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Sponsorship of mega-sports events continues to be one of the most popular forms of marketing. The international appeal and reach of the Olympic Games, in particular, is amongst the top advertising and sponsorship opportunities in the world for international branding. In turn, the marketing value provided by the Olympic Games has attracted the interest of multiple sponsors in various categories, leading to competitive hosting bids and ambush marketing. This study examined mega-sports event interest as a determinant of sponsorship and ambush marketing attitudes, as well as the purchase intention of affiliated properties during the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games. In total, 619 consumer surveys were collected from four different Canadian cities. Results showed that overall consumer interest was high, and that their purchase intention was strongly influenced by level of interest., The Role of Mega-Sports Event Interest in Sponsorship and Ambush Marketing Attitudes The sponsorship of mega-sports events has become a marketing tool of choice for corporations seeking reach and branding [...]

This study, guided by the relationship marketing theoretical framework, adopted an observational netnography method to investigate professional sport teams' use of Twitter as a relationship marketing tool. Specifically, the study focused on the three core components of the theoretical framework of relationship marketing: communication, interaction, and value. The observational netnography is based on data gathered from the official Twitter account of 20 professional sport teams in the four major North American leagues over a seven-month period. Results outline seven emergent communication types, six interaction practices, and ten values (co)created by the teams or/and fans. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as impetus for future research, are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the authors address a literature gap with regard to sponsorship outcomes of mega-events and their host countries. This paper is about research that investigates the interrelatedness of three important images—host country, mega-event, and sponsor images—from the perspective of a cameo appearance building on the sponsorship and brand placement literature. It is based on the premise that the host city makes a cameo appearance during a mega-event for sport tourists while the event itself makes a cameo appearance for residents of the host country. The results indicate that mega-events can have a transitory influence, and that cameo effects exist, but that the patterns of relationships are different for sport tourists and residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hosting of a mega–sport event (MSE) has a number of implications for a host country, some positive and some negative. This research explores the influence of the on-field performance of the host country’s national team (NT), in this case for the Olympic Games, on the decision to bid for and potentially host such an MSE. Previous studies have normally focused on residents and international tourists who attend the event, thereby not considering the views of (i) nonresident communities of the host country and (ii) international and domestic spectators. This research responds by investigating the impact of individual associations with the (Olympic) NT through examining the expectations for and perceived performance of the NT on behavioral attitudes of domestic (Canadian) and foreign (American) residents toward the NT itself, the MSE, and the host country, around the 2010 Winter Vancouver Olympic Games. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Rebecca Griffin, a student-athlete, is coming off the best off-season training program of her 8 years as a rower. She is highly motivated knowing that a strong summer season could propel her to be both a major contributor to her university team in the fall and a contender to make it to the National Under 23 team. However, before she can pursue her athletic dreams, she needs to decide where she is going to row this summer and figure out if she can afford to pay for it. She needs to assess and consider the benefits and drawbacks of her summer rowing club options. Her considerations include club registration fees, travel, equipment, coaching, and competition entry costs for each, and how they will contribute to her career goals in rowing. Therefore, while working toward her goals, Rebecca must consider the affordability of her options, and make the best decision she can. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, the independent sales contractor (ISC) has emerged as both an important distribution channel and a management challenge. This study makes two contributions to this evolving field. First, it explores the interrelations of the psychological contract with sales performance, voluntary turnover and organisational advocacy of ISCs, which have hitherto been largely unexplored. Second, it examines differences between high- and low-performing sales contractors on these linkages, due to findings in the literature that a small number of sales contractors often achieve a majority of sales. Based on survey data as well as 7 years of contractor-level data related to sales performance and voluntary turnover (n = 189), results indicate that psychological contract fulfilment and perceived dependency are important determinants of subsequent sales performance, voluntary turnover and organisational advocacy, with significant differences reported between high- and low-performing ISCs. A notable finding pertinent for sales managers responsible for managing ISCs is that high-performing sales contractors are motivated by psychological contract fulfilment and a low perception of dependency, while low-performing sales contractors are more likely to act as advocates for the firm due to perceived dependency, but may concurrently engage in organisational advocacy as a means to leave the firm. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This work critically assesses the history and current state of social media scholarship in sport management research. Methodologically, the study is based on a comprehensive census review of the current body of literature in the area of social media. The review identifies 123 social media articles in sport management research that were mined from a cross-disciplinary examination of 29 scholarly journals from January 2008 (earliest found) to June 2014. The work identifies the topic areas, the platforms, the theories, and the research methods that have received the (most/least) attention of the social media research community, and provides suggestions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the role of athletes in influencing the image of an Olympic Games host country via social media, specifically the image of the country of Brazil during the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. The study employed a content analysis method based on data gathered from Canadian Olympic athletes' (n = 314) social media platforms, namely Twitter, Instagram and Facebook over a period of three months. The study identified eight categories of Brazil's image communicated on the athletes' social media platforms. These include urbanscape, natural environment, country's landmarks, social issues, cultural assets, emotional connection, games operations, and ease of travel. The most often communicated posts were in the urbanscape category (44.0%) followed by natural environment (20.2%) and country landmarks (17.2%). Contributions to the field, managerial implications, and ideas for future research are included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an accepted tool in the promotional mix of organizations, sponsorship and sport sponsorship have become everyday marketing practice, in which sponsors invest in sponsees in return for marketing value. The implementation, or fulfillment, as it is often called in practice, of a sponsorship involves three main activities: activation, evaluation and servicing. While the literature has investigated both activation and evaluation, work in the area of servicing is limited. Guided by a sponsorship-linked marketing lens, a longitudinal study of sponsorship organizations was undertaken followed by a best-worst scaling experiment. Longitudinal results inform us that sponsees are underservicing sponsors; however, the best-worst scaling experiment finds a reduced gap. Results illustrate that although gaps between importance and performance perceptions are relatively small for sponsors, sponsees and agencies, a mixed pattern of agreement and disagreement exists between each of the three respondent groups in relation to the specific importance and performance dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research question: The purpose of this study is to examine the Olympic and Paralympic bid exploration process adopted by Calgary, Canada ('Calgary Model') to explore whether it provides a template on how future communities could leverage bid exploration processes to generate social capital though increased network connectivity and community ownership. In doing so, we examine the four research questions: Research Question 1: How did the Calgary Model embed community values as central to all decision-making processes? Research Question 2: How did the Calgary Model engage diverse stakeholders, particularly community interest groups, in the strategic activities? Research Question 3: How did the Calgary Model empower communities to become agents of change? Research Question 4: How did the Calgary Model provide sustained open communication towards mutual learning? Research methods: Guided by social capital theory, the researchers conducted 19 in-depth, one-on-one interviews with a sample of individuals engaged in the Calgary bid exploration process. Results and findings: The results identified ten composite themes with an overall conclusion that the process Calgary used did not sufficiently generate social capital through maximizing network connectivity and community ownership. Implications: Resulting from our data analysis we developed a conceptual social capital assessment tool and five principles to support event organizers in designing processes that help to maximize the generation of community social capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport and communication have existed since humans began interacting with one another, with organized sport and planned communication formalized for hundreds of years. However, social science scholars have only taken a high-level of interest in sport communication over the past decade. Over the past 10 years, much has been written and researched in the field, and its formalization continues, justifying a need for a review of its current status and the articulation of its future directions. Thus, this article identifies and critically discusses the developments in the field of sport communication in terms of its academic infrastructures and the resulting body of knowledge. It also assesses how the field's developments are affecting scholarly advancements and identifies areas of "disciplinary pain." The work concludes by providing suggestions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Without exception, all professional sport teams in North America use social media to communicate with fans. Sport communication professionals use Twitter as one of the strategic tools of engagement, yet there remains a lack of understanding about how users are motivated and gratified in their Twitter use. Drawing on a specific sample from the Twitter followers of the Canadian Football League, the researchers used semistructured in-depth interviews, content analysis, and an online survey to seek an understanding of what motivates and satisfies Twitter followers of professional sport teams, measured through the gratifications sought and the fulfillment of these motives through the perceived gratifications obtained. The results add to the sport communications literature by finding 4 primary gratifications sought by Twitter users: interaction, promotion, live game updates, and news. Professional sport teams can improve strategic fan engagement by better understanding how Twitter followers use and seek gratification in the social-media experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the determinants of live game Regional Sport Network (RSN) average annual ratings in three major North American professional sport leagues: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Hockey League (NHL). A conceptual model of the determinants of club RSN ratings is constructed based on a marketing management framework. Five categories of determinants are identified: Product-Club, Product-Player, Brand-Club, Brand-Player, and Place. Data were collected over a 12-year period (1999–2011) for a total of 46 independent variables. The list of independent variables was reduced to 16 factors and a proxy variable for each of the factors identified. Univariate and multivariate analyses were undertaken. Strong support for the each of the five categories in the conceptual model was found for the pooled sample of all three leagues. Results at the individual league level revealed league differences in the relative importance of individual variables. Implications for future research and practice are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relationship marketing (RM) is about retaining customers through the achievement of long-term mutual satisfaction by businesses and their customers. Sport organizations, to retain customers by establishing, maintaining, and enhancing relationships, need to communicate and engage in dialogue with their customers. To achieve this on an ongoing basis, sport organizations need to employ effective communication platforms. In this regard, social media (SM) is becoming an ideal tool for a continuing 2-way dialogue. However, the effects of SM, primarily in terms of addressing RM goals, are not yet well understood. This study explores the opportunities and challenges facing managers in sport organizations in using SM in an RM strategy. Eight case studies were undertaken on organizations that put on running events. The article presents the findings on the use, opportunities, and challenges of SM and recommendations encouraging continued investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social Media (SM) is an established channel by which organisations can create and seek to co-create value with consumers and other stakeholders. However, the role of SM in building relationships (i.e. relationship marketing) is uncertain. Thus, this research aims to investigate the use of SM as a relationship marketing tool. The study adopted a qualitative research approach drawing from multi-domain data sources (i.e. SM platform domain, organisation domain, and consumer domain). Three different but interrelated studies were conducted. The findings from the three studies are integrated to construct a multi-dimensional understanding of the place and use of social media in relationship marketing. Results inform that SM is providing new directions to relationship marketing, support it as an effective channel in realising relationship marketing goals. Theoretically, the work has extended Grönroos's relationship marketing process model through the lens of social media. Practically, results suggest that managers should implement activities to further foster the value of social media that facilitates brand humanisation, enhances product experience, empowers audiences to be informed consumers, and provides customer services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to explore emerging trends in Esport sponsorship from the perspective of the industry's practitioners. A series of expert interviews were conducted with two expert groups in the Simulated Professional Sports (SPS) genre of the Esport industry: property executive and sponsorship executives. Findings outline six emerging trends in Esport sponsorship: the generational challenge, the SPS community's bond, converging SPS digital assets and sponsorship, authenticity and SPS sponsorship, endemic and non-endemic sponsorship, and the potential of Esport athletes. Theoretical and practical implications as well as suggestions for future research are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport and physical activity are still spaces in which gender norms inform preferences and participation. But recent literature has found that certain organized spaces, such as commercialized competitive fitness clubs, may be creating a place in which a collective identity can break down gender norms and provide new opportunities for women. We surveyed more than 30,000 participants of the CrossFit Games Open and analyzed men's and women's athletic identity and behavioral involvement with CrossFit. We found that men's and women's identity with the activity are constructed differently, and that women overall have more salient CrossFit identities. However, gender still plays a role in participants' behaviors, as women engage with the activity less overall. These kinds of clubs, then, may be important tools for creating opportunity for women in sport, but further research is needed to understand the specific mechanisms through which this can be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]