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The n-type ultrathin fully depleted silicon-on-insulator (FDSOI) metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), with a Hf0.5Zr0.5O2 high dielectric permittivity (high-k) dielectric as gate insulator, were fabricated. The total ionizing dose effects were investigated, and an X-ray radiation dose up to 1500 krad(Si) was applied for both long- and short-channel devices. The short-channel devices (0.025–0.100 μm) exhibited less irradiation sensitivity compared with the long-channel devices (0.35–16 μm), leading to a 71% reduction in the irradiation-induced drain current growth and a 26% decrease in the shift of the threshold voltage. It was experimentally demonstrated that the OFF mode is the worst case among the three working conditions (OFF, ON and All0) for short-channel devices. Also, the determined effective electron mobility was enhanced by 38% after X-ray irradiation, attributed to the different compensations for charges triggered by radiation between the high-k dielectric and buried oxide. By extracting the carrier mobility, gate length modulation, and source/drain (S/D) parasitic resistance, the degradation mechanism on X-ray irradiation was revealed. Finally, the split capacitance–voltage measurements were used to validate the analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The total ionizing dose response of nanosheet gate-all-around metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (NS GAA MOSFET) fabricated on novel void-embedded silicon on insulator (VESOI) substrate was investigated in this work. Strong radiation tolerance with as small as 46.6mV threshold voltage shift and non-discernable increase of off-state current were observed even at a dose of 7Mrad(Si) X-ray irradiation. Both the experiment and simulation results reveal that the radiation tolerance of the MOSFET device can be inherently attributed to the GAA channel. Our work undoubtedly demonstrates that the NS GAA device on VESOI substrate has great potential for radiation-harden applications under heavy radiation environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

LabOSat-01 is a payload designed to perform characterization experiments on electronic devices in hostile environments. Both Commercial-Off-The-Shelf components and custom nano and micro devices were studied in the last decade with this platform. The Total Ionizing Dose (TID) received by small satellites in Low Earth Orbit was measured with LabOSat-01 using p-MOSFET COTS and the results are presented in this work. Measurements were performed on two satellite missions, each totaling 1100 days, launched three years apart. Dosimeters were integrated in different satellite positions, with different shielding, and the measured TID after 1100 days ranged from 5 Gy to 19 Gy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents experimental and numerical analysis of a buried P-pillar (BP) lateral double-diffused metal-oxide semiconductor (LDMOS) fabricated on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate. The experimental results indicate that the specific on-resistance ($R_{ {on,sp}}$) of the SOI BP-LDMOS is 9.5 $\text{m}\Omega \cdot {\mathrm{ cm}}^{{2}}$ with a breakdown voltage (BV) of 229 V, which corresponds to a figure of merit (FOM) of 5.52 MW/cm2. The analysis of structural parameter optimization of the SOI BP-LDMOS under different doping concentrations in the drift region and P-pillar layer is conducted via numerical simulation. The results show that the tested sample can achieve about 80% of the maximal FOM. Finally, the experimental and numerical investigation of the total ionizing dose (TID) radiation effect on the BV shift is performed. The TID tolerance of the measured SOI BP-LDMOS can reach 300 krad(Si) to support a voltage of 200 V. Due to the electric field modulation hardening design, compared with the conventional hardened SOI LDMOS, the studied hardened BP-LDMOS can achieve a significant improvement in the TID tolerance from 225 krad(Si) to 525 krad(Si). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contribution of low-energy particles down to ~200 eV to the dose deposited on the very near surface of materials subject to the space environment is investigated by means of GEANT4 Monte Carlo simulations. The contribution to the dose, of the low-energy parts of Global Radiation Earth ENvironment (GREEN) spectra (200 eV–40 keV for electrons, 200 eV–100 keV for protons), is compared with calculations performed with AE8/AP8. Both geostationary earth orbit (GEO) and low earth orbit (LEO) SPOT like orbits are studied. The dose depth profiles are estimated for silicon material. The impact on the dose calculation of different transport models is also investigated. Below 1 keV, the relevance of continuous processes is analyzed for electrons by comparison with a discrete model [GEANT4/microelectronic (MICROELEC)]. This analysis is also performed for protons below 10 keV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of total dose irradiation on graphene-based Hall sensors were investigated by 60Co $\gamma $ -ray in this paper. The basic electrical parameters of the sensors were measured before and after $\gamma $ -ray irradiation up to 1 Mrad(Si). Decreases in the Hall voltage, linearity and current-related sensitivity in response to $\gamma $ -ray irradiation were observed. With the help of Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS), the degradation after irradiation was attributed to the introduction of defects and the increase in doping concentrations in the graphene layer. Moreover, the introduction of defects and impurities enhanced the Coulomb scattering of carriers, resulting in a decrease in mobility, which in turn affected the sheet resistance. This work provides an insight into the interactions of ionizing irradiation with graphene-based Hall sensors, which could be applied in space or other irradiation sensitive applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combined effect of total ionization dose (TID) and time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) of partially depleted silicon-on-insulator (PDSOI) NMOSFET is investigated. First, the effect of TDDB on the parameter degradation of the devices was investigated by accelerated stress tests. It is found that TDDB stress leads to a decrease in off-state current, a positive drift in threshold voltage, and a reduction of maximum transconductance. Next, the degradation patterns of TID effect on the devices are obtained. The results show that the parameter degradation due to gamma radiation is opposite to the TDDB stress. Finally, the combined effect of TID and TDDB is investigated. It is found that the drift of the devices’ sensitive parameters due to TDDB stress decreases in a total dose of gamma radiation environment. The TDDB lifetime is shortened, but the pattern of gate current change remains unchanged. The failure mechanism of the gate oxide layer under TDDB stress is not changed after irradiation.

This article presents a radiation-hardened Cortex-R4F system-on-chip prototype with integrated total ionizing dose (TID) dynamic compensation capabilities, designed and fabricated in 28-nm fully depleted silicon-on-insulator (FD-SOI) technology. The processor was made robust to single-event effects, thanks to several design techniques: error correcting code (ECC) protected and bit-interleaved memories, optimized radiation-hardened sequential cells, and sensitive logic cells filtering. To counter the TID effects on the processor functionality and performances, the system embeds an integrated digital dosimeter. The dosimeter is capable of computing the TID in real time and providing the information to the system. Using a software lookup table (LUT), coupled with 28-nm FD-SOI technology support of asymmetric and wide-body-biasing, the reported TID can be converted to a request made to an external body-bias generator and be fully compensated. The system, operating at 0.9 V and 500 MHz, was tested under space grade radiations and has shown no failure in the 0 krad(Si) to 50 krad(Si) TID range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total ionizing dose response of 14-nm bulk-Si FinFETs has been studied with a specially designed test chip. The radiation testing shows evidence of interface trap build-up on 14-nm Bulk FinFET technologies. These defects created in the isolation layer give rise to a new radiation-induced leakage path which might lead to a reliability issue in CMOS technologies at or below the 14-nm node. TCAD simulations are performed and an analytical model for TID-induced leakage current is presented to support analysis of the identified TID mechanism. TCAD simulation and analytical model results are consistent with the experimental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the data corruption pattern in the shared pages of multi-level cell (MLC) 3-D NAND memory under ionizing radiation from a Co-60 gamma-ray source for up to 20 krad(Si) dose. The results show that the radiation-induced error pattern between the shared pages follows a unique correlated behavior. We also find that the error locations within a given page remain uncorrelated, meaning that the occurrence of an error does not force a cluster of errors under ionizing radiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An overview is presented of the significant influences of Moore’s Law scaling on radiation effects on microelectronics, focusing on historical trends and future needs. A number of milestones in the evolution and understanding of total-ionizing-dose and single-event effects are discussed within the context of classical Dennard scaling. This discussion focuses on the discovery of fundamental mechanisms, development of radiation-tolerant IC technology, and increasing maturity and complexity of Si-MOS-based devices, circuits, and systems. Examples are shown that illustrate how the end of Dennard scaling has influenced radiation effects in current technology generations, due to the increasingly complex and diverse materials and devices that are now incorporated. The radiation responses of devices with alternative channels to silicon and transistors based on 2-D materials are discussed, with an emphasis on opportunities and challenges for ultimately scaled devices. Particular challenges to ultimately scaled technologies are presented by single-particle-induced displacement damage and microdose effects. The article concludes with a look forward to a future in which many types of microelectronic devices and ICs are increasingly more vulnerable to radiation effects and increasingly more difficult to test in a practical and cost-effective manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of total ionizing dose on 3-D NAND floating gate cells with vertical architecture are analyzed as a function of the cell depth in the pillar. The focus of this work is on TID-induced threshold voltage shifts, but the implications on the raw bit error rates are also discussed. Underlying mechanisms are elucidated, concluding that due to the manufacturing process and the geometry of the pillars, the effects of total dose are larger at the bottom than at the top of the cell array. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spin-transfer torque magnetic random access memory (STT-MRAM) is a promising solution for onboard, radiation-tolerant memory for space environments. This is because magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) have demonstrated outstanding resilience to ionizing radiation. In this study, we examine the effect of total ionizing dose (TID) on the MTJ’s thermal stability factor, intrinsic critical switching voltage, and write energy. These parameters were calculated from switching probability distribution curves taken at three different pulsewidths. Additionally, dc current hysteresis plots were obtained to measure the MTJ’s tunnel magnetoresistance ratio, its dependence on voltage, and the dc current required to switch states. Tests were carried out at two TID exposure levels up to 1 Mrad(Si) on a total of 24 MTJs of varying cross section dimensions in order to identify the influence of scaling as well as to obtain statistical variation for any changes observed. Results indicate that TID exposure had small effects on the MTJ’s thermal stability and critical switching voltage, which affected the write energy, especially for switching from the antiparallel (AP) to parallel (P) direction. For switching from P to AP, these changes fluctuated, suggesting that TID has multiple effects, which have competing influences on the MTJ’s switching properties. The work presented here shows that, while MTJs are highly resistant to ionizing radiation, a subtle influence on some properties for the STT-MRAM write operation should be considered in radiation environment assessments for both terrestrial and space applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes an experimental comparative study of the matching between the Octo conventional (octagonal gate geometry) and Conventional (rectangular gate shape) n-channel Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs), which were manufactured in an 130 nm Silicon-Germanium Bulk Complementary MOS (CMOS) Integrated Circuits (ICs) technology and exposed to different X-rays Total Ionizing Doses (TIDs), under the on-state bias conditions. The results indicate that the Octo layout style with alpha ($\alpha $) angle equal to 90° and a cut factor of 50% for MOSFETs is capable of boosting the device matching by at least 56.1%, on average, regarding the electrical parameters studied (Threshold Voltage and Subthreshold Swing), as compared to those found in the Conventional MOSFET counterparts, considering that they present the same bias conditions and regarding different TIDs. This happens due to the Longitudinal Corner Effect (LCE), Parallel MOSFETs with Different Channel Length Effect (PAMDLE) and Deactivation of Parasitic MOSFETs in the Bird’s Beak Regions Effect (DEPAMBBRE) which are present in the Octo MOSFETs. Therefore, the Octagonal layout style can be considered as an alternative hardness-by-design (HBD) layout strategy to boost the electrical performance and TID tolerance of MOSFETs enabling analog or radio-frequency CMOS ICs applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, Shu et al. published “Numerical and Experimental Investigation of TID Radiation Effect on the Breakdown Voltage of 400 V SOI NLDMOS.” This short article is an extension of that earlier article. The breakdown voltage of 400-V silicon-on-insulator n-channel laterally diffused metal–oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors with different drift region lengths are examined after exposure to total ionizing dose. The variation observed is analyzed using technology computer-aided design simulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An anomalous total dose effect that the wider channel device is more susceptible to total ionizing dose than the narrow one is observed with the 0.13 µm H-gate partially depleted silicon-on-insulator technology. The measured results and 3D technology computer aided design simulations demonstrate that the devices with different channel widths may exhibit an enhanced reverse narrow channel effect after radiation. This is because in the case of bias of TG irradiation, there will be an electric field from source to drain to the body area, which will affect the electric field linear density of the source and drain to the buried oxygen layer area. Compared with narrow-channel devices, the electric field from drain/source to body region via box region of wide-channel devices accounts for a larger proportion, and the more oxide trap charges will be generated, which will cause greater damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Here are four key highlights from the study on the Total Ionizing Dose (TID) for the ITER Upper Port Remote Handling Equipment (UPRHE). • Radiation Impact Assessment: The study evaluates the effect of radiation on UPRHE components, using ITER's radiation maps to analyze levels in different operational areas. • Detailed Analysis of Operational Procedures: It includes an in-depth examination of the operation sequences and durations of maintenance tasks performed by the UPRHE, vital for accurate TID estimation. • Subsystem Resilience Evaluation: A critical aspect of the study is assessing each UPRHE subsystem's durability against the highest expected dose rates and the total cumulative TID over its operational life. • Mitigation Strategies for Radiation Excess: The research identifies components that exceed ITER's radiation safety thresholds and proposes design modifications and strategies to mitigate these risks in future development phases. This study delineates a comprehensive estimation of the integrated Total Ionizing Dose (TID) for the ITER Upper Port Remote Handling Equipment (UPRHE). The primary objective is to assess the radiation impact and devise strategies to attenuate its effects on the UPRHE components. Radiation levels in various operational zones are deduced from the ITER radiation map. This analysis includes a meticulous definition of operation sequences and corresponding durations for each maintenance task executed by the UPRHE. It is imperative to evaluate each subsystem of the UPRHE for its resilience against the maximum conceivable dose rate and the cumulative TID throughout its operational lifespan. The estimation of TID for the UPRHE encompasses both hourly rates and cumulative doses, calculated based on the identified dose levels and task durations. Additionally, this study computes the TID for all UPRHE subsystems over both a single long-term maintenance (LTM) cycle and the projected 20-year lifespan. Subsequently, the study justifies the derived TID values with the established nuclear radiation alert thresholds for ITER electronics. This comparison reveals that most UPRHE components remain within the safety margin. For components surpassing these thresholds, the paper proposes mitigation strategies to refine the system design in subsequent development phases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The methodology, developed for active testing of electronic devices under the radiations, is presented. The test set-up includes a gamma-ray facility, the hardware board/fixtures and the software tools purposely designed and realized. The methodology is so wide-ranging to allow us the verification of different classes of electronic devices, even if only application examples for static random access memory modules are reported.

In this paper, a comprehensive charge-based predictive model of interface and oxide trapped charges in undoped symmetric long-channel double-gate MOSFETs is developed. The model involves essentially no fitting parameters, but first-principle calculations of both oxide and Si/oxide interface trapping. This charge-based approach represents an essential step toward compact modeling of ionizing dose and aging effects in advanced field effect devices. The soundness of this approach is confirmed by extensive comparisons with numerical TCAD simulations, while the analytical formulation helps understanding the most relevant parameters of the phenomena with respect to a specific technology. The model confirms its validity for all regions of operation, i.e., from deep depletion to strong inversion and from linear to saturation.

For a reliable and stable sensor system, it is essential to precisely measure various sensor signals, such as electromagnetic field, pressure, and temperature. The measured analog signal is converted into digital bits through the sensor readout system. However, in extreme radiation environments, such as in space, during flights, and in nuclear fusion reactors, the performance of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) constituting the sensor readout system can be degraded due to soft errors caused by radiation effects, leading to system malfunction. This paper proposes a soft-error-tolerant successive-approximation-register (SAR) ADC using dual-capacitor sample-and-hold (S/H) control, which has robust characteristics against total ionizing dose (TID) and single event effects (SEE). The proposed ADC was fabricated using 65-nm CMOS process, and its soft-error-tolerant performance was measured in radiation environments. Additionally, the proposed circuit techniques were verified by utilizing a radiation simulator CAD tool.

Single-event upset (SEU) hardness varies across dies, wafers, and lots—even just after fabrication and further across time. Mechanisms of postfabrication variations include total ionizing dose (TID) effects, which are caused by long-term radiation exposure. This synergistic effect of TID on SEU hardness is a particular concern in integrated circuits used in space and nuclear radiation environments. This article shows that an electrical parameter called the data-retention voltage is useful in dealing with such TID effects on the SEU hardness of static random access memories (SRAMs), which are known to be particularly radiation-sensitive. Experiments showed that TID-induced variations in SRAM SEU hardness, i.e., variations in SEU cross sections, were predicted by measuring the data-retention voltage. In addition, these variations were canceled out by adjusting the power supply voltage according to its interesting relationship to the data-retention voltage. Results suggest that it might be possible in flight to predict and cancel out SEU hardness variations caused by TID and other synergistic effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the results of several complementary radiation tests to qualify and calibrate a highly radiation sensitive Single-Mode (SM) Optical Fiber (OF) for distributed dosimetry application at CERN. The Radiation Induced Attenuation (RIA) is the physical phenomenon used to evaluate the Total Ionizing Dose (TID) received by the OF sensor. The radiation response tests comprise online RIA in the Near InfraRed (NIR) domain under 60Co γ-rays, X-rays and proton irradiations, as well as post mortem Optical Attenuation (OA) measurement to evaluate long term fading effects of the RIA. In this paper, we focus on the effect of successive irradiations, dose rate dependence and effects related to the change of the irradiation temperature up to 45 °C. On the basis of our investigation, we conclude that the studied OF is a suitable TID sensor and that it is well adapted for distributed OF radiation dose sensing. It is fully compatible with commercially available SM Optical Time Domain Reflectometers, with some noticeable advantages with respect to previously developed systems based on multimode OFs. Finally, the OF we investigated has been selected for the distributed monitoring of low radiation dose levels at CERN in the injector chain (Proton Synchrotron Booster, Proton Synchrotron, Super Proton Synchrotron) and parts of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The CMS Binary Chip (CBC) is the front-end readout ASIC planned for the outermost layers of the CMS Phase 2 silicon outer tracker. Results from an extensive irradiation campaign carried out on the CBC3, the first version of the ASIC to include the full trigger logic circuitry, have demonstrated that the chip is capable of withstanding the levels of radiation expected at the HL-LHC, with only a slight (< 1 %) increase in power consumption. Results from the irradiation campaign, and details of the novel damage model developed to describe the measurements and extrapolate to the final operating conditions, will be presented. Additionally, results from tests at the Fermilab test beam facility will be shown that demonstrate the full functionality of the trigger logic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the response of a commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) active pixel sensor (APS) module to $\gamma $ -rays delivered from Cobalt-60 at a high-dose rate and evaluates its performance as a potential high-dose-rate and wide range $\gamma $ -ray detection device. The experimental results show that the rate of noise generation is not linear with respect to the total ionizing dose, and the radiation damage sustained by the sensor modules exhibits a total ionizing dose threshold. A conservative value of this threshold for the test sensor is 38 Gy. In addition, the average pixel gray level value and the proportion of pixels responding to radiation increase with increasing dose rate, and linear responses are obtained for both in the dose rate range of 5.24–69.24 Gy/h. The upper limit of the linear radiation response range depends on the capability of the COTS sensor module, while the lower limit depends on the number of radiation response events in a frame; the upper limit of the linear response range can be increased by reducing the integration time. This paper provides valuable suggestions for adopting CMOS-APSs for high-dose-rate and wide range radiation detection, and it is an important complement to our previous studies focused on the linear response of the CMOS-APS under low-dose-rate irradiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laterally diffused metal–oxide–semiconductors transistors PD-silicon on insulator 150-nm mixed technology from Microchip are irradiated with 60Co gamma rays. Those irradiations have revealed a high sensitivity of the LDnMOS and LDpMOS pointing out that the main sensitive parameter is the ON-resistance. In this paper, degradation mechanisms at play are investigated through TCAD simulation, and an explanation of the physical mechanisms for the observed degradation is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the difference in the probability of latch-up occurrence in complementary metal–oxide–silicon (CMOS) circuits exposed to neutron radiation and total ionizing dose (TID), which are subsequently exposed to pulsed gamma rays. First, we irradiate three types of CMOS circuits in a reactor for neutron exposure and in a Co-60 unit for TID exposure respectively, which are then placed in a pulsed gamma-ray environment. The latch-up induced by pulsed gamma-ray irradiation is studied. Our experimental results indicate that the manifestation of the latch-up phenomenon is different among the devices after neutron irradiation and TID exposure, thereby indicating that the influences of neutron and TID exposures on the latch-up sensitivity are different. To understand how the latch-up sensitivity changes, we study a dynamic model for latch-up occurrence and analyse the influences of neutron and TID exposure using the model. Our results indicate that neutron injection reduces the susceptibility of latch-up occurrence, whereas TID exposure increases the latch-up occurrence susceptibility. Therefore, in the case of CMOS circuits exposed to pulsed gamma-ray irradiation, the latch-up threshold decreases with TID accumulation, but increases with neutron fluence augmentation. Interestingly, the latch-up threshold drops when the neutron fluence is sufficiently large, mainly because concomitant gamma rays in the reactor environment play an important role in affecting the threshold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Total ionizing dose for 14-h, 15-h, 16-h highly elliptical orbits is reassessed. • It can be significantly reduced for 15-h and 16-h orbits by tuning orbit shape. • Originally proposed 14-h orbit is already at the minimum. • Shielding thickness can be reduced by factor 1.24–1.28 for 15-h and 16-h orbits. • Mission lifetime may increase by up to 8.1 years. The study reports results of analysis related to minimization of the total ionizing dose (TID) for the Multiple Apogee Highly Elliptical Orbit with periods 14 h, 15 h and 16 h introduced earlier for continuous observation of the Earth's polar regions. The modeling of space environment has been conducted with use of the European Space Agency's SPENVIS tool based on the AE8/AP8 radiation models. Originally, the set of orbital parameters has been derived through the optimization process that included among other factors criteria for the apogee height limit and minimization of the radiation dose caused by trapped protons. By relaxing the apogee altitude limit, this study found the total ionizing dose TID can be significantly reduced for 15-h and 16-h orbits, while the originally proposed 14-h orbit is already at the minimum of radiation dose. For 15-h and 16-h orbits this converts into reduction of the thickness of aluminum shielding by factor 1.24–1.28 or an equivalent increase in the mission lifetime by up to 8.1 years. For example, an increase in apogee altitude to 49,620 km for 16-h orbit (eccentricity e = 0.74) in comparison to the originally proposed 16-h orbit (altitude equal to 43,500 km, e = 0.55) reduces the TID so that the shielding thickness decreases to 3.53 mm, instead of 4.35 mm of aluminum slab for the same 15-year duration of mission. Decrease of the TID is achieved due to significant reduction of ionizing radiation from the trapped electrons through the better placing of the orbit trajectory in the slot area, but at the expense of slight increase of ionizing radiation from the trapped protons and increase in apogee altitude to 46,640 km and 49,620 km for 15-h and 16-h orbit, correspondingly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interdevice mismatch and intradevice temporal instability in the nanoscale CMOS circuits is examined from a unified point of view as a static and dynamic parts of the variability concerned with stochastic oxide charge trapping and detrapping. This approach has been benchmarked on the recent evidence of the radiation-induced increase of intertransistor mismatch in 60-nm ICs. A possible reliability limitation in ultrascale circuits concerned with the single or a few charged defect instability is pointed out and estimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A new methodology for Total Ionizing Dose (TID) tests is proposed. It is based on the employment of an on-chip 90Sr/90Y beta source as alternative to standard methods such as 60Co gamma rays and electrons from LINAC. The use of a compact beta source for TID tests has several advantages. In particular, the irradiation of devices with more than one radiation source results in a better representation of the complex space radiation environment composed of several types, energies and dose-rates. In addition, the use of an easy handling beta source allows the irradiation of electronic devices without any damage to other auxiliary circuit. In this work, 90Sr/90Y beta source dosimetry and related radiation field characteristics are discussed in depth. In order to validate the proposed source for TID tests, a rather complex device such as the "SPC56EL70L5" microcontroller from ST-Microelectronics was exposed to 90Sr/90Y beta rays. The results of this test were compared to that of a previous test of another sample from the same lot with a standard gamma 60Co source. The electronic performances following the two irradiations have been found to be in excellent agreement, by demonstrating therefore the validity of the proposed beta source for TID tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Mixed signal on-chip solutions for space applications and high energy physics experiments require high voltage RF-LDMOS transistors with sufficient ruggedness against ionizing radiation and single event burnout. We report on a novel hardening by design approach for radiation tolerant integrated RF NLDMOS transistors confirmed by single event burn out (SEB) and total ionizing dose (TID) radiation tests. In order to substantially decrease TID induced leakage currents the shallow trench isolation (STI) of MOS transistors was replaced by narrow junction isolated regions. For a significant increase of the SEB onset voltage a cascode arrangement consisting of an isolated NMOS and NLDMOS was chosen. The floating NMOS-drain/NLDMOS-source node in the cascode arrangement is always reverse biased which efficiently avoids a turn-on of the parasitic npn bipolar transistor. The rad-hard isolated NMOS/NLDMOS cascode features a breakdown voltage BVDS > 50 V, a maximum cut off frequency f T = 5 GHz and a maximum oscillation frequency f MAX = 14 GHz. In comparison with standard NLDMOS transistors the isolated NMOS/NLDMOS cascode device shows an increase of the SEB onset voltage from 14V to 30V at a linear energy transfer LET of 67.7 MeVcm2/mg and a negligible increase of source drain leakage currents up to a TID of 1.5 Mrad after irradiation with a 60Co source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Reliability of ferroelectric random access memories (FRAMs) is an important issue in Space application. In this work, we investigated the impact of total ionizing dose (TID) on single event effect (SEE) sensitivity of FRAMs. Five types of errors were detected. The event cross section detected in dynamic tests decreased after irradiation. Biased devices during TID irradiation had a greater decrease in event cross section than unbiased devices. TCAD simulations were performed to investigate the effects of heavy ions on memory cells of FRAMs. The collected charges at the drain of NMOS transistors induced by incident ions had a negative impact on polarized state of the ferroelectric capacitors. Highlights • The event cross section decreased after γ ray irradiation. • Event cross section of biased devices decreased greater than unbiased devices. • Ions striking the memory cell had a negative impact on polarized state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The test chip including transistors and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) is proposed and fabricated by an advanced 22 nm Ultra-Thin Body and Buried Oxide Fully Depleted Silicon-on-Insulator (UTBB FD-SOI) technology. Experimental results of Co-60 irradiation and heavy ion experiments are presented. Total Ionizing Dose (TID) experiment results show that the threshold voltage shift of the transistor is about 100 mV when the dose is 500 krad(Si) and the SRAM irradiated to a dose of at least 300 krad(Si) can maintain its functionality, which means that 22 nm UTBB FD-SOI devices exhibit significantly improved total dose tolerance performance compared to the previous generation process. TID-induced threshold voltage shift in conventional-well nMOSFET can be mitigated by applying biasing to back-gate, while back-gate biasing is invalid for TID mitigation of the conventional-well pMOSFET. Heavy ion experimental results make known that 22 nm UTBB FD-SOI technology has contributions to Single Event Effect (SEE) hardness and the hardened SRAM has higher single event upset (SEU) tolerance and even SEU immunity. The research indicates that the circuits manufactured by 22 nm UTBB FD-SOI technology have great potential space applications in harsh radiation environments. • Back-gate biasing is valid for TID mitigation in RBB NMOS, which is invalid in RBB PMOS. • The 22 nm SRAM irradiated to a dose of 300 krad(Si) can maintain its functionality. • No error was recorded in DICE SRAM under all heavy ion experimental conditions. • The 22 nm UTBB FD-SOI has great potential applications in radiation environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present proton-induced single event effects (SEEs) and γ-ray-induced total ionizing dose (TID) data for 1 Gbit lowpower double data rate synchronous dynamic random access memory (LPDDR SDRAM) fabricated on a 5 μm epitaxial layer (54 nm complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology). We compare our radiation tolerance data for LPDDR SDRAM with those of general DDR SDRAM. The data confirms that our devices under test (DUTs) are potential candidates for space flight applications.

This work investigates the responses of the fully-depleted silicon-on-insulator (FD-SOI) Hall sensors to the three main types of irradiation ionization effects, including the total ionizing dose (TID), transient dose rate (TDR), and single event transient (SET) effects. Via 3D technology computer aided design (TCAD) simulations with insulator fixed charge, radiation, heavy ion, and galvanomagnetic transport models, the performances of the transient current, Hall voltage, sensitivity, efficiency, and offset voltage have been evaluated. For the TID effect, the Hall voltage and sensitivity of the sensor increase after irradiation, while the efficiency and offset voltage decrease. As for TDR and SET effects, when the energy deposited on the sensor during a nuclear explosion or heavy ion injection is small, the transient Hall voltage of the off-state sensor first decreases and then returns to the initial value. However, if the energy deposition is large, the transient Hall voltage first decreases, then increases to a peak value and decreases to a fixed value. The physical mechanisms that produce different trends in the transient Hall voltage have been analyzed in detail.

According to the continuous development of metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) fabrication technology, transistors have naturally become more radiation-tolerant through steadily decreasing gate-oxide thickness, increasing the tunneling probability between gate-oxide and channel. Unfortunately, despite this radiation-hardened property of developed transistors, the field of nuclear power plants (NPPs) requires even higher radiation hardness levels. Particularly, total ionizing dose (TID) of approximately 1 Mrad could be required for readout circuitry under severe accident conditions with 100 Mrad around a reactor in-core required. In harsh radiating environments such as NPPs, sensors such as micro-pocket-fission detectors (MPFD) would be a promising technology to be operated for detecting neutrons in reactor cores. For those sensors, readout circuits should be fundamentally placed close to sensing devices for minimizing signal interferences and white noise. Therefore, radiation hardening ability is necessary for the circuits under high radiation environments. This paper presents various integrated circuit designs for a radiation hardened charge-sensitive amplifier (CSA) by using SiGe 130 nm and Si 180 nm fabrication processes with different channel widths and transistor types of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) and bipolar CMOS (BiCMOS). These circuits were tested under γ–ray environment with Cobalt-60 of high level activity: 490 kCi. The experiment results indicate amplitude degradation of 2.85%–34.3%, fall time increase of 201–1730 ns, as well as a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 0.07–11.6 dB decrease with irradiation dose increase. These results can provide design guidelines for radiation hardening operational amplifiers in terms of transistor sizes and structures.

This study attempted to identify whether space radiation sources could have affected the communication on RazakSAT-1 that was orbiting in a Low Earth Orbit-Near Equatorial (LEO-NEqO). Data on galactic cosmic rays (GCR), trapped protons, trapped electrons, and solar energetic particles (SEPs) obtained from Space Environment Information System (SPENVIS)are considered. The effects of these radiation sources are analyzed using the linear energy transfer (LET), total ionizing dose(TID), and solar cell degradation. Flux data from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 15, 16, and 17 satellites, and the geomagnetic conditions during the time when RazakSAT-1’s missing is also analyzed. Another two satellites, Satélite de Coleta de Dados (SCD-2) and Advanced Land Observation Satellite (ALOS), are compared with the performance of RazakSAT-1. Results showed that GCR dominated at a high energy range of 103 MeV and above in the LEO-NEqO, whereas the energies of the trapped protons and trapped electrons are less than 400 MeV and 4 MeV, respectively. There are no SEPs estimated during the mission period (2009 – 2011). Based on the SPENVIS, SCD-2 and ALOS are more exposed to higher radiation damage than RazakSAT-1. Thus, an analysis of space radiation environment effects on the RazakSAT-1 communication lost after one year of operation will be discussed further, as a platform to fi nd the best strategy for future missions.

This paper investigates the leakage currents as well as the leakage current Random Telegraph Signals (RTSs) sources in sense node floating diffusions (FDs) and their consequences on imaging performances specifically after exposure to high-energy particle radiation. Atomic displacement damage and ionization effects are separately studied thanks to neutron and X-ray irradiations. Proton irradiations have been performed to simultaneously study displacement damage dose (DDD) and total ionizing dose (TID) effects while being more representative of the space environment. The studied DDD ranges from $500\,\,\text {TeV}\cdot \text {g}^{-1}$ to $40\,\,\text {GeV}\cdot \text {g}^{-1}$ , and the TID ranges from 24 krad(SiO2) to 72 krad(SiO2). High-magnitude electric field effects, such as transfer-gate-induced leakage current, are investigated to further understand the phenomena involved in FDs while giving new insights into the Electric Field Enhancement of the charge generation mechanisms. This paper shows that FDs are very sensitive to ionizing radiation because of the presence of depleted Si/SiO2 interface with high-magnitude electric fields around the junction. On the other hand, displacement damage in the FDs is a major source of high amplitude leakage current RTSs and leakage current nonuniformity. Such radiation-induced degradations can prevent the use of CMOS image sensor with long FD retention time (e.g., global shutter operating mode or burst imagers) in radiation environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the effect of total ionizing dose (TID) on body current in 130-nm partially depleted (PD) silicon-on-insulator input–output nMOSFETs. As the TID increases, the body current lowers and the peak point of body current shifts left. By deeply theoretical analyses, we give a comprehensive interpretation. As TID increases, more positive charges are nonuniformly trapped in the buried oxide (BOX) layer. As a result, the PD silicon film changes to partially fully depleted silicon film, which induces the coupling effect between front gate and back gate. Consequently, radiation-induced trapped charges in the BOX layer lower the threshold voltage of the front gate and increase the characteristic length. The decrease of the threshold voltage of the front gate and the increase of the characteristic length both lower the maximum lateral field. Hence, the impact ionization is weakened as TID increases. Finally, the body current lowers and the peak point of body current shifts left. Pass-gate (PG) and ON irradiation bias cases are compared. Due to more trapped charge in the BOX layer under the PG bias, the body current lowers more significantly and the peak point of body current shift more left under the PG bias. A 3-D TCAD simulation is applied to verify our theoretical analyses, and good agreement is observed between simulation and theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays fabricated in a 180-nm CMOS technology with a high-voltage option have been exposed to calibrated neutron and X-ray sources to evaluate their radiation tolerance. The technology is being investigated in view of the design of low material budget detectors for charged particle tracking based on the coincidence of the signals coming from two or more overlapping layers of SPAD sensors. Each element in the array is a monolithic detector including the processing electronics together with the diode in the same substrate. Different sensor dimensions and structures have been implemented in the test chip to thoroughly explore the technology features. This paper will present and discuss the results from the characterization, in terms of dark count rate, of SPAD arrays irradiated with X-ray doses reaching 1 Mrad(SiO2) and with neutron fluences up to $10^{11}~1$ -MeV neutron equivalent cm $^{-2}$. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial-off-the-shelf system-on-chip field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) are gaining momentum in space applications and their radiation characterization becomes crucial. This paper targets a cost-effective test setup and procedures for total ionization dose testing of miniaturized complex devices. We combine hardware and software techniques to perform on-chip irradiation via a 90Sr/90Y electron source and assess in detail the degradation of complex SRAM FPGAs. Our methodology combines multiple sensing mechanisms with correlation analysis to facilitate modeling of effects and tuning of a custom ring-oscillator network for future autonomous in-flight use. Focusing on 28-nm Zynq7000 devices, our results show Mrad total ionizing dose tolerance with parameters’ degradation in the area of 5%, zero functional errors, and nonuniform spatial response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The amount of data corruption in a wide assortment of flash memories observed during Co-60 total dose tests is shown to have a strong dependence on the direction in which the Co-60 irradiation is performed. The effect is due to dose enhancement from the metal layers above the floating gate. The dose enhancement effect is shown to become greater as technology node scales and is even observed in on a state-of-the-art 3-D NAND flash memory. The radiation hardness assurance implications of this dose enhancement effect are significant and are discussed in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The n-type metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (n-MOSFET) produced in the widely used CMOS bulk process takes radiation damage by the total ionizing dose (TID) effects in radiation environments, so the radiation-tolerant properties of semiconductor integrated-circuits (ICs) used in high-radiation environments is a critical issue. The formation method of the isolation oxide module (IOM), which induces the radiation-induced leakage currents, differs depending on the chip density of the CMOS bulk process. In this paper, we designed and fabricated I-gate n-MOSFETs for bulk process and analyzed the radiation-tolerant characteristics according to IOM. The I-gate n-MOSFET chips are fabricated using the shallow trench isolation (STI) 0.18um and local oxidation of silicon (LOCOS) 0.35um processes of the CMOS bulk process. Tests and evaluation of the TID effects on the chips are carried out by irradiating a total cumulative dose up to 2 Mrad(Si). As the results, in the standard n-MOSFET, the leakage currents of the LOCOS and STI processes are 27.7uA and 16.4uA, and in I-gate n-MOSEFT, are 1.1uA and 0.7uA. The leakage currents of standard n-MOSFET increased by about 25 times before and after irradiation, but the electric characteristics of I-gate n-MOSFET is maintained regardless of the process. Therefore, the process versatility of the I-gate n-MOSFET with the radiation-tolerant performance has been verified. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Radiation-induced TID effects that forms the leakage current of the electronic device. • Implementation of n-MOSFET with I-gate structure to block leakage current. • Verification of radiation-tolerance characteristics in LOCOS and STI process through TID effect test. • Process versatility for designing radiation integrated circuits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total ionizing dose effects are investigated on a physically unclonable function (PUF) based on CMOS breakdown. Devices irradiated to 2 Mrad(SiO2) show less than 11% change in current ratio at 1.2 V. The read-out window of programmed PUFs decreases significantly at high-dose proton irradiation, and then recovers back to the original value after annealing. The proton test results for the pFET selector, the unbroken nFET, and the broken nFET indicate that the threshold-voltage shift of the pFET selector contributes mainly to the degradation of the PUF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total Ionizing Dose (TID) effects are an essential concern for integrated devices that are operating in space environment. We present in this work an extensive study of TID effects in Deep-Submicron and Nanoscale CMOS technologies. Principal aspects are the changes of the transistors I-V characteristics due to TID effects, the variation of the threshold voltage and the impact of radiation on the carrier densities and mobility as well as on the electrical potentials and the leakage currents. Further, we discuss a potential solution that reduces TID effects in CMOS devices. The device level simulations consider a satellite application that orbits in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), leading to dose levels of up to 500 krad(Si). Results clearly indicate the high impact of TID on the transistor parameters, enforcing the designer to consider countermeasures in order to guarantee the circuits reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]