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Conservation easements allow landowners to transfer their land's development rights to another entity, usually a nontaxable conservation organization. Conservation reduces the town's tax base, necessitating a tax rate increase to maintain service levels. However, conserving land also decreases the supply of developable land and provides open space amenities that may be capitalized into the value of nearby properties. These effects may offset the decrease in the tax base caused by the easement. Using a sample of twenty-nine Vermont towns, we show that private conservation easements increase property tax rates in the short run, but are tax-neutral or tax-suppressing in the long run. Copyright 2004, Oxford University Press.

Propagation of interastrocyte Ca2+ waves is mediated by diffusion of extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and may require regenerative release of ATP. The ability of ATP to initiate release of intracellular ATP was assessed by labeling adenine nucleotide pools in astrocyte cultures with 14C-adenine. The 14C-purines released during exposure to ATP were then identified by thin-layer chromatography. ATP treatment caused a five-fold increase in release of 14C-ATP but not 14C-ADP or 14C-AMP, indicating selectivity for release of ATP. Other P2 receptor agonists also caused significant 14C-ATP release, and the P2 receptor antagonists suramin, reactive blue-2 and pyridoxalphosphate-6-azo(benzene-2,4-disulfonic acid) (PPADS) inhibited ATP-induced 14C-ATP release to varying degrees, suggesting the involvement of a P2 receptor. ATP-induced 14C-ATP release was not affected by chelation of intracellular Ca2+ with BAPTA-AM, or by blockers of Ca2+ release from intracellular stores or of extracellular Ca2+ influx, suggesting a Ca2+-independent response. ATP-induced 14C-ATP release was significantly inhibited by non-selective anion channel blockers but not by blockers of ATP-binding cassette proteins, gap junction hemichannels, or vesicular exocytosis. Release of adenine nucleotides induced by 0 Ca2+ was, in contrast, not selective for ATP, and was susceptible to inhibition by gap junction blockers. These findings indicate that astrocytes are capable of ATP-induced ATP release and support a role for regenerative ATP release in glial Ca2+ wave propagation.

Characterization of astrocyte Ca2+ dynamics has been a topic of considerable emphasis for more than a decade. Only recently, however, has the physiological significance of astrocyte Ca2+ signaling started to become clear. Several studies have shown that astrocyte Ca2+ levels become elevated in response to neuronal input and that this, in turn, influences synaptic activity. A novel function of astrocyte Ca2+ signaling has been described by Zonta et al., whereby neuron-induced astrocyte Ca2+ elevations can lead to secretion of vasodilatory substances from perivascular astrocyte endfeet, resulting in improved local blood flow. This finding represents a breakthrough in our knowledge both of astrocyte function and of the mechanism of activity-dependent cerebral blood flow regulation.

The article was originally published in PLoS One; DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0122809 under a creative commons licence. Pursuit of the triple bottom line of economic, community and ecological sustainability has in- creased the complexity of fishery management; fisheries assessments require new types of data and analysis to guide science-based policy in addition to traditional biological informa- tion and modeling. We introduce the Fishery Performance Indicators (FPIs), a broadly applicable and flexible tool for assessing performance in individual fisheries, and for estab- lishing cross-sectional links between enabling conditions, management strategies and triple bottom line outcomes. Conceptually separating measures of performance, the FPIs use 68 individual outcome metrics — coded on a 1 to 5 scale based on expert assessment to facili- tate application to data poor fisheries and sectors — that can be partitioned into sector- based or triple-bottom-line sustainability-based interpretative indicators. Variation among outcomes is explained with 54 similarly structured metrics of inputs, management ap- proaches and enabling conditions. Using 61 initial fishery case studies drawn from industrial and developing countries around the world, we demonstrate the inferential importance of tracking economic and community outcomes, in addition to resource status.

Telephone services that offer smoking-cessation counseling (quitlines) have proliferated in recent years, encouraged by positive results of clinical trials. The question remains, however, whether those results can be translated into real-world effectiveness.We embedded a randomized, controlled trial into the ongoing service of the California Smokers' Helpline. Callers were randomly assigned to a treatment group (1973 callers) or a control group (1309 callers). All participants received self-help materials. Those in the treatment group were assigned to receive up to seven counseling sessions; those in the control group could also receive counseling if they called back for it after randomization.Counseling was provided to 72.1 percent of those in the treatment group and 31.6 percent of those in the control group (mean, 3.0 sessions). The rates of abstinence for 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, according to an intention-to-treat analysis, were 23.7 percent, 17.9 percent, 12.8 percent, and 9.1 percent, respectively, for those in the treatment group and 16.5 percent, 12.1 percent, 8.6 percent, and 6.9 percent, respectively, for those in the control group (P0.001). Analyses factoring out both the subgroup of control subjects who received counseling and the corresponding treatment subgroup indicate that counseling approximately doubled abstinence rates: rates of abstinence for 1, 3, 6, and 12 months were 20.7 percent, 15.9 percent, 11.7 percent, and 7.5 percent, respectively, in the remaining subjects in the treatment group and 9.6 percent, 6.7 percent, 5.2 percent, and 4.1 percent, respectively, in the remaining subjects in the control group (P0.001). Therefore, the absolute difference in the rate of abstinence for 12 months between the remaining subjects in the treatment and control groups was 3.4 percent. The 12-month abstinence rates for those who made at least one attempt to quit were 23.3 percent in the treatment group and 18.4 percent in the control group (P0.001).A telephone counseling protocol for smoking cessation, previously proven efficacious, was effective when translated to a real-world setting. Its success supports Public Health Service guidelines calling for greater availability of quitlines.

We have observed the Red Rectangle nebula with the Multi-Object Spectrograph on the WIYN telescope. Moderate-resolution spectra (Δλ=0.4 A) in the region of 5800 A were obtained in 3-arcsec apertures at over 50 positions in the nebula. Accurate and precise wavelength calibrations were obtained against a thorium–argon lamp and the sodium lines in the sky and nebula. The peak position and full width at half-maximum of the 5800-A Red Rectangle band (RRB) were measured to beyond 15 arcsec from the star. The shortest wavelength of the band is found to be 5799.10±0.15 A in the rest frame of the nebula. None of the emission bands has intensity coincident with the wavelength of the diffuse interstellar band (DIB) at 5797.11±0.05 A. The 2-A offset cannot be explained by an instrumental, spectroscopic or photophysical effect. The hypothesis that the same molecule may be the carrier of the RRB and the DIB is contradicted by these observations. As a further test of the hypothesis, absorption has been sought that would be due to a potential DIB carrier in the nebula. Tentative evidence for absorption is found in the RRB spectra taken within 9 arcsec of the star; but any absorption has a peak position essentially coincident in wavelength with the band maximum of the emission band.

Na 1 -dependent excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) normally function to remove extracellular glutamate from brain extracellular space, but EAATs can also increase extracellular glutamate by reversal of uptake. Effects of inhibitors on EAATs can be complex, depending on cell type, whether conditions favor glutamate uptake or uptake reversal and whether the inhibitor itself is a substrate for the transporters. The present study assessed EAAT inhibitors for their ability to inhibit glutamate uptake, act as transporter substrates and block uptake reversal in astrocyte and neuron cultures. L-threo-bhydroxyaspartate (L-TBHA), DL-threo-b-benzyloxyaspartate (DL-TBOA), L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (L-trans2,4-PDC) (1/‐)-cis-4-methy-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (cis-4-methy-trans-2,4-PDC) and L-antiendo-3,4-methanopyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (L-antiendo-3,4-MPDC) inhibited L-[ 14 C]glutamate uptake in astrocytes with equilibrium binding constants ranging from 17 mM (DL-TBOA and L-TBHA) ‐4 3mM (cis-4-methy-trans-2,4-PDC). Transportability of inhibitors was assessed in astrocytes and neurons. While L-TBHA, L-trans-2,4-PDC, cis-4-methy-trans-2,4-PDC and L-antiendo3,4-MPDC displayed significant transporter substrate activities in neurons and astrocytes, DL-TBOA was a substrate only in astrocytes. This effect of DL-TBOA was concentrationdependent, leading to complex effects on glutamate uptake reversal. At concentrations low enough to produce minimal DL-TBOA uptake velocity (# 10 mM), DL-TBOA blocked uptake reversal in ATP-depleted astrocytes; this blockade was negated at concentrations that drove substantial DL-TBOA uptake (. 10 mM). These findings indicate that the net effects of EAAT inhibitors can vary with cell type and exposure

The comae of very active comets have a substantially more complex coma than their weaker cousins. The primary cause of this is photolytic heating and collisions that occur over an ever-larger volume of the coma as Q H 2 O increases. Collisions with the photochemical daughters of water in this region modify the radial distributions and outflow velocity of each species, excite and quench metastable emissions, and introduce velocity gradients from photolytic heating. Comet Hale-Bopp was the first comet for which the collisional coma was both spatially resolvable and comparable in extent to the scale lengths of major coma species. In the case of this object, the classical assumptions that make it possible to invert radial emission line profiles, brightnesses, and lineshapes to production rate and velocity either do not hold or require adjustment to work. Here we describe how a large collision zone modifies the coma, how it affects the classical methods for obtaining production rate and velocity, and discuss how wide field imaging may be combined with modified versions of simple models to address the complications and extract some structural information.

The University of Wisconsin—Madison and NASA—Goddard conducted a comprehensive multi-wavelength observing campaign of coma emissions from comet Hale-Bopp, including OH 3080 A, [0 I] 6300 A, H2O+ 6158 A, H Balmer-α 6563 A, NH2 6330 A, [C I] 9850 A CN 3879 A, C2 5141 A, C3 4062 A, C I 1657 A, and the UV and optical continua. In this work, we concentrate on the results of the H2O daughter studies. Our wide-field OH 3080 A measured flux agrees with other, similar observations and the expected value calculated from published water production rates using standard H2O and OH photochemistry. However, the total [O I] 6300 A flux determined spectroscopically over a similar field-of-view was a factor of 3 – 4 higher than expected. Narrow-band [O I] images show this excess came from beyond the H2O scale length, suggesting either a previously unknown source of [O I] or an error in the standard OH + v → O(1 D) + H branching ratio. The Hale-Bopp OH and [O I] distributions, both of which were imaged to cometocentric distances > 1 x 106 km, were more spatially extended than those of comet Halley (after correcting for brightness differences), suggesting a higher bulk outflow velocity. Evidence of the driving mechanism for this outflow is found in the Hα line profile, which was narrower than in comet Halley (though likely because of opacity effects, not as narrow as predicted by Monte-Carlo models). This is consistent with greater collisional coupling between the suprathermal H photodissociation products and Hale-Bopp’s dense coma. Presumably because of mass loading of the solar wind by ions and ions by the neutrals, the measured acceleration of H2O+ down the ion tail was much smaller than in comet Halley. Tailward extensions in the azimuthal distributions of OH 3080 A, [O I], and [C I], as well as a Doppler asymmetry in the [O I] line profile, suggest ion-neutral coupling. While the tailward extension in the OH can be explained by increased neutral acceleration, the [O I] 6300 A and [C I] 9850 A emissions show 13% and > 200% excesses in this direction (respectively), suggesting a non-negligible contribution from dissociative recombination of CO+ and/or electron collisional excitation. Thus, models including the effects of photo-and collisional chemistry are necessary for the full interpretation of these data.

Excessive pathophysiological activity of the nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1) causes neuron death in brain hypoxia/ischemia by inducing mitochondrial permeability transition and nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). Bcl-2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa-interacting protein (Bnip3) is a prodeath BH3-only Bcl-2 protein family member that is induced in hypoxia, and has effects on mitochondrial permeability and neuronal survival similar to those caused by PARP1 activation. We hypothesized that Bnip3 is a critical mediator of PARP1-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and neuron death. Hypoxic death of mouse cortical neuron cultures was mitigated by deletion of either PARP1 or Bnip3, indicating that both factors are involved. Direct normoxic PARP1 activation by a DNA alkylating agent enhanced Bnip3 expression, and caused Bnip3-dependent mitochondrial membrane permeability, AIF translocation, and neuron death. Hypoxia produced PARP1-dependent depletion of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and inhibition of the NAD+-dependent class III histone deactelyase (HDAC) sirtuin-1 (SIRT1). This, in turn, led to hyperacetylation and nuclear localization of the forkhead box (Fox) protein FoxO3a, followed by enhanced association of FoxO3a with the Bnip3 upstream promoter region, increased levels of Bnip3 transcript, and elevated mitochondrial Bnip3 immunoreactivity. Finally, FoxO3a silencing using a lentiviral short hairpin RNA approach significantly reduced hypoxic Bnip3 expression, mitochondrial damage, and neuron death. Together, these data illustrate a direct PARP1-mediated hypoxic signaling pathway involving NAD+depletion, SIRT1 inhibition, FoxO3a-driven Bnip3 generation, and mitochondrial AIF release.

Moderate-resolution spectra of the 030 band of NH2 near 6300 A were recorded in Comet Hale-Bopp near 2.6 and 1.0 AU with the HYDRA array spectrometer on the WIYN telescope. The spectra from beyond the collision sphere were examined with respect to the relative rotational energy distributions in NH2. The relative rotational profiles could be consistently fitted at both heliocentric positions by a photostationary state model that follows optical pumping and fluorescence in the 2A1(Πu)- 2B1 band and radiative rotational relaxation in the ground state. The behavior of the spectra with regard to the relative weakness of lines from K = even states at large heliocentric distances is explained by this model, where only the solar flux changes. The general heliocentric dependence of the rotational excitation temperature of collision-free NH2, and, to a first-order approximation, polar diatomic radicals are predicted. The form of the heliocentric dependence is coincidentally similar to that of CO in the collision sphere as observed by others. Species that can undergo optical pumping will show a heliocentric dependence of the rotational excitation temperature of the form Texc(rh) = T1 AU/r. The NH2 radical and diatomic hydrides will have flatter rh dependence than the polar first row diatomics. The rh dependence is largely controlled by the ratio of the fluorescence excitation rate and the rate of radiative rotational relaxation.

OBJECTIVE—To provide an overview of the California Smokers' Helpline, an increasingly popular telephone program for tobacco cessation in California since 1992. As many states, regions, and nations are contemplating various telephone programs as part of large scale anti-tobacco campaigns, this paper presents a practical model. DESIGN—The Helpline provides Californians with free cessation services that include counselling, self help quit kits, and cessation related information. Services are provided in six spoken languages plus a line for the hearing impaired. The program is promoted statewide by media campaigns, health care providers, local tobacco control programs, and the public school system. SETTING—The Helpline is centrally operated through the University of California, San Diego and provides services statewide via telephone. RESULTS—The Helpline has served over 100 000 tobacco users and has become the chief cessation resource for the Comprehensive Tobacco Control Program in California. Media was the most important referral source for Helpline callers (50%), followed by health care providers (20%). About one third of the callers were ethnic minorities and 17% were 24 years old or younger. Compared to California smokers in general, the callers were more dependent on nicotine and more likely to live with other smokers, but they were also more likely to have tried to quit recently and were more ready to try again. Two randomised trials have demonstrated the efficacy of the Helpline's counselling protocol. CONCLUSION—A centralised helpline operation can be an accessible and effective service for tobacco users and should be included in any large scale, comprehensive tobacco control program. Keywords: telephone helpline; tobacco cessation program

Overexpression of Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) reduces ischemic injury in some stroke models but exacerbates injury in a neonatal stroke model and in other settings. The current study used a SOD1 transgenic (SOD1-Tg) murine cortical culture system, derived from the same mouse strain previously used for the stroke models, to identify conditions that determine whether SOD1 overexpression in neurons is protective or detrimental. The nitric oxide (NO) donors S-nitroso- N-acetylpenicillamine, spermine-NONOate, and diethylamine-NONOate produced less death in SOD1-Tg neurons than in wild-type neurons ( p < 0.01). Also, NO produced markedly less 3-nitrotyosine in SOD1-Tg cells. In contrast, the superoxide generator menadione produced significantly greater death and nearly twice as much 2′7′-dichlorofluorescein fluorescence in SOD1-Tg neurons than in wild-type neurons, suggesting increased peroxide formation in the SOD1-Tg cells. No significant difference was observed in the vulnerability of the two cell types to H2O2, the product of the SOD reaction. Over-expression of SOD1 also had no effect on neuronal vulnerability to glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate, or kainate. These observations suggest that SOD1 overexpression can reduce neuronal death under conditions where peroxynitrite formation is a significant factor, but may exacerbate neuronal death under conditions of rapid intracellular superoxide formation or impaired H2O2disposal.

Rapid removal of glutamate from the extracellular space is required for the survival and normal function of neurons. Although glutamate transporters are expressed by all CNS cell types, astrocytes are the cell type primarily responsible for glutamate uptake. Astrocyte glutamate uptake also plays a role in regulating the activity of glutamatergic synapses. Lastly, release of glutamate from astrocytes, via transporter reversal and other routes, can contribute to glutamate receptor activation. This review examines the mechanisms of astrocyte glutamate uptake and release, with particular focus on high-affinity Na+-dependent transporters. Transporter regulation, energetics, and physiological roles are discussed. GLIA 32:1–14, 2000. Published 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Glutamate transporters clear glutamate from the extracellular space by high-affinity binding and uptake. Factors that regulate glutamate transporter expression and activity can thereby influence excitatory neurotransmission. Transporter function in GABAergic and other systems has been shown to be regulated by transporter substrates. Here, glutamate regulation of glutamate transport was studied using primary murine astrocyte cultures that express the GLAST (EAAT1) and GLT-1 (EAAT2) transporter subtypes. Glutamate was found to stimulate glutamate transport capacity (Vmax) in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The maximal increase was 100%, with an ED50of 40 μmglutamate and with onset beginning ∼15 min after onset of glutamate exposure. The uptake stimulation was reproduced byd-aspartate, which is also a transporter substrate, but not by nontransported glutamate receptor agonists. Moreover, glutamate incubation did not stimulate transport when performed in a sodium-free medium, suggesting that the stimulatory effect of glutamate is triggered by increased transporter activity rather than receptor activation. Treatment with the actin-disrupting agents cytochalasin B or cytochalasin D prevented the glutamate-induced increase in glutamate uptake. Biotinylation labeling of membrane surface proteins showed that glutamate incubation produced an increase in GLAST expression at the astrocyte cell surface. These results suggest that cell-surface expression of GLAST can be rapidly regulated by glutamate through a process triggered by GLAST activity and involving the actin cytoskeleton. This feedback loop provides a mechanism by which changes in extracellular glutamate concentrations could rapidly modulate astrocyte glutamate transport capacity.

We present the case of a 19-year-old woman with feeding intolerance, due to superior mesenteric artery (SMA) syndrome, after weight loss experienced during basic military training. She had previous good health and presented with vomiting 8 weeks after starting military training. She had experienced a 16-pound (7 kg) weight loss during the course of training and was increasingly unable to tolerate meals, solids worse than liquids. Computed tomography of the abdomen with oral contrast revealed gastric and duodenal distention, with narrowing of the second portion of the duodenum at the SMA. A nasojejunal feeding tube was placed and she was given tube feedings. Weight increased and she eventually tolerated oral feedings. She completed military training and remains in good health. SMA syndrome is a rare cause of feeding intolerance, but can follow periods of acute weight loss, as is experienced by some basic military trainees.

Over 200 community volunteers who belong to different committees of an alcohol, tobacco, and other drug abuse prevention coalition completed a comprehensive survey designed to measure specific variables associated with coalition functioning including costs and benefits of participation. Community volunteers are one of the coalition’s greatest resources, and benefits and costs may mediate member participation throughout the different stages of coalition functioning. The survey was completed first at the formation stage (Time l), and then eight to ten months later at the implementation stage (Time 2) of the coalition’s development. Contrary to most previous research, a principal component analysis of the benefit and cost items yielded only one benefit component and one cost component. Also, the authors found that benefits and costs distinguished between the members of “High” and “Low” attendance groups only at Time 2. We consider the implications for coalition functioning, empowerment theory, and “incentive/cost management.” We also describe how we provided the partnerships with information in order to assist them to implement the incentivefcost management process. Community coalitions are frequently being used to address serious public health concerns. For example, the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) currently funds 245 communities across the country to create community partnerships in order to mobilize individuals and organizations to address the alcohol, tobacco, and other drug abuse (ATODA) problems at a local level. CSAP partnerships form coalitions involving youth and parent volunteers, in addition to volunteers from business, the criminal justice system, the media, health services, the religious community, as well as community and school-based personnel to develop and implement a comprehensive plan for reducing ATODA within their community. The coalition studied in this research is one of the 245 CSAP partnerships. Maximizing volunteer participation is important because the coalition depends heavily on the efforts of these volunteers to do much of the coalition’s work. Gaining an understanding of the benefits and the costs that volunteer coalition members experience from their participation is the first step in this process. Participation, benefit, and cost variables are related in various volunteer organizations (Prestby, Wandersman, Florin, Rich, & Chavis, 1990), political parties (Clarke, Price, Stewart, & Krause, 1978), and business groups (Knoke & Adams, 1987). Since this relationship is robust and useful across several different types of organizations, this study will examine the relationship between participation, benefits, and costs in volunteer coalitions. Researchers have previously studied individuals’ perceptions of benefits and costs (Chavis, Florin, Rich, & Wandersman, 1987; Prestby & Wandersman, 1985; Wandersman & Alderman, 1993; Wan

Increasing evidence for receptors for uracil nucleotides has focused interest on specific signalling mechanisms involving UTP and UDP. At least three metabotropic P2 receptors are stimulated by uracil nucleotides with equal or greater potency than by adenine nucleotides, and there might be ionotropic receptors as well. Regulation of uridine and uracil nucleotide levels is important when considering the receptor-mediated effects of these compounds. Cells can synthesize uracil nucleotides de novo or by salvage of uridine. UTP made from salvage might be preferentially used for RNA synthesis in the nucleus, while UTP synthesized de novo seems to be used for UDP-sugar and CDP-phospholipid production. UTP from both pathways can enter a free UTP pool, from which UTP can be released from cells. UTP and UDP can stimulate pyrimidinoceptors, but metabolism by ecto-nucleotidases limits their effects. Alternatively, UTP might be a substrate for ecto-protein kinases, and this could contribute to its extracellular regulation. Cells can reclaim uridine, using nucleoside transport processes, following dephosphorylation of UTP, UDP and UMP. In this article Christopher Anderson and Fiona Parkinson discuss how understanding the processes that regulate uridine and uracil nucleotide concentrations will enhance our ability to manipulate UTP/UDP signalling pathways for pharmacological effect.

Astro-2 has revealed a broad, weak spectral feature in the ultraviolet interstellar linear polarization for two lines of sight, confirming the original detection toward HD 197770 and adding HD 147933-4. These are the only two polarization features found in some 30 lines of sight now observed. Both features are centered close to 2175 A, the position of the ubiquitous ultraviolet extinction bump. Two possibilities are considered for the source of the polarization feature: changes in the mass distribution of the aligned silicate grains responsible for the continuum polarization, and alignment of the small graphite grains responsible for the extinction bump. While the former approach meets with some success for the HD 197770 feature, it is not possible to produce a feature as clearly peaked as in HD 147933-4. The central wavenumbers and widths of both polarization features correspond closely to those of the corresponding extinction bump. Taken together, it seems the graphite grains are a more likely source of the polarization features. Both polarization features have amplitudes that are very small compared to the amount of excess extinction present in the 2175 A bump, implying poor polarization efficiency. Many other lines of sight have been observed with sufficient signal-to-noise ratios such that features should have been clearly detected if the same polarization efficiency applied, and so real variations in the alignment or shape of the grains responsible seem to occur from one line of sight to another. The weak alignment might be caused by unusually low concentrations of paramagnetic impurities in rapidly spinning small grains.

The WIYN 3.5-meter telescope and its Multi-Object Spectrograph (MOS) have been used to obtain simultaneous spectra at many points in the coma of Comet Hale-Bopp. Between 1996 October and 1997 April in excess of 7500 individual spectra were obtained, typically 96 at a time. On six nights the “Hydra” fiber positioner was used to sample a ring pattern of points about the nucleus with a minimum spacing of 40 arc seconds and a maximum radius of 22.5 arc minutes. On four nights a new “Densepak” fiber cable was used. In this configuration a 7 × 13 rectangular pattern of 91, 3 arc second fibers on 4 arc second centers was used. In most cases the bench spectrograph was used in the echelle mode with an interference filter to isolate a single order. The wavelength range from 6100 A to 6400 A was recorded with resolution of approximately 15,000. This spectral region contains the emission features of [OI], C2, NH2and H2O+. From this mass of data we are beginning to extract the radial, azimuthal and temporal variations of many different spectral features. The radial profiles of [O I] λ6300 A and NH2 are reasonably well representable by the Haser model formalism, that of H2O+ is not.

Background Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model of multiple sclerosis characterized by entry of activated T cells and antigen presenting cells into the central nervous system and subsequent autoimmune destruction of nerve myelin. Previous studies revealed that non-selective inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) 1 and 2 protect against neuroinflammation and motor dysfunction associated with EAE, but the role of the PARP-2 isoform has not yet been investigated selectively. Results EAE was induced in mice lacking PARP-2, and neurological EAE signs, blood-spine barrier (BSB) permeability, demyelination and inflammatory infiltration were monitored for 35 days after immunization. Mice lacking PARP-2 exhibited significantly reduced overall disease burden and peak neurological dysfunction. PARP-2 deletion also significantly delayed EAE onset and reduced BSB permeability, demyelination and central nervous system (CNS) markers of proinflammatory Th1 and Th17 T helper lymphocytes. Conclusions This study represents the first description of a significant role for PARP-2 in neuroinflammation and neurological dysfunction in EAE.

Telephone counseling for smoking cessation has been gaining popularity as studies have demonstrated its efficacy. What comprises a successful program, however, has not yet been detailed in the literature. In this article, an innovative telephone counseling intervention for smoking cessation is described, with attention to the clinical issues of client assessment, motivation, self-efficacy, planning, coping, relapse-sensitive call scheduling, and self-image. Counselor training and supervision issues, ethical and legal considerations regarding this form of service delivery, and suggestions for future direction also are outlined.

Nucleoside transport inhibitors that cross the blood-brain barrier may be able to potentiate the neuroprotective effects of adenosine. We tested whether nitrobenzylthioinosine (NBMPR) crosses the blood-brain barrier in three types of experiments. First, intravenous injection of [3H]NBMPR and [14C]sucrose was performed. Brain volume of distribution and brain delivery were greater for [3H]NBMPR than for [14C]sucrose. Second, rats were injected intraperitoneally with NBMPR 5'-monophosphate (NBMPR-P), a prodrug form of NBMPR, or vehicle. Perchloric acid extracts of brains from rats treated with NBMPR-P inhibited [3H]NBMPR binding in competition binding assays nearly 3-fold more than extracts from brains of vehicle-treated animals. Third, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) extracted from rats treated with NBMPR-P (10 mg/kg i.p.) contained 24.1 +/- 4.4 nM NBMPR while levels were undetectable in CSF from vehicle-treated rats. From these data, we conclude that NBMPR crosses the blood-brain barrier.

Astrocytes play a critical role in neurovascular coupling by providing a physical linkage from synapses to arterioles and releasing vaso-active gliotransmitters. We identified a gliotransmitter pathway by which astrocytes influence arteriole lumen diameter. Astrocytes synthesize and release NMDA receptor coagonist, D -serine, in response to neurotransmitter input. Mouse cortical slice astrocyte activation by metabotropic glutamate receptors or photolysis of caged Ca 2+ produced dilation of penetrating arterioles in a manner attenuated by scavenging D -serine with D -amino acid oxidase, deleting the enzyme responsible for D -serine synthesis (serine racemase) or blocking NMDA receptor glycine coagonist sites with 5,7-dichlorokynurenic acid. We also found that dilatory responses were dramatically reduced by inhibition or elimination of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and that the vasodilatory effect of endothelial nitric oxide synthase is likely mediated by suppressing levels of the vasoconstrictor arachidonic acid metabolite, 20-hydroxy arachidonic acid. Our results provide evidence that D -serine coactivation of NMDA receptors and endothelial nitric oxide synthase is involved in astrocyte-mediated neurovascular coupling.

We examine traditional criminal wiretaps to determine whether the 4th Amendment’s warrant requirement limits law enforcement. We develop a formal model relating law enforcement’s decision to pursue a wiretap to its exogenous cost, probability of yielding evidence, and the expected value of that evidence. We use the model to analyze success rates of all traditional federal wiretaps initiated 1997–2004. We find budget constraints cause law enforcement to pursue only taps that are particularly likely to succeed. Thus, eliminating the warrant requirement for traditional wiretaps would matter little, and the significance of a warrant requirement for new investigative programs, such as the Terrorist Surveillance Program, depends on budget.

Dynamic adjustments to neuronal energy supply in response to synaptic activity are critical for neuronal function. Glial cells known as astrocytes have processes that ensheath most central synapses and express G-protein-coupled neurotransmitter receptors and transporters that respond to neuronal activity. Astrocytes also release substrates for neuronal oxidative phosphorylation and have processes that terminate on the surface of brain arterioles and can influence vascular smooth muscle tone and local blood flow. Membrane receptor or transporter-mediated effects of glutamate represent a convergence point of astrocyte influence on neuronal bioenergetics. Astrocytic glutamate uptake drives glycolysis and subsequent shuttling of lactate from astrocytes to neurons for oxidative metabolism. Astrocytes also convert synaptically reclaimed glutamate to glutamine, which is returned to neurons for glutamate salvage or oxidation. Finally, astrocytes store brain energy currency in the form of glycogen, which can be mobilized to produce lactate for neuronal oxidative phosphorylation in response to glutamatergic neurotransmission. These mechanisms couple synaptically-driven astrocytic responses to glutamate with release of energy substrates back to neurons to match demand with supply. In addition, astrocytes directly influence the tone of penetrating brain arterioles in response to glutamatergic neurotransmission, coordinating dynamic regulation of local blood flow. We will describe the role of astrocytes in neurometabolic and neurovascular coupling in detail and discuss, in turn, how astrocyte dysfunction may contribute to neuronal bioenergetic deficit and neurodegeneration. Understanding the role of astrocytes as a hub for neurometabolic and neurovascular coupling mechanisms is a critical underpinning for therapeutic development in a broad range of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by chronic generalized brain ischemia and brain microvascular dysfunction.

BackgroundPeople with mental health conditions (MHC) smoke at high rates and many die prematurely from smoking-related illnesses. Smoking cessation programs, however, generally do not screen for MHC. This study examined the utility of MHC screening in a large tobacco quitline to determine whether self-reported MHC predicts service utilization and quitting behaviors.Methods & findingsA brief set of question on MHC was embedded in the routine intake of a state quitline, and 125,261 smokers calling from June 2012 to September 2015 were asked the questions. Quit attempt rate and 6-month success rate were analyzed for a random subset of participants. Overall, 52.2% of smokers reported at least one MHC. Demographic patterns like gender or ethnic difference in self-reported MHC were similar to that in the general population. Depression disorder was reported most often (38.6%), followed by anxiety disorder (33.8%), bipolar disorder (17.0%), drug/alcohol abuse (11.9%), and schizophrenia (7.9%). Among those reporting any MHC, about two-thirds reported more than 1 MHC. Smokers with MHC received more counseling than smokers with no MHC. Quit attempt rates were high for all three groups (>70%). The probability of relapse was greater for those with more than one MHC than for those with one MHC (p

Progress has been made on the design of a 9 receiver array in the 700 to 945 MHz range to replace the single receiver in that frequency range currently in use at the Green Bank Telescope (GBT) in West Virginia. The new array will increase the rate of data collection ~9x in ongoing 21 cm intensity mapping, and it should also be a valuable resource for other users of the GBT. The following paper describes the science of 21 cm intensity mapping and the work that has been done in designing the receiver for the focal plane array.Â

Background We previously reported that resveratrol, a polyphenol found in red grapes, attenuated changes in small artery geometry and stiffness, as well as cardiac hypertrophy and cardiac function in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR). However, in addition to resveratrol, grapes contain a variety of bioactive polyphenols such as catechins, anthocyanins, and flavonoids. Therefore, we investigated the effects of grape consumption in SHR. Methods Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats and SHR were treated with freeze-dried grape powder for 10 weeks. Dilatory, geometry, and stiffness properties of mesenteric small arteries were assessed by pressurized myography. Left ventricular mass index and cardiac function were assessed by two-dimensional guided M-mode and pulse-wave Doppler echocardiography. Results Elevated blood pressure in SHR was associated with remodeling and impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation of small arteries. Augmented left ventricular mass index (reflecting hypertrophy) and diminished cardiac function were also evident in SHR. Although grape treatment failed to affect cardiac dysfunction, it elicited a significant reduction in blood pressure, improved arterial relaxation, increased vascular compliance, and attenuated cardiac hypertrophy. Conclusions Treatment with whole grape powder conferred mild vascular and cardiac benefits in SHR. Therefore, dietary grape consumption may be a feasible and salutary adjunct to pharmacological treatment of human hypertension.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is an isomeric mixture of 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids with conjugated double bonds derived from linoleic acid. CLA is sourced nutritionally from dairy products and ruminant animal meat and is associated with beneficial heath effects in several disorders, including cancer, atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity, and inflammation. We investigated the potential for CLA to protect neurons from death in stroke simulated by exposing cultured mouse embryonic cortical neurons to glutamate. CLA (10 30 μM) significantly protected neuronal survival in response to glutamate (3 μM) excitotoxicity when given concurrently with glutamate. CLA (30 μM) also reduced neuron death when given up to 5 h after glutamate exposure (73.1 ± 13.3% protection, p0.01), suggesting potential utility as a post-injury therapeutic tool. The cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer, which comprises about 40% of the commercial CLA mixture used, was identified as the active neuroprotective species. The other major species, trans-10, cis-12 CLA (40%) was without significant neuroprotective effect. CLA significantly increased neuronal Bcl-2 levels when given with glutamate and attenuated glutamate-induced dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential, suggesting a stabilizing influence on mitochondrial function. These results show that CLA is capable of strong neuroprotective effects in glutamate excitotoxicity at concentrations likely achieved by consumption of CLA as a dietary supplement.

An industry group has proposed a novel system for managing the Northeast Multispecies Fishery. Each harvester would be endowed with a budget of points, and each species would have a "point price," or number of points that must be paid out of his budget when landing that species. By varying the point prices throughout the season, management could redirect effort across species. This paper presents a benchmarked experimental testbed of this management system, and shows that harvesters do respond to point prices, which can be chosen to support harvest of most of the allowable catch of each species without severely over-harvesting any of them. Key Words: multispecies fishery, points system, economic experiment, quota, derby (ProQuest: ... denotes formula omitted.) The Northeast Multispecies Fishery has proven to be a particularly challenging management problem. 1 It consists of 15 jointly harvested groundfish species, in 19 stocks, distributed over a large area and pursued by highly heterogeneous harvesters, with varying ports, vessel size, gear type, and preferred target species. Many of the stocks, including some economically valuable ones, are abundant, but other stocks are badly depressed. The fishery is currently (until May 2010) managed by a system of transferable days at sea, which constrains how much time vessels may spend harvesting, combined with daily trip limits for certain species. Harvesters find this system unsatisfactory because the allocations of days at sea are limited by the most depressed stocks, meaning that harvesters are not allotted time to harvest much of the biologically determined total allowable catches (TACs) of many of the most valuable stocks. As a result, industry and regulators are interested in identifying alternative management systems that are politically feasible2 and provide better opportunity for harvesters to profit from abundant stocks, while allowing recovery of depressed stocks. One novel approach has been developed by the Northeast Seafood Coalition (2006). Rather than an initial allocation of quota shares in each of the stocks, this so-called "Points System Proposal" would establish an initial allocation of "points" to each harvester. Although this initial allocation would be based on landings history, individuals would not be granted an access privilege to any particular amount of any species of fish. Instead, the points system proposes to assign a "biological point value" (BPV) to each of the stocks and fishermen would "spend" their points based on what they catch. In this manner, a weak stock with a low TAC would be assigned a higher (perhaps much higher) BPV than a rebuilt stock or one that has a higher TAC; this would encourage harvesters to focus their effort on stocks that cost fewer points.3 As proposed, the BPV would be adjusted periodically in response to current harvest activity and stock abundance to assure that TACs would not be exceeded. This system would operate much like the Federal Reserve's overnight lending rate policy, wherein a regulatory authority can control the actions of agents in an economy by continuously adjusting key price ratios, thus altering behavioral incentives. From an economic perspective, the points system has some of the same desirable features associated with individual transferable quota (ITQ) programs (Arnason 2002). Specifically, fishermen would have an incentive to maximize the value of their allocated points instead of maximizing catch. Further, it creates an interest in the longer-term health of the resource to increase the value of the allocation. The industry also feels that the points system also offers some economic flexibility that an ITQ would not. Under an ITQ system, individual harvesters would need to enter the quota market to obtain the desired portfolio of quota for the fishing season. Changing the portfolio to match realized catch would require the harvester to go back to the quota market and incur the potentially high transaction costs of acquiring or selling quota to achieve the correct balance of the 19 quota instruments. …

Background: Pediatric truncal vascular injuries occur infrequently and have a reported mortality rate of 30% to 50%. This report examines the demographics, mechanisms of injury, associated trauma, and outcome of patients presenting for the past 10 years at a single institution with truncal vascular injuries. Methods: A retrospective review (1997-2006) of a pediatric trauma registry at a single institution was undertaken. Results: Seventy-five truncal vascular injuries occurred in 57 patients (age, 12 ± 3 years); the injury mechanisms were penetrating in 37%. Concomitant injuries occurred with 76%, 62%, and 43% of abdominal, thoracic, and neck vascular injuries, respectively. Nonvascular complications occurred more frequently in patients with abdominal vascular injuries who were hemodynamically unstable on presentation. All patients with thoracic vascular injuries presenting with hemodynamic instability died. In patients with neck vascular injuries, 1 of 2 patients who were hemodynamically unstable died, compared to 1 of 12 patients who died in those who presented hemodynamically stable. Overall survival was 75%. Conclusions: Survival and complications of pediatric truncal vascular injury are related to hemodynamic status at the time of presentation. Associated injuries are higher with trauma involving the abdomen.

[1] The sources, sinks, and overall importance of water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) in the atmosphere are not well understood. Although the primary historical focus has been on particulate WSOC (WSOCP), here we also present results obtained using a newly developed technique that additionally measures gas-phase water-soluble organic carbon (WSOCG). These first-of-their-kind measurements show that WSOCG can often be more than ten times larger than WSOCP at both urban and remote locations. The average fraction of WSOC residing in the gas phase (fg = WSOCG/(WSOCG + WSOCP)) at five various field sites ranged from 0.64 to 0.93, implying significant differences in WSOC phase partitioning between locations. At Houston, TX, and Summit, Greenland, a repeatable diurnal pattern was observed, with minimum values for fg occurring at night. These trends likely are due, at least in part, to temperature and/or relative humidity related gas-to-particle partitioning. These coincident measurements of WSOC in both the gas and particle phases indicate that a relatively large reservoir of water-soluble organic mass is not taken into account by measurements focused only on WSOCP. In addition, a significant amount of WSOCG is available to form WSOCP or enter cloud droplets depending on the chemical and physical properties of the droplets and/or aerosols present.

Telephone based tobacco cessation services, or quitlines, have become central components of many comprehensive tobacco control programmes. This paper provides an overview of their history, noting milestones in the growth of quitlines. Key factors in their worldwide adoption were solid evidence from clinical trials with large community samples and strong backing from public health officials. Quitlines are now available throughout most of North America, Europe, Australia and in many other locations around the world. The paper also offers several recommendations for future directions in quitline practice and research. Benchmarks should be established for key areas of quitline implementation, such as accessibility, quality and cost efficiency. Advances in pharmacotherapy, telephony and web based applications should be investigated for opportunities to expand service offerings. Research and development are needed to determine how best to serve a diverse clientele in the most cost effective manner. Funding should be expanded and diversified to enable quitlines to serve much larger numbers of users. Healthcare providers should be targeted for quitline promotion, to engage them in a broad effort to increase the number of patients receiving cessation messages from clinicians. The goal of quitline promotion should expand to include an increase in unaided quit attempts in the population. Early research findings were quickly adopted in quitline practice, and future research to answer questions that have arisen through the implementation of quitlines will probably also find quick adoption.

This study compared state quitline data (1992–2006) with population survey data to assess use by young adults aged 18 to 24 years. Young adult daily smokers used the service in proportion to their numbers in the state. Young adults responded to mass media quitline promotion, even promotion that did not target them. Women, ethnic minorities, and persons with low income and lower education levels were well represented among young adult quitline callers. Quitlines are a viable means of intervening with this priority population. Young adults (aged 18–24 years) are generally much less likely to seek help to quit smoking than are older adults.1,2 However, there are indications that telephone-based services may appeal to this age group.3,4 When California started a statewide smokers’ quitline in the early 1990s, for example, it was soon reported that young smokers were actively using the new service.3 Researchers questioned, however, whether this was a stable phenomenon. The California Smokers’ Helpline has been in operation since 1992 and has served more than 400 000 tobacco users. It provides services in English, Spanish, Chinese (Mandarin and Cantonese), Korean, and Vietnamese free of charge to California residents. The program is promoted by the California Department of Health Services through television, radio, and print advertisements as part of its antismoking campaign. These advertisements are aired in the languages mentioned in this paragraph, but they do not specifically target young adults.5 The California Smokers’ Helpline is also promoted by county health departments, physician groups, volunteer organizations, and word of mouth. We examined the trend of young adult use of this quitline over a 14-year span and compared the characteristics of quitline users with those of smokers in the same age group in the general population.

Glycogen in the brain is localized almost exclusively to astrocytes. The physiological function of this energy store has been difficult to establish because of the difficulty in manipulating brain glycogen concentrations in vivo. Here, we used a novel glycogen phosphorylase inhibitor, CP-316,819 ([R-R*,S*]-5-chloro-N-[2-hydroxy-3-(methoxymethylamino)-3-oxo-1-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-1H-indole-2-carboxamide), that causes glycogen accumulation under normoglycemic conditions but permits glycogen utilization when glucose concentrations are low. Rats treated with CP-316,819 had an 88 +/- 3% increase in brain glycogen content. When subjected to hypoglycemia, these rats maintained brain electrical activity 91 +/- 14 min longer than rats with normal brain glycogen levels and showed markedly reduced neuronal death. These studies establish a novel approach for manipulating brain glycogen concentration in normal, awake animals and provide in vivo confirmation that astrocyte glycogen supports neuronal function and survival during glucose deprivation. These findings also suggest an approach for forestalling hypoglycemic coma and brain injury in diabetic patients.

Stochastic production frontier models are used extensively in the agricultural and resource economics literature to estimate production functions and technical efficiency, as well as to guide policy. Traditionally these models assume that each agent's production can be specified as a representative, homogeneous function. This paper proposes the synthesis of a latent class regression and an aagricultural production frontier model to estimate technical efficiency while allowing for the possibility of production heterogeneity. We use this model to estimate a latent class production function and efficiency measures for vessels in the Northeast Atlantic herring fishery. Our results suggest that traditional measures of technical efficiency may be incorrect, if heterogeneity of agricultural production exists.

Astrocyte glutamate release can modulate synaptic activity and participate in brain intercellular signaling. P2X(7)receptors form large ion channels when activated by ATP or other ligands. Here we show that P2X(7) receptors provide a route for excitatory amino acid release from astrocytes. Studies were performed using murine cortical astrocyte cultures. ATP produced an inward current in patch-clamped astrocytes with properties characteristic of P2X(7) receptor activation: the current was amplified in low divalent cation medium, blocked by pyridoxal phosphate-6-azophenyl-2′,4′-disulfonic acid (PPADS), and more potently activated by 3′-O-(4-benzoyl)benzoyl ATP (BzATP) than by ATP itself. Measurement of current reversal potentials showed the relative BzATP-induced permeabilities to different substrates to be Na(+), 1 > Cl(−), 0.34 >N-methyl-d-glucamine, 0.27 >l-glutamate, 0.15 ≈ d-aspartate, 0.16. Astrocytes exposed to BzATP also became permeable to Lucifer yellow, indicating a large channel opening. Release of l-glutamate and d-aspartate through P2X(7) channels was confirmed using radiolabeled tracers. As with the inward current, release of glutamate and d-aspartate was induced by BzATP more potently than ATP, amplified in Ca(2+)/Mg(2+)-free medium, and blocked by PPADS or oxidized ATP. Efflux through P2X(7)channels is a previously unrecognized route of ligand-stimulated, nonvesicular astrocyte glutamate release.

The rural public may not only be concerned with the consequences of land management; residents may also have systematic preferences for policy instruments applied to management goals. Preferences for outcomes do not necessarily imply matching support for the underlying policy process. This study assesses relationships among support for elements of the policy process and preferences for management outcomes. Preferences are examined within the context of alternative proposals to manage growth and conserve landscape attributes in southern New England. Results are based on (a) stated preferences estimated from a multi-attribute contingent choice survey of rural residents, and (b) Likert-scale assessment of strength of support for land use policy tools. Findings indicate general but not universal correlation among policy support indicators and preferences for associated land use outcomes, but also confirm the suspicion that policy support and land use preference may not always coincide. Key Words: choice experiment, conservation, land use control, policy support, rural development, stated preference The rural public may not only be concerned with the consequences of land management, they may also have systematic preferences for policy procedures applied to management goals (Abdalla, 2001; Johnston, Swallow, and Weaver, 1999; Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development, 2002; McLeod, Woirhaye, and Menkhaus, 1999). There is no guarantee respondents will support policies that are consistent with their stated preferences for land use outcomes. Indeed, respondents may possess strong preferences for management outcomes (e.g., wildlife habitat, public access) while being unwilling to accept the management processes required to generate those outcomes (Johnston, 2002). Despite this possibility, the literature provides little information indicating whether preferences for management outcomes are correlated with support for policies associated with those outcomes. Consider the example of a scenic, rural viewshed. Residents may have strong preferences for the preservation of scenic amenities, and indeed may be willing to pay to preserve these attributes. However, they may be unwilling to accept changes in zoning or alternative land use regulations required to ensure these outcomes (e.g., required setbacks, increases in required road frontage). Despite a positive willingness to pay (WTP) for the management outcome, a lack of support for associated management tools may preclude welfare-improving policy change. This study examines relationships among the rural public's support for the policy process and the public's preferences and goals for land management and conservation outcomes. Preferences are considered within the context of alternative proposals to manage residential growth and conserve landscape attributes in southern New England. Results are based on (a) stated preferences estimated from a multi-attribute choice survey of rural residents,1 and (b) a Likert-scale assessment of strength of support for 21 growth management and conservation tools. Data are drawn from the Rhode Island Rural Land Use Survey-a survey developed and designed by the authors to assess rural residents' tradeoffs among attributes of residential development and conservation. Description of the Model and Analysis The choice experiment section of the Rhode Island Rural Land Use Survey asked respondents to consider and choose between two alternative development options for a hypothetical, 400-acre tract of forested land located in their town of residence, an area comprising just over 1% of the land area in each of the four towns sampled. Each presented option could differ across a set of spatial and nonspatial attributes. Analysis of these results provides insight into preferences for development and conservation tradeoffs-or management outcomes. A subsequent section of the survey asked respondents to indicate their degree of support for, or opposition to, 21 different land use management policy options. …

Barbiturates are widely used as anesthetics, anticonvulsants, and neuroprotective agents. However, barbiturates may also inhibit mitochondrial respiration, and mitochondrial inhibitors are known to potentiate NMDA receptor-mediated neurotoxicity. Here we used rat cortical cultures to examine the effect of barbiturates on neuronal mitochondria and responses to NMDA receptor stimulation. The barbiturates tested, secobarbital, amobarbital, and thiamylal, each potentiated NMDA-induced neuron death at barbiturate concentrations relevant to clinical and experimental use (100-300 microm). By using rhodamine-123 under quenching conditions, barbiturates in this concentration range were shown to depolarize neuronal mitochondria and greatly amplify NMDA-induced mitochondrial depolarization. Barbiturate-induced mitochondrial depolarization was increased by the ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin, indicating that barbiturates act by inhibiting electron transport sufficiently to cause ATP synthase reversal. Barbiturates similarly amplified the effects of NMDA on cytoplasmic free calcium concentrations. The cell-impermeant barbiturate N-glucoside amobarbital did not influence mitochondrial potential or potentiate NMDA neurotoxicity or calcium responses. However, all of the barbiturates attenuated NMDA-induced calcium elevations and cell death when present at millimolar concentrations. Whole-cell patch-clamp studies showed that these effects may be attributable to actions at the cell membrane, resulting in a block of NMDA-induced current flux at millimolar barbiturate concentrations. Together, these findings reconcile previous reports of opposing effects on barbiturates on NMDA neurotoxicity and show that barbiturate effects on neuronal mitochondria can be functionally significant. Effects of barbiturates on neuronal mitochondria should be considered in experimental and clinical application of these drugs.

We apply Camerer and Ho’s experience-weighted attraction (EWA) model of learning to extensive-form signaling games. Since these games often have many equilibria, logical ‘refinements’ have been used to predict which equilibrium will occur. Brandts and Holt conjectured that belief formation could lead to less refined equilibria, and confirmed their conjecture experimentally. Our adaptation of EWA to signaling games includes a formalization of the BrandtsHolt belief formation idea as a special case. We find that the Brandts-Holt dynamic captures the direction of switching from one strategy to another, but does not capture the rate at which switching occurs. EWA does better at predicting the rate of switching (and also forecasts better than reinforcement models). Extensions of EWA which update unchosen signals by different functions of the set of unobserved foregone payoffs further improve predictive accuracy.

We apply Camerer and Ho's experience-weighted attraction (EWA) model of learning to extensive-form signaling games. Since these games often have many equilibria, logical `refinements' have been used to predict which equilibrium will occur. Brandts and Holt conjectured that belief formation could lead to less refined equilibria, and confirmed their conjecture experimentally. Our adaptation of EWA to signaling games includes a formalization of the Brandts-Holt belief formation idea as a special case. We find that the Brandts-Holt dynamic captures the direction of switching from one strategy to another, but does not capture the rate at which switching occurs. EWA does better at predicting the rate of switching (and also forecasts better than reinforcement models). Extensions of EWA which update unchosen signals by different functions of the set of unobserved foregone payoffs further improve predictive accuracy.

Background. Physicians prescribing nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), or health plans covering NRT, often want their patients to receive adjuvant behavioral treatment. However, how to do that in a “real world” is unclear. This paper reports results from a public health program that uses proactive telephone counseling as support for physician advice and provides adjuvant treatment for NRT users. Methods. Participants were NRT users (N = 8,832) who called the California Smokers' Helpline, a statewide cessation service that provides proactive counseling, one session before NRT use and multisessions after the smokers received NRT. After receiving NRT, some participants discontinued the counseling while others continued with follow-up sessions. A subset of the 8,832 participants (n = 664) was interviewed 13 months later for quitting status. Results. After receiving NRT, 79% of the participants continued with counseling and received 4.2 sessions on average, while 21% of them received only one session. Overall, 82.8% of all participants made a quit attempt. Nicotine patch users were more likely to make an attempt than nicotine gum users (85.2% vs 66.3%), but the relapse probability was the same for these attempts. Those who received multiple counseling were more likely to make an attempt than those receiving single counseling (84.4% vs 77.1%) and were more likely to stay quit for 1 year (25.6% vs 16.1%). Conclusions. Proactive telephone counseling is a promising adjuvant treatment for NRT users in a “real-world” setting: a convenient referral service for supporting health plans or physicians who advise their patients to quit smoking.

Nucleoside transport processes may play a role in regulating endogenous levels of the inhibitory neuromodulator adenosine in brain. The cDNAs encoding species homologues of one member of the equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT) gene family have recently been isolated from rat (rENT1) and human (hENT1) tissues. The current study used RT-PCR, northern blot, in situ hybridization, and [3H]nitrobenzylthioinosine autoradiography to determine the distribution of mRNA and protein for ENT1 in rat and human brain. Northern blot analysis indicated that hENT1 mRNA is widely distributed in adult human brain. 35S-labeled sense and antisense riboprobes, transcribed from a 153-bp segment of rENT1, were hybridized to fresh frozen coronal sections from adult rat brain and revealed widespread rENT1 mRNA in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus, granule neurons of the dentate gyrus, Purkinje and granule neurons of the cerebellum, and cortical and striatal neurons. Regional localization in rat brain was confirmed by RT-PCR. Thus, ENT1 mRNA has a wide cellular and regional distribution in brain, indicating that this nucleoside transporter subtype may be important in regulating intra- and extracellular levels of adenosine in brain.

Nucleoside transport may be involved in the regulation of extracellular levels of adenosine, an inhibitory neuromodulator in the central nervous system. Previous reports have provided functional evidence for Na+-dependent nucleoside transport in rat brain. We isolated total RNA from various regions of rat brain and tested for the presence of mRNA for two recently cloned Na+/nucleoside cotransporters using reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). Messenger RNA for a pyrimidine-selective Na+/nucleoside cotransporter mRNA (rCNTl) was detected in samples from each brain region tested by RT-PCR amplification of a 309-bp DNA product. Southern blot and sequence analysis confirmed that this product was derived from rCNTl mRNA. A purine-selective Na+/nucleoside cotransporter mRNA (rCNT2, also termed SPNT) was detected throughout brain by amplifying a 235-bp DNA product, the sequence of which was identical to that published. These experiments demonstrate the presence of both rCNT1 and rCNT2 mRNA in rat brain.