The margin of the upper lip is weakly arched in lateral view. The snout tip is bluntly rounded, and its apex lies just below the horizontal level of the naris. The distance between the jaw angle (the corner of the mouth) and the top of the head is marginally, but distinctly (approximately one and a half times), greater than the distance between the jaw angle and the lower surface of the lower jaw. The eyes are faintly indicated (more clearly visible in life) as a darker grey region at the posterior end of a whitish (pale pink in life) stripe extending from immediately posterior to the eye to immediately anterior to the tentacle. In lateral view, the eyes lie approximately halfway between the margin of the upper lip and the top of the head. In dorsal view, they are very close to the lateral margins of the head. The surface of the eye region is level with the surrounding surface of the head. In life, the tentacles are globular rather than elongate. The tentacular apertures are horseshoe shaped (posteriorly concave), slightly raised, and laterally positioned, being visible in both dorsal and ventral views. They are approximately twice as close to the margin of the upper lip (0.7 mm) as to the top of the head, and about halfway between the margin of the lip and an imaginary straight line between eye and naris. In lateral view, an imaginary straight line extending backwards from the naris through the position of the tentacular aperture passes anterior to the jaw angle. The tentacular apertures are posterior to the anteriormost margin of the mouth, 2.5 mm from the tip of the snout. The distance between tentacle and eye (1.4 mm) is slightly smaller than between tentacle and naris (1.7 mm). The small subcircular nares are slightly closer to the level of the snout tip than the anteriormost margin of the mouth in lateral view, are 1.7 mm apart, and visible dorsally and laterally, but not ventrally. They are surrounded by a narrow whitish rim (pinkish in life). The tip of the snout lies 1.2 mm in front of the anteriormost margin of the mouth. In ventral view, the tip of the lower jaw is broadly rounded, more so than the tip of the snout. We counted 30 premaxillary­maxillary, 33 vomeropalatine, 24 dentary, and 6 splenial teeth (including empty ‘sockets’). Where clearly visible, the tooth crowns of the premaxillary­maxillary and dentary series are undoubtedly bicusped. Although less easily observed, the teeth of the vomeropalatine and splenial series also appear to be bicusped. The vomeropalatine series lacks diastemata, and is masked in lateral view by the outer, premaxillary­maxillary series. The posteriormost teeth of the two upper jaw series are not parallel, but instead lie closer together posteriorly. The teeth in all four series are generally recurved and smaller posteriorly than anteriorly. The dentary teeth are the largest, followed by (in decreasing order of size) those of the premaxillary­maxillary, splenial, and vomeropalatine series. The ovate choanae are small, slightly wider than long, and separated by a distance that is approximately 2.5 times the width of each choana. Choanal valves are not clearly visible. The tongue is smoothly rounded and unattached anteriorly. It is separated from the gingivae by a deep groove. It has a pair of far­laterally positioned, raised narial plugs. Their posterior and lateral margins are indistinct, but the anterior and medial margins are clearly demarcated by a groove. In preservative, the tongue is generally off­white, although its anterior part and the dorsal surface of the plugs are slightly darker. The tongue has no longitudinal groove. Posterior to the narial plugs, its surface is uniformly pitted, possibly artefactually. The nuchal region is not markedly expanded relative to either the back of the head or the body immediately posterior to it. The two nuchal collars are marked clearly by three nuchal grooves that have the same whitish colour as the following annular grooves. The second collar (3 mm, measured laterally) is longer than the first (2.6 mm). The first (anteriormost) nuchal groove passes around the circumference of the nuchal region, but a short discontinuous middorsal section (not distinctly marked from the surrounding area in the whitish colouration seen elsewhere) lies immediately anterior to, and overlaps with, the continuous, major part of the groove. The first collar bears two short transverse grooves, one middorsally (not marked in the whitish colour) and one midventrally (weakly marked in the whitish colour). The second nuchal groove (between the first and second collars) is complete. The third nuchal groove, marking the end of the nuchal collar region, is continuous except for a midventral gap. The second collar bears three transverse middorsal grooves that are also whitish in colour. The middle of these is the clearest and is slightly longer than the posteriormost groove. The anteriormost groove is the most weakly expressed and is about two thirds as long as the middle groove. It extends further on the right side of the midline than the left. On the ventral surface, a longitudinal, whitish groove extends from about halfway between the tip of the lower jaw and the first nuchal groove to about halfway along the length of the second collar. The nuchal and annular grooves are mostly perpendicular to the long axis of the body, but the transverse grooves on the second collar, the third nuchal collar groove and the posterior grooves of the first three primary annuli are weakly angulate anterodorsally. Ventrolaterally, the free ends of the third nuchal groove bend slightly posteriorly. The annuli are marked by whitish coloured grooves that are increasingly conspicuous posteriorly. There are 112 primary annuli, the grooves of which appear to be complete or very nearly so. Anteriorly, the whitish colouration of the grooves is absent middorsally as far posterior as the anterior groove of the 35 th primary annulus and up to the 99 th primary annulus midventrally. On the first four primary annuli, weakly marked secondary annular grooves are present middorsally. The fifth and sixth primary annuli bear short dorsolateral secondary annular grooves, either side of the midline. Secondary annular grooves are absent or not clear on the seventh and eighth primary annuli. The ninth primary annulus bears a short dorsolateral secondary annular groove on the left side. The tenth and eleventh primary annuli lack secondary annular grooves, but the twelfth again bears a short dorsolateral groove on the left side. The first indication of a secondary annular groove on the right side posterior to this is on the sixteenth primary annulus. The first secondary annular groove that extends across the dorsal midline behind this is on the 35 th primary annulus, though there are a few primary annuli posterior to this on which the secondary annular grooves are incomplete middorsally. Secondary annular grooves extend across the midline of the ventral surface from the 99 th primary annulus up to the disc surrounding the vent, which interrupts the grooves of the 111 th and 112 th primary annuli. Searches for annular scales were made at three points along the body. At the posterior groove of the 22 nd primary annulus, scales are absent and there is no development of a pocket. At the 36 th primary annulus, scale pockets are about half as deep as the length of the secondary annuli. Here, the dorsal part of both the primary and secondary annular grooves contains a single row of very small (c. 0.5 mm wide) oval scales that overlap each other transversely, at least in part. No scales are visible ventrally at this point. At the 104 th primary annulus the scale pockets are deeper (approximately 2.5 mm), extending for more than three times the length of each secondary annulus in this region. Here, the scales also occur ventrally and encircle the body in a transversely overlapping arrangement. The scales are ovate, being generally much wider than long, and large (up to approximately 2.5 mm wide). Dorsally, they occur in about three rows, although the scales in some rows may contain multiple layers. The rounded terminus is mildly conical and ends in a very small terminal cap that is incompletely demarcated by the final annular groove. There is no indication of a terminal keel. Dorsally, the posteriormost annular groove lies just posterior to the level of the vent. The posteroventrally directed vent and surrounding disc interrupts the posteriormost annular groove. The subcircular disc surrounding the vent is 1.6 mm wide and 1.5 mm long. The transverse vent lies just 1.1 mm from the body terminus. It is delineated by five posterior and six anterior denticles. This can be perceived of as a basic and fairly regular fivefive, (anterior­posterior) pattern, but with the right anteromedial denticle subdivided into two smaller denticles. The colour of the specimen is generally steel grey. The dorsal surface is darker in colour and also somewhat lavender. This lavender colouration is more pronounced in life. The darker dorsal surface merges gradually with the lighter ventral surface. The annular and nuchal collar grooves are mostly marked in a whitish colour, being particularly clear laterally. The whitish colouration is interrupted along much of the ventral midline and part of the dorsal midline (approximately the anterior 55 mm). The dorsal surface of the head anterior to a level just behind the eyes is darker than the dorsal surface of the back of the head and body. There is an irregular, diffuse, approximately middorsal lighter coloured patch on the dorsal surface of the back of the head, extending from behind the eyes to the first nuchal collar. In dorsal view, the tip of the snout bears a thin arc of paler colouration. The stripes extending from just behind the eyes to just in front of the tentacular apertures are also much paler in colour. These stripes are subparallel to the long axis of the head in lateral view. In dorsal view they are slightly divergent anteriorly. The ventral surface of the rostrum is also pale, but slightly darker than the eyetentacle stripe. There is only a short (0.5 mm) gap between the eye­tentacle stripe and the pale region of the anteroventral surface of the snout. The underside of the lower jaw is indistinguishable in colour from the underside of the body behind it. On the lower jaw, the flesh immediately overlying the mandible is thin and here the colour is similar to that on the tip of snout and ventral surface of rostrum, i.e. pale but darker than the eye­tentacle stripe. This pale region is all that can be seen of the lower jaw in lateral view. In preservative, the paler regions of the head are varying degrees of whitish. In life, these regions are infused with pink. The posterior terminus of the body is not differentiated from the rest of the body in colour. The disc surrounding the vent is whitish. The reflection of the skin overlying the left side of the cranium allows a few details of osteology to be documented. In general, the skull is similar to that of G. r a m a s w a m i i, as figured by Taylor (1968: fig. 405; see also Ramaswami, 1942: figs. 1­3). The eye lies mostly under the anterior limit of the squamosal, its anterior margin is covered by the maxillopalatine, with the frontal excluded from the ‘orbital’ region. The tentacular groove and tentacular aperture lie entirely within the maxillopalatine with the groove covered by bone for most of its length. Posteriorly, the maxillopalatine is extensive and reaches almost to the jaw angle. The frontal­nasal suture is oriented at approximately 45 ° to the long axis of the cranium, meeting the dorsal margin of the maxillopalatine approximately halfway along its length. Remarks: Based on variation in other species, we would expect there to be some variation in the rather high number of secondary annuli in G. danieli. However, the differences between the holotype of G. danieli and all other Indian caeciliids in the number, marking and distribution of secondary annuli are substantial, and we would not expect any overlap in these features. Etymology: The species is named in honour of J. C. Daniel, former director of the BNHS, in recognition of his many contributions to Indian herpetology.

Key to the species of Gegeneophis The following dichotomous key should serve to differentiate the six described species of Gegeneophis. The species that are most likely to be confused are the two southernmost species G. r a m a s w a m i i and G. c a r n o s u s. These species may overlap in their numbers of primary and secondary annuli, and G. c a r n o s u s particularly resemble small G. ramaswamii. Determining the visibility of the eye may be difficult without a microscope and good lighting, especially with small specimens. 1 Secondary annuli and annular grooves absent .............................................. seshachari ­ Secondary annuli and annular grooves present............................................................ 2 2 Secondary annular grooves present anteriorly, even within first 20 primary annuli...... .............................................................................................................................. danieli ­ Secondary annular grooves restricted to posterior half or less of body........................ 3 3 More than 120 primary annuli ............................................................................. krishni ­ Less than 120 primary annuli....................................................................................... 4 4 Eyes not visible externally ......................................................................... ramaswamii ­ Eyes visible externally.................................................................................................. 5 5 Less than 100 primary annuli ............................................................................... fulleri ­ More than 100 primary annuli ..........................................................................carnosus