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Effects of gibberellin A4 (GA4) and three GA biosynthesis inhibitors, uniconazole (UCZ), prohexadione-calcium (PCa), and trinexapac-ethyl (TNE) on growth and flowering of Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. were investigated. In an early flowering 'Sourei', UCZ inhibited stem elongation and flowering. GA4, PCa and TNE promoted flowering at 20°/15°C and 25°/20°C (day/night) under 12-hr photoperiod as compared to the control. However, only PCa and TNE induced flowering of a late flowering 'Banrei' at 20°/15°C. Flowering was not induced in any treatment at 25°/20°C and 30°/25°C but stem elongation of both cultivars was promoted by GA4 and PCa at all temperatures. Under green house conditions in the winter, PCa promoted flowering of 'Banrei'. Although GA4 and PCa promoted stem elongation, they did not induce flowering in the summer. These results indicate that biosynthesis of GA4 and its deactivation are important factors that control stem elongation and flowering.

Attracting investment in the Russian energy industry is a necessary condition for improving the competitiveness of energy companies. It is important to create an investment budget financing structure, in which the weighted average cost of funds will be minimal, and the amount of resources drawn from each source to fit the current market trends and financial sustainability criteria power generation company. This paper discusses problems of investment financing optimization of a power generation company, a proposed optimization model of investment financing and calculated parameters for the optimization of the investment program in the example of a Russian power generating company. © 2014 WIT Press. International Journal of Safety and Security Engineering;International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning;WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment

Seeds of Matthiola incana (Brassicaceae) are known to contain oil rich in linolenic acid (C18:3). This oil has a value as a dietary supplement. Commercial lines of Matthiola incana developed for flower production which were kept in our genebank, were tested for their agronomic potential. Five lines were selected for the experiments, all of them excelling in α-linolenic acid content (50–60%). The plants were grown in the experimental stations at Bet Dagan, Jerusalem and Ramat haGolan, representing three different climatic regions. Yield parameters, as well as data regarding oil quality and quantity, were recorded. It was found that under Bet Dagan conditions (Mediterranean climate) a seed yield of 750 kg/ha was obtained. With 20–25% oil in the seed, this yield is equivalent to 150 l/ha. A 50% content of 3-linolenic acid in the oil will yield 75 l of pure linolenic acid.

Summary. Several leafhopper variants of the Circulifer tenellus complex were collected in “citrus stubborn” affected areas in Israel. Two of these variants transmitted the Spiroplasma citri to Matthiola incana after being injected with the disease agent. The variant from Atriplex halimus was designated Circulifer tenellus-A (CTA) and the variant from Portulaca oleracea was designated Circulifer tenellus-? (CTP). Transmission characteristics were determined for both leafhoppers. A high rate of transmission (43.3%) was obtained by single CTA leafhoppers that were injected with the Amiad S. citri isolate from the Upper Galilee, compared with 7% transmission obtained with the CTP leafhoppers. The Gilgal S. citri isolate from the Jordan Valley, was not transmitted by either. Injection was more effective than acquisition access feeding to render the leafhopper infective for both CTA and CTP. The minimum acquisition access period needed for the CTA variant to transmit the Amiad isolate was 1 h. Longer AAPs did not necessarily result in a higher rate of transmission. The minimum incubation period was 6 days and the maximum was 32 days. The LP50 calculated from the logarithmic curve y = 45.74Ln(x)–53.68 was 9.64 days. The minimum inoculation access period (IAP) was lh. The same transmission parameters for the CTP variant could not be determined, as no transmission was obtained even when groups of five-six insects were placed on a single plant.

The effects of diurnal fluctuations between day and night temperature (DIF) during the early seedling stage of Matthiola incana (stock), Antirrhinum mains (snapdragon), Viola × wittrokiana (pansy) and Impatiens walleriana (Impatiens), were investigated to test whether they persisted.Under positive DIF, seedling height, internode length, and the 1st leaf petiole length were longer than in plants grown under negative DIF. Although positive DIF tended to favor leaf elongation and leaf unfolding rate, in that the leaves during the rapid extension (13 days after treatment started) were always longer than those grown under negative DIF, no significant difference was observed in the final measurement.The elongation response to DIF alteration during the rapid elongation was reflected in plant height, internode length, and leaf petiole length in all plant species. After DIF was altered, a significant difference on the final length was observed between the corresponding treatments (i. e. between positive DIF and alteration from positive to negative DIF, and between negative DIF and alteration from negative to positive DIF treatment). The response to DIF alteration from negative to positive was greater than that from positive to negative. The elongation after DIF alteration was greater in seedlings which were smaller at the time of DIF alteration than in the larger seedlings; the former were under the negative DIF until the alteration while the latter were under the positive DIF. This result could be summarized that the DIF during early nursery stage had a small effect on the growth after the treatment. We concluded that DIF could be applied in seedling production.

In the last few years, a series of investigations has brought to light a mechanism of stabilization of the colorant properties of certain anthocyanins. Intramolecular interactions take place between the chromophore moiety of the anthocyanin and one of its aromatic acid residues, which folds over the chromophore and thus confers protection against hydration and subsequent formation of colorless forms. In our continuing study of the physicochemical properties exhibited by acylated natural anthocyanins, we report here on a series of five structurally related pigments extracted from the violet flowers of Matthiola incana. These pigments all bear the same chromophore moiety, i.e., the cyanidin aglycon, but differ in the degree of glycosylation and acylation. Acidity constants for the deprotonation and hydration equilibria of the flavylium cation, together with rate constants for the hydration step alone were determined from UV-visible absorption measurements. The data support the existence of intramolecular, noncovalent interactions that strongly stabilize the colored forms of the pigments. However, none of the four more heavily substituted anthocyanins follows the above-mentioned mechanism that was previously successfully applied to the study of acylated anthocyanins. Consequently, a new mechanism with a different mathematical treatment is here developed to account for the different behavior exhibited by these distinctive pigments.

To determine the developmental patterns of arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) in three crucifers (Brassicaceae) of differing life histories, we inoculated seedlings of the annual Capsella bursa-pastoris, biennial Hesperis matronalis, and the perennial Matthiola incana with Glomus intraradices. The plants were grown either alone or in a matrix of living roots of the mycotrophic grass Sorghum sudanense. The percent root length colonized was greatest in C. bursa-pastoris and least in H. matronalis. Colonization was greater in plants grown in the grass matrix than in plants grown alone, and colonization in grass matrix-grown plants continued to increase over the 90-day growth period, whereas colonization leveled off or decreased near the end of the growth period in crucifers grown alone. No arbuscules were observed in crucifer roots at any time, which suggests that AM in these crucifers is nonfunctional. Furthermore, the increase in colonization only in pots with both crucifers and active mycotrophic roots suggests that AM development in crucifer roots is primarily the consequence of progressive root senescence in the crucifer and continued inoculum spread from the mycotrophic plant.

Ten acylated pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides were isolated from the red-purple flowers of Matthiola incana, and also pelargonidin 3-glucoside was isolated from the brownish-red flowers of this plant. FAB mass measurements of 10 acylated anthocyanins gave their molecular ions [M]+ at 903-1195 m/z, which were based on acylated pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides with malonic acid, sinapic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid and/or ferulic acid. This was confirmed by the analysis of NMR spectra and the experiments of acid and alkaline hydrolysis. By spectral and chemical methods, seven of the 10 pigments were determined to be pelargonidin 3-O-[2-O-(2-O- (acyl-I)-β- d -xylopyranosyl )-6-O- (acyl-II)-β- d -glucopyranoside ]-5-O-[6-O- (malonyl)-β- d - glucopyranoside ] , in which acyl moieties varied between sinapic, ferulic, caffeic and p-coumaric acids. The occurrence of these pigments was examined in 10 red-purple, 10 salmon-pink, three apricot and three copper colour cultivars of M. incana by HPLC. The acylated pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides were present as the dominant pigments in the red-purple, salmon-pink and apricot colour cultivars. On the other hand, pelargonidin 3-glucoside was present as a dominant anthocyanin in the copper colour cultivars and also pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucoside was confirmed by HPLC as a minor pigment in the copper colour flowers.

A number of pollen protoplasts were isolated enzymatically from mature pollen (tricellular pollen) of Brassica napus and B. campestris. All the protoplasts were viable and had one vegetative and two sperm nuclei. Osmoticum in enzyme solution had much effect on the protoplast isolation. The high efficiency of protoplast isolation (86-88%) was achieved with 1.0M osmoticum (0.8M mannitol+0.2M sucrose). Protoplast yield decreased greatly with reducing osmoticum. Pollen protoplasts were released from mature pollen of 13 strains of 10 species classified in tribe Brassiceae with a frequency of 15-64%, but not from those of Matthiola incana in tribe Matthioleae.

Agrostis capillaris ’Parys’, Beta vulgaris cicla ’Fordhook Giant’ (Swiss chard), Brassica oleracea ’Lion Heart’ (cabbage), Cineraria ’Miranda White’, Festiica rubra litoralis ‘Merlin’, Matthiola incana ‘Austral Apricot’ (stock), Phaseolus vulgaris ’Hawksbury Wonder’ (bean), and Polycarpaea spirosrylis (Copper Weed) were grown in pine bark‐based soilless media of pH 4.5, 5.5, and 6.5 amended with copper or zinc sulfate or composts containing high concentrations of either copper (Cu) or zinc (Zn). Growth responses ranged from none, through iron (Fe) deficiency, to symptoms of severe Cu or Zn toxicity. Correlations between growth and shoot Cu or Zn concentration on the one hand and total metal content of the medium and several measures of extractable metal content on the other were obtained. Medium pH had to be included in regressions to obtain high correlation coefficients. Total metal content and DTPA‐ and NH4OAc‐extractable metals were about equally well correlated with growth response in these e...

The inheritance of flowering time (FT) in a cross between early-flowering (P1) and late-flowering (P2) Matthiola incana genotypes, was investigated. The distribution of FT in F1, F2 and BC1 generations indicated an additive genetic control with partial dominance of earlines alleles, particularly with regard to double-flowered plants. Single-flowered plants flowered earlier than double-flowered plants, averaged within both parental lines; however, the mean difference between singles and doubles was 16 days for P1 as compared with 6 days for P2. This flower-doubleness related delay in FT was found to be heritable, by analysis of F3 family means. The implications of these results on the breeding of stock cultivars is discussed.

The inheritance and linkage relationships of a leaf morphology gene of Matthiola incana were investigated. The allele for sinuate leaf shape, c, was found to be recessive to the allele for normal entire leaf, C. The c allele was tightly linked to the recessive allele for double flowering, s. The recombination frequency between the two loci was close to zero. The mode of inheritance of the C gene was in accordance with the hypothesis that a pollen lethal gene is responsible for the constant 1:1 segregation ratio of double-flowered (= male sterile) to single-flowered (= fertile) plants in most M. incana breeding lines. The sinuate leaf allele seemed to reduce the frequency and delay the flowering of double-flowered plants. The importance of the C gene as a double flowering marker in the cultivation and the breeding of M. incana is discussed.

Eight bedding plant species were grown from plugs obtained from two sources. The plugs were transplanted into jumbo six packs and sprayed with a solution of chlormequat/daminozide with concentrations of 1000/800, 1250/1250, or 1500/5000 mg·L-1 when new growth was ≈5 cm in height or width. Three different species were grown in the fall (Dianthus chinensis L., `Telstar Mix', Petunia ×hybrida Hort. Vilm.-Andr., `Dreams Red', and Viola ×wittrockiana Gams., `Bingo Blue'), winter [Antirrhinum majus L., `Tahiti Mix', Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br., `Midget Red', and P. × hybrida, `Dreams Mix'], and spring [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don, `Cooler Pink', Salvia splendens F. Sellow ex Roem. & Schult., `Empire Red', and Begonia ×semperflorens-cultorum Hort., `Cocktail Mix']. The treatments significantly reduced finished plant size of all species for each season. There was a significant difference in finish size between sources for Dianthus, Antirrhinum, Matthiola, Catharanthus, Salvia, and Begonia. The efficacy of chlormequat/daminozide also differed for each source of Dianthus, Matthiola, and Begonia, but the treatments minimized the differences in finish size between sources for Petunia and Viola. Chemical names used: (2-chlorethyl) trimethylammonium chloride (chlormequat); (N-dimethylaminosuccinamic acid) (daminozide).

The effects of shading and fertilizing pre-treatments of mother stock (Matthiola incana R. Br.) plants and NH4+ : NO3- ratio in the medium on in vitro micropropagation through leaf and hypocotyl explants were investigated.1. In leaf explant culture, (1) shoot formation was enhanced when 'Ginshio' explants were taken from the mother plants grown under 75% shading and 1/2 strength Ootsuka liquid fertilizer. In 'Yukimatsuri' shoot formation was inhibited by shading mother plants grown in 1/2 and 1/4 strengths of Ootsuka fertilizer. (2) Reducing NH4+ : NO3- ratio in the medium promoted shoot formation in both cultivars.2. In hypocotyl explant culture, (1) shading mother plants for two weeks after sowing resulted in less shoot formation in both cultivars. (2) Addition of NH4+ to the medium, by which the ratios of NH4+ : NO3- were adjusted to 1 : 10 and 1 : 2 in 'Littlejem Yellow' and 'Yukimatsuri' respectively, enhanced shoot formation and increased the number of shoots per explant. The highest rate of shoot formation was 85% in both cultivars.3. Most shoots regenerated from leaf and hypocotyl explants appeared vitrified. Vitrified leaves, unlike normal ones, (1) had higher moisture content; (2) were larger; and (3) had poorly developed vascular bundles and palisade tissues. The stomata of vitrified leaves were frequently located above and below the epidermal cell layer and distributed irregularly.

The fatty acid composition of seed-oil of breeding lines and F1 hybrids of Matthiola incana was analyzed, using direct esterification and gas chromatography. The breeding lines tested differed significantly with respect to the levels of palmitic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. Embryonic-stage heterosis in linolenic acid concentration was demonstrated by F1 hybrid seeds, derived from mating horticulturally different lines of M. incana. Linolenic acid content was negatively correlated with both oleic acid content (r=−0.85) and linoleic acid content (r=−0.66). None of the breeding lines or the F1 hybrids significantly passed the limit of 67% linolenic acid. Possible genetic and biochemical explanations for the above phenotypic data are discussed.

Cheiranthus fenestralis Linnaeus, Species Plantarum 2: 1198. 1753. "Habitat - - - –” RCN: 4818. Neotype (Gowler in Cafferty & Jarvis in Taxon 51: 532. 2002): France. Schistes argileux du Bord de mer à Toulon (Var), 10 May 1860, Fl. Galliae et Germaniae exsiccata de C. Billot No. 3009. Rec. par A. Huet (BM-000576298). Current name: Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. (Brassicaceae)., Published as part of Jarvis, Charlie, 2007, Chapter 7: Linnaean Plant Names and their Types (part C), pp. 370-473 in Order out of Chaos. Linnaean Plant Types and their Types, London :Linnaean Society of London in association with the Natural History Museum on page 408, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.291971

Rhizoctonia solani is a species complex consisting of 13 different anastomosis groups (AGs) and numerous subgroups. Each AG or subgroup is usually associated with a particular host. In 2014, stock plants ( Matthiola incana , Brassicaceae)…

Cotton fibres are single, highly elongated cells derived from the outer epidermis of ovules, and are developmentally similar to the trichomes of Arabidopsis thaliana. To identify genes involved in the molecular control of cotton fibre initiation, we isolated four putative homologues of the Arabidopsis trichome-associated gene TRANSPARENT TESTA GLABRA1 (TTG1). All four WD-repeat genes are derived from the ancestral D diploid genome of tetraploid cotton and are expressed in many tissues throughout the plant, including ovules and growing fibres. Two of the cotton genes were able to restore trichome formation in ttg1 mutant Arabidopsis plants. Both these genes also complemented the anthocyanin defect in a white-flowered Matthiola incana ttg1 mutant. These results demonstrate parallels in differentiation between trichomes in cotton and Arabidopsis, and indicate that these cotton genes may be functional homologues of AtTTG1.

Leaf pigments, such as chlorophyll and carotenoids, are essential plant molecules. They provide carbohydrates and energy during all plant life. Leaf pigments are also important parameters of decorative plants, such as floriculture items, cut foliage and flowers. Leaf yellowing is a form of senescence caused by an internal hormone imbalance, such as a lack of cytokinins. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in total carotenoids and endogenous ABA in cut flower stock leaves during post-harvest life. The effect of pulse treatment with 5 or 10 μM thidiazuron (TDZ), 150 mg l−1 8-hydroxyquinoline sulphate (8-HQS) and combinations of TDZ with 8-HQS on total carotenoids and ABA concentration was also investigated. Results showed that total carotenoids drastically decreased from 1548 μg cm−2, until reaching 565 μg cm−2 at the end of vase life. Endogenous ABA strongly increased at the same time, going from 167 ng g−1 DW at the beginning of the experiment to 1322 ng g−1 DW at the end of vase life. The TDZ inhibited carotenoid degradation, but did not affect the ABA concentration, while the 8-HQS did not prevent carotenoid degradation and the ABA concentration was only slightly affected. ABA seems to be a secondary senescence bio-product that may have a synergic effect with other senescence inducers dramatically accelerating leaf senescence.

The major anthocyanin in the leaves and stems of Arabidopsis thaliana has been isolated and shown to be cyanidin 3-O-[2-O(2-O-(sinapoyl)-beta-D-xylopyranosyl)-6-O-(4-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)-p-coumaroyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside] 5-O-[6-O-(malonyl) beta-D-glucopyranoside]. This anthocyanin is a glucosylated version of one of the anthocyanins found in the flowers of the closely related Matthiola incana.

Seeds from 15 Cruciferae species, native to Israel, were collected and examined for fatty acids in order to identify species rich in fatty acids with potential for industrial use from the wild gene collection. In species rich in erucic acid (22:1), such as Crambe and Sinapis a low content of polyunsaturated linolenic acid (18:3) was found; the same negative correlation was observed in species low in erucic acid ( Matthiola , Lepidium ), in which 64 and 42% linolenic acid, respectively was found. No correlation was detected between the content of erucic and oleic acids, as opposed to the situation in cultivated rape seeds. Plants with different oil compositions were found in the same natural habitat. Fatty acid profiles could not be related to ecological conditions.

Seeds of Matthiola incana contain oil rich (55-65%) in (n-3) linolenic acid. Selected lines were developed and evaluated for their agronomic and chemical parameters. Extracted oil was fed for 6 weeks to rats, which were compared with rats fed a diet containing coconut oil or sunflower oil. Cholesterol levels were significantly lowest in rats fed diets rich in M. incana oil (27% reduction), and triglycerides were significantly lower in rats receiving either M. incana or sunflower oil (36% reduction). The contents of arachidonic acid and other (n-6) fatty acids were significantly the lowest in the liver and plasma of rats that had received M. incana oil. The levels of (n-3) fatty acids were significantly greater in both the liver and plasma of rats fed M. incana oil. The ratio of (n-3)/(n-6) long-chain fatty acids in the plasma was 7 times higher in rats fed with M. incana oil than in those fed with sunflower oil and 6 times higher than in those fed coconut oil. The results demonstrate for the first time a beneficial effect of dietary M. incana oil in reducing cholesterol levels and increasing (n-3) fatty acid levels in the plasma. This new, terrestrial plant source of (n-3) fatty acids could replace marine oils and thereby contribute beneficially to the human diet.

El alhelí es una especie muy conocida en casi todo el mundo. Se ha empleado para la producción de flor cortada desde hace más de 100 años. Muy valorada siempre por la fragancia de sus flores, desde hace unos seis años la obtención de nuevas selecciones, con espigas más largas, flores dobles más voluminosas que llenan completamente la espiga floral, hojas más pequeñas y tallos más largos y menos gruesos, ha aumentado extraordinariamente su aprecio por los floristas y consumidores y el interés por su cultivo. En la actualidad, por el aroma de sus flores, la buena longitud de sus varas y sus espigas florales totalmente llenas, se utiliza principalmente en el adorno de altares de iglesia, solo o acompañado de gladiolo y, a veces, de crisantemo-margarita. También se emplea para adornar carrozas, escenarios, exposiciones, centros para fiestas. En centros para la casa suelen ponerse varas sueltas. Su cotización en el mercado puede igualar a la del gladiolo, en determinadas épocas. Es una especie que, para conseguir la mejor calidad, debe cultivarse en invernadero, sin necesidad de calefacción en zonas con temperaturas suaves en invierno. En las condiciones de la Comunidad Valenciana se pueden obtener alhelíes de buena calidad desde noviembre a mayo. Por otra parte, cabe destacar también que el alhelí es una planta entre cuyas plagas no hay ninguna que requiera frecuentes tratamientos fitosanitarios.

Complexation of aluminium and gallium ions with synthetic anthocyanin models and natural anthocyanins extracted from the blue flowers of Evolvulus pilosus cv ‘Blue Daze’ and the violet flowers of Matthiola incana has been thoroughly investigated in aqueous solution. From UV–VIS spectroscopic data collected at pH 2–5, the presence of complexes, involving not only the coloured forms but also the colourless forms of the pigments is demonstrated. A theoretical treatment is developed for the calculation of the corresponding stability constants. The pigments studied throughout this work can be divided into two series, one sharing a cyanidin chromophore and the other a delphinidin one. Within both series, individual pigments are distinguished according to the degree and type of glycosylation and/or acylation. Intramolecular effects such as copigmentation of anthocyanin–aluminium complexes and the effect of the presence of a malonyl group on the formation of those complexes are discussed. These results are important to plant pigmentation and, for instance, a narrow pH domain in which colour amplification due to complexation is at a maximum has been found.

Flower color was modified in forsythia (Forsythia x intermedia cv ‘Spring Glory’) by inducing anthocyanin synthesis in petals through sequential Agrobacterium-mediated transformation with dihydroflavonol 4-reductase from Antirrhinum majus (AmDFR) and anthocyanidin synthase from Matthiola incana (MiANS) genes. This is the second report of flower color modification of an ornamental shrub after rose, and the first time an ANS gene is used for this purpose. Double transformants (AmDFR+MiANS) displayed a novel bronze-orange petal color, caused by the de novo accumulation of cyanidin-derived anthocyanins over the carotenoid yellow background of wild type (wt), and intense pigmentation of vegetative organs. Transformation with single genes (either AmDFR or MiANS) produced no change in flower color, showing a multistep control of late anthocyanin pathway in petals of forsythia. Analysis of relevant late flavonoid pathway genes – an endogenous flavonoid glycosyltransferase (FiFGT) and transformed DFR and ANS genes – showed appropriate expression in flower organs. Functional characterization of FiFGT expressed in E. coli revealed its ability to metabolize both flavonols and anthocyanidin substrates, a prerequisite for effective anthocyanin accumulation in petals of plants transformed with constructs leading to anthocyanidin synthesis. Biochemical analyses of flavonoid compounds in petals and leaves showed that, besides anthocyanin induction in petals of double transformants, the accumulation pattern of flavan-3-ols was quantitatively and qualitatively modified in petals and leaves of transformants, in agreement with the most recent model proposed for flavan-3-ol synthesis. On the other hand, phenylpropanoid, flavone and flavonol pools were not quantitatively affected, indicating a tight regulation of early flavonoid pathway.

A protocol for obtaining regenerated fertile plants from mesophyll protoplasts of three lines of Matthiola incana is described. Protoplasts were isolated from leaves of 21-28 days old Matthiola plants grown in controlled environment. Sustained divisions were achieved when protoplasts were embedded in sodium alginate. Up to 2.0 % of the protoplasts developed into colonies which could be transferred to shoot regeneration media. More than 25 % of the obtained calluses regenerated shoots. About 4 % of these shoots could be rooted and after transfer to soil phenotypically normal plants have been obtained.

Anthocyanin chemistry and biochemistry have been studied for many decades, largely out of a desire to understand the basis of colors produced in a variety of plant parts. The color of flowers has received particular attention. Interest in flower color was focused not only in chemistry and biochemistry, but also in the genetics of flower color in a number of amenable plants, including Petunia hybrida, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon), Dianthus caryophyllus (carnation), and Matthiola incana (stock). Interest in the genetics of anthocyanin biosynthesis was driven not only by a desire to understand the basis of flower color, but also out of an interest to manipulate flower color for commercial purposes. The subject of this discussion is similarly two-fold; fundamental understanding of the factors determining flower color, and control of flower color for commercial purposes can be achieved through genetic engineering.

The genus Limonium, formerly called Statice (family Plumbaginaceae) comprises 150 species. They are widely distributed in coastal areas and plains throughout the world in both tropical and temperate regions such as Europe, the Middle East, Latin America, Africa, China, and Japan (Baileys 1978; Tsurushima 1990). Among them, 15–20 horticulturally cultivated species are estimated, involving mainly L. sinuatum, L. bonduelli, L. dregeanum, L. sinense,L. latijolium, L. psylliostachys,L. hellidifolium, L. gmelinii, and L. perezii (Sato 1989). Until 10 years ago, these species were grown in border and rock gardens or as dry flowers in European countries. Since then, however, they have gradually been produced as cut flowers in Japan and Holland, with the development of mass-propagation techniques using plant tissue culture. At present, Limonium species have become one of the important cut flower crops in Japan, in total cultivated area, next to gypsophilla (Gypsophila elegans M.B.) and stock (Matthiola incana R.Br.) The cultivated area of Limonium species in Japan was approximately 350 ha in 1990.

A herbicidal compound was isolated from extracts ofMatthiola incana and identified as sulforaphene (4-methylsulfinyl-3-butenyl isothiocyanate). The ED50 of this compound against velvetleaf seedlings was approximately 2×10(-4) M. Glucoraphenin, the glucosinolate that is the natural precursor of sulforaphene, was less phytotoxic, with an ED50 of near 6×10(-3)M.

A disease of stock (Matthiola incana) in Australia, caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola, is described for the first time. The pathogen is systemic, causing vascular necrosis and progresses basipetally from infected flowers. Bacteria were isolated from seed produced from inoculated blossoms; however, transmission to seedlings grown from infected seed was not proven. The symptoms differ from those of a disease reported to be caused by P. syringae pv. syringae.

A cDNA clone (pcM12) of the chalcone synthase (CHS) of Matthiola incana R. Br. (Brassicaceae) was isolated from a cDNA library, sequenced and analysed. It comprises the complete coding sequence for the CHS and 5' and 3' untranslated regions. The deduced amino acid sequence shows that the Matthiola incana CHS consists of 394 amino acid residues. Comparison with CHS amino acid sequences of other plants indicates more than 82% homology.

The influence of irrigation with saline water on the seed yield, oil content, and quality of stock (Matthiola incana), an oilseed plant rich in omega-3, was studied under greenhouse and field conditions as part of a study to assess the potential of stock to replace low cash field crops in areas of marginal water use due to water scarcity. Water of electrical conductivity ≤6 dS/m did not have a negative effect on yield parameters. Total yield, seed number, and oil content were not affected by salinity, whereas the content of omega-3 was significantly increased.

Stock plants (Matthiola incana) are oil plants rich in omega-3 linolenic acid. The possibility of irrigating stock plants with saline water was tested under greenhouse conditions. High salinity levels affect plant growth expressed as plant height and accumulation of fresh weight. This is also true for the number of flowers and fruits and for seed yield. It can be concluded that irrigation of stock with saline water is feasible and could be recommended as an alternative approach to save fresh water.

Accessions ofM. tricuspidata (L.) R. Br.,M. aspera Boiss. andMatthiola longipetala (Vent.) DC. were tested for their reaction to bacterial blight of stock (M. incana R. Br.), caused byXanthomonas campestris pv.incanae. Potted plants were sprayed with bacterial cell suspension, adjusted to 108 cells/ml. The tested accessions of the three species were found highly resistant, while control plants ofM. incana were severely infected. InterspecificF 1 hybrid plants betweenM. incana andM. tricuspidata also exhibited high resistance to the disease. The implications and the expected difficulties in breeding stock for bacterial blight resistance are discussed.

After application of dihydroflavonols, naringenin, or suitable substituted chalcones, anthocyanins were synthesized in three genetically defined acyanic lines of Matthiola incana, indicating that the corresponding genetic block concerns the synthesis of the chalcone-flavanone intermediate. Independent of the precursors used, only cyanidin derivatives were produced. This supports the hypothesis that the oxygenation pattern of the B ring in anthocyanin formation is determined at a stage of a C15 intermediate. In addition to the gene responsible for the oxygenation of the 3' position, the genes responsible for the glycosylation in the 3 and 5 positions of the anthocyanin molecule, and those responsible for the acylation with various hydroxycinnamic acids can still exert their influence. Two further genetically defined lines containing flavonol glycosides were not able to synthesize anthocyanins with any of the precursors tested. Their genetic blocks are assumed to be localized after dihydroflavonol synthesis but before anthocyanin formation.

Petals of genetically defined lines of Matthiola incana R.Br. contain a glycosyltransferase which catalyzes the transfer of the xylosyl moiety of uridine 5'-diphosphate-xylose to the glucose of cyanidin 3-glucoside. The enzyme also uses 3-glucosides of pelargonidin and delphinidin, cyanidin 3-(p-coumaroyl)-glucoside and 3-(caffeoyl)-glucoside as substrates. The xylosyltransferase exhibits a pH optimum of 6.5. The enzyme activity depends on the stage of bud and flower development. Accumulation of cyanidin 3-glucoside during flower development is correlated with xylosyltransferase activity.

Isolated T4 phage DNA (ϱ = 1.694 g/ml) is applied to seedlings of the crucifer Maltliiola incana (DNA density ϱ = 1.698 g/ml). The phage DNA can partly be reextracted from the plants in a specific DNA fraction, which is predominantly characterized by its unusual high density (high density complex = HDC; ϱ = 1.724 g/ml). DNA: DNA hybridization studies show that phage specific DNA sequences are preserved in the HDC. Results of BrdUrd labeling of the plant DNA before and during incubation with T4 DNA suggest that the HDC is composed of T4 DNA and a plant DNA component of high density. The analysis of ultrasonicated HDC confirms this suggestion. The ability of plant cells to recognize and handle T4 DNA specifically is discussed.

The activity of five enzymes concerning anthocyanin biosynthesis as well as the anthocyanin accumulation were studied during the development of buds and flowers of Matthiola incana. The investigations included the first three enzymes in the anthocyanin pathway, chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase and flavanone 3-hydroxylase, and the flavonoid-modifying enzymes, flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase and flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase. The bud and flower development was subdivided into eight stages with respect to morphological criteria. On a fresh weight basis, a substantial correlation between anthocyanin content and the activities of all of the five enzymes were found in the various developmental stages. Furthermore, the anthocyanins formed are obviously not or only less subject to degradation. Although all maxima of activity proved to be in buds, clear differences were observed between the five enzymes with regard to increase and stage of maximum activity. The isolation of other enzymes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis is likely to be most successful in the bud stages.

Chalcone synthase activity was demonstrated in enzyme preparations from flowers of defined genotypes of Matthiola incana (stock). The product formed from 4-coumaroyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA was naringenin and not the isomeric chalcone, because chalcone isomerase was also present in the reaction mixture. Chalcone synthase activity could be detected only in flower extracts of genotypes with wild-type alleles at the locus f Thus, the interruption of the anthocyanin pathway in white flowering lines with recessive alleles (ff) of this gene is clearly due to a lack of this enzyme activity. Independent on the genetic state of the locus b which controls the formation of pelargonidin or cyanidin, respectively, in the flowers, 4-coumaroyl-CoA was the only suitable substrate for the condensation reaction.

Investigations on metric characters of defined genotypes of Matthiola incana, and application of different linear models for the estimation of genetic parameters, indicate that the use of midparental value as a reference point results in parameter estimates that do not correspond to the actual biological situation. Use of the most recessive genotype as a reference point causes all of the contributions of single loci to be unidirectional and positive, and all the allelic and nonallelic interactions to be unidirectional and negative, in accord with our Model 2.2. The results indicate that the phenotypic response to allelic substitutions follows the characteristics of a saturation curve. The possibility is discussed that the saturation character results from regulating processes, whereas deviations of single measurements from the response curve, or response surface, reflect real interactions between allelic and nonallelic genes.