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Although market-based incentives have helped resolve many environmental challenges, conservation markets still play a relatively minor role in wildlife management. Establishing property rights for environmental goods and allowing trade between resource extractors and resource conservationists may offer a path forward in conserving charismatic species like whales, wolves, turtles, and sharks. In this paper, we provide a conceptual model for implementing a conservation market for wildlife and evaluate how such a market could be applied to three case studies for whales (minke [Balaenoptera acutorostrata], bowhead [Balaena mysticetus], and gray [Eschrictius robustus]). We show that, if designed and operated properly, such a market could ensure persistence of imperiled populations, while simultaneously improving the welfare of resource harvesters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Western Arctic bowhead whale ( Balaena mysticetus) is highly adapted to sea ice and annually migrates through the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas. While the overall distribution and seasonal movements of bowhead whales are mostly understood, information about their distribution in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea in early to mid-summer has not been well documented. In July 2011, we conducted an exploratory flight in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea, north of Camden Bay (71°N 144°W), near the location of a single satellite-tagged bowhead whale. Eighteen bowhead whales were observed, and behavior consistent with feeding was documented. To our knowledge, this is the first documentation of behavior consistent with feeding north of Camden Bay in mid-July. Few studies have focused on bowhead whale distribution in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea in early to mid-summer, and no long-term, region-wide surveys have been conducted during summer. Bowhead whales are already exposed to anthropogenic disturbance in the Canadian Beaufort Sea in summer, the Alaskan Beaufort Sea in fall, and the Chukchi and Bering seas from fall through spring. The presence of bowhead whale aggregations in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea in summer should be considered when assessing the cumulative effects of human-related activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because of their reliance on the harvest of fish and game, Alaskan rural communities have experienced a variety of impacts from climate change, the effects of which are amplified at high latitudes. We collaborated with hunters from the coastal community of Wainwright, Alaska, to document their observations of environmental change (e.g., sea ice, wind, temperature) and the implications of those changes for opportunities to hunt bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) during spring and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) during summer. We integrated hunter observations on wind with statistical analysis of daily wind speed data collected in the nearby community of Barrow, Alaska, between 1971 and 2010 to characterize changes in the number of days with suitable hunting conditions. Hunters in Wainwright currently observe fewer days than in previous decades with wind conditions suitable for safely hunting bowhead whales and caribou. The statistical analysis of wind speed data supported these conclusions and suggested that the annual windows of opportunity for hunting each species have decreased by up to seven days since 1971. This study demonstrates the potential power of collaboration between local communities and researchers to characterize the societal impacts of climate change. Continued collaborative research with residents of rural northern Alaskan communities could produce knowledge and develop tools to help rural Alaskans adapt to novel social-ecological conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remains of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) harvested by Iñupiat whalers are deposited in bone piles along the coast of Alaska and have become persistent and reliable food sources for polar bears (Ursus maritimus). The importance of bone piles to individuals and the population, the patterns of use, and the number, sex, and age of bears using these resources are poorly understood. We implemented barbed-wire hair snaring to obtain genetic identities from bears using the Point Barrow bone pile in winter 2010-11. Eighty-three percent of genotyped samples produced individual and sex identification. We identified 97 bears from 200 samples. Using genetic mark-recapture techniques, we estimated that 228 bears used the bone pile during November to February, which would represent approximately 15% of the Southern Beaufort Sea polar bear subpopulation, if all bears were from this subpopulation. We found that polar bears of all age and sex classes simultaneously used the bone pile. More males than females used the bone pile, and males predominated in February, likely because 1/3 of adult females would be denning during this period. On average, bears spent 10 days at the bone pile (median 5 = 5 days); the probability that an individual bear remained at the bone pile from week to week was 63% for females and 45% for males. Most bears in the sample were detected visiting the bone pile once or twice. We found some evidence of matrilineal fidelity to the bone pile, but the group of animals visiting the bone pile did not differ genetically from the Southern Beaufort Sea subpopulation, nor did patterns of relatedness. We demonstrate that bowhead whale bone piles may be an influential food subsidy for polar bears in the Barrow region in autumn and winter for all sex and age classes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autonomous passive acoustic recorders were deployed to record sounds of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in the southeast Beaufort Sea for periods of 30-55 days during the late summer, open-water seasons of 2008-2010. Recordings were made in three areas licensed for hydrocarbon exploration, spanning the continental slope and adjacent outer shelf, and in a shallow inner-shelf area where bowheads have been observed congregating to feed in recent decades. Bowhead sounds were counted in samples comprising 10% of each recorded hour. In mid-August and September in all 3 years, the rate of bowhead calling at outer shelf sites exceeded that at adjacent continental slope sites by one to two orders of magnitude. Higher rates of calling occurred on the slope in late July and early August than at later dates. Calling rates varied by an order of magnitude between years in the one area that was monitored in different years. The highest rates of calling occurred on the inner shelf, offshore of the northern Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula. These trends are consistent with patterns of habitat use previously reported from aerial surveys in this and nearby areas of the Beaufort Sea and with the results of satellite tagging studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assesses effects of airgun sounds on bowhead calling behavior during the autumn migration. In August-October 2007, 35 directional acoustic recorders (DASARs) were deployed at five sites in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Location estimates were obtained for >137,500 individual calls; a subsample of locations with high detection probability was used in the analyses. Call localization rates (CLRs) were compared before, during, and after periods of airgun use between sites near seismic activities (median distance 41-45 km) and sites relatively distant from seismic activities (median distance >104 km). At the onset of airgun use, CLRs dropped significantly at sites near the airguns, where median received levels from airgun pulses (SPL) were 116-129 dB re 1 μPa (10-450 Hz). CLRs remained unchanged at sites distant from the airguns, where median received levels were 99-108 dB re 1 μPa. This drop could result from a cessation of calling, deflection of whales around seismic activities, or both combined, but call locations alone were insufficient to differentiate between these possibilities. Reverberation from airgun pulses could have masked a small number of calls near the airguns, but even if masking did take place, the analysis results remain unchanged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the hydrodynamic patterns in echelon formation swimming by bowhead whales. It mentions the touching distance of most whales in such formation. It notes the association of the hydrodynamic patterns with various body parts of the whales. It also emphasizes that the patterns noted included a bow wave anterior to the mouth, thrust-type vortices, and separation vortices from the margins of the upper and lower jaws.

Killer whales ( Orcinus orca) are increasing in occurrence and residence time in the eastern Canadian Arctic (ECA) in part due to a decrease in sea ice associated with global climate change. Killer whales prey on bowhead whales ( Balaena mysticetus) of the Eastern Canada-West Greenland (EC-WG) population, but their patterns of predation pressure and effect on the EC-WG population's ability to recover from historical whaling remain unknown. We analyzed photographs of individual bowhead whale flukes from five regions within the EC-WG population's geographic range (Cumberland Sound, Foxe Basin, Isabella Bay, Repulse Bay and Disko Bay), taken during 1986 and from 2007 to 2012, to estimate the occurrence of rake marks (parallel scars caused by killer whale teeth). Of 598 identified whales, 10.2 % bore rake marks from killer whales. A higher occurrence of rake marks was found in Repulse and Disko Bays, where primarily adult bowhead whales occur seasonally, than in Foxe Basin, where juveniles and females with calves occur. Older bowheads, which have had greater exposure time to killer whales due to their age, had higher occurrences of rake marks than juveniles and calves, which may indicate that younger whales do not survive killer whale attacks. A high proportion of adult females also had rake marks, perhaps due to protecting their calves from killer whale predation. In order to quantify the effect of killer whales on EC-WG population recovery, further research is needed on the relationship between the occurrence of rake marks and bowhead adult, calf, and juvenile mortality in the ECA, as well as more information about Arctic killer whale ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fifty-two eyes were collected and analyzed to estimate ages of 42 bowhead whales using the aspartic acid racemization aging technique. Between-eye and within-eye variance components for the ratio of the D and L optical isomers (D/L ratio) were estimated via analysis of variance using multiple measurements from nine whales with both eyes sampled and analyzed. For whales with more than one (D/L)act value, an inverse variance weighted average of the values was used as (D/L)act for the whale. Racemization rate ( kAsp) and D/L ratio at birth (D/L)0 were estimated using (D/L)act from 27 bowhead whales with age estimates based on baleen or ovarian corpora data and two term fetuses. The estimates were kAsp = 0.977 × 10−3/yr and (D/L)0 = 0.0250. The nonlinear least squares analysis that produced these estimates also estimated female age at sexual maturity as ASM = 25.86 yr. SE(age) was estimated via a bootstrap that took into account the SE of (D/L)act and the variances and covariance of kAsp and (D/L)0. One male exceeded 100 yr of age; the oldest female was 88. A strong linear relationship between kAsp and body temperature was estimated by combining bowhead data with independent data from studies of humans and fin whales. Using this relationship, we estimated kAsp and ASM for North Atlantic minke whales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The USSR conducted a global campaign of illegal whaling beginning in 1948. Catch records for Soviet pelagic operations in the Southern Hemisphere (and the northern Indian Ocean) have been largely corrected, but major gaps have remained for the North Pacific. Here, using newly discovered whaling industry reports, corrected figures for Soviet catches in this ocean are provided. During the period 1948-79, a minimum of 190,183 whales were killed by the USSR in the North Pacific (195,783 if one includes an estimate for sperm whales taken in years for which there are no true data); of these, only 169,638 were reported to the IWC, a difference of 20,568 whales (26,168 including the sperm whale estimate). Figures were falsified for 8 of 12 hunted species, with some catches over-reported to camouflage takes of illegal species. Revised catch totals (caught vs. reported) are as follows: blue whale - 1,621 vs. 858; fin whale - 14,167 vs. 15,445; humpback whale - 7,334 vs. 4,680; sperm whale - 153,686 vs. 132,505; sei whale - 7,698 vs. 11,363; North Pacific right whale - 681 vs. 11; bowhead whale - 145 vs. 0; gray whale - 172 vs. 24. Bryde's, minke, killer and Baird's beaked whale catches were reported correctly. Of all the hunted species, sperm and North Pacific right whales were the most heavily impacted. Major falsifications for sperm whales involved figures for both total catch and sex ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which obtained biological data on bowhead whales that were hunted in Disko Bay, West Greenland in April-May 2009-2011. The study took six female and one male bowhead whales for subsistence. It says that all of them were sexually mature and one of the females was pregnant. It mentions that the male was considered sexually mature and another female demonstrated no indications of recent pregnancy and had 7-8 corpora albicantia. It notes that the observations on reproduction and growth of the whales were consistent with that of Alaskan bowhead whales.

In the present study, the authors investigated the influence of carbon and lipid sources on regional differences in liver trace element (As, Cd, Cu, total Hg, Mn, Pb, Rb, Se, and Zn) concentrations measured in polar bears ( Ursus maritimus) ( n = 121) from 10 Alaskan, Canadian Arctic, and East Greenland subpopulations. Carbon and lipid sources were assessed using δ13C in muscle tissue and fatty acid (FA) profiles in subcutaneous adipose tissue as chemical tracers. A negative relationship between total Hg and δ13C suggested that polar bears feeding in areas with higher riverine inputs of terrestrial carbon accumulate more Hg than bears feeding in areas with lower freshwater input. Mercury concentrations were also positively related to the FA 20:1n-9, which is biosynthesized in large amounts in Calanus copepods. This result raises the hypothesis that Calanus glacialis are an important link in the uptake of Hg in the marine food web and ultimately in polar bears. Unadjusted total Hg, Se, and As concentrations showed greater geographical variation among polar bear subpopulations compared with concentrations adjusted for carbon and lipid sources. The Hg concentrations adjusted for carbon and lipid sources in Bering-Chukchi Sea polar bear liver tissue remained the lowest among subpopulations. Based on these findings, the authors suggest that carbon and lipid sources for polar bears should be taken into account when one is assessing spatial and temporal trends of long-range transported trace elements. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2012; 31: 2739-2747. © 2012 SETAC [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) of the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort population form annual late-summer feeding aggregations offshore of the eastern Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula and Cape Bathurst. This region is strongly influenced by episodic upwelling events. A systematic aerial survey (10% coverage) was flown over the eastern shelf on 2 August 2008, revealing large numbers of bowheads (est. 3500 individuals) in a clumped distribution over the continental shelf. Between 7 and 11 August 2008, zooplankton samples and hydrography were obtained from the vicinity of two bowhead feeding aggregations, one at the northeast edge of the continental shelf, and the second off the northeast shore of the Cape Bathurst. Dense aggregations of zooplankton were found in the lower part of the water column (below 40m), on the shelf, in water with an upwelling signature. The zooplankton were largely resting phases of calanoid copepods (Calanus hyperboreus and C. glacialis) and collectively had twice the abundance, twice the biomass, three times the caloric density and thus six times the energy content of contemporaneous zooplankton samples from the western Canadian Beaufort Shelf. Although upwelling at Cape Bathurst is wind-driven and thus episodic in nature, its consistent delivery of zooplankton to the bowhead foraging area creates conditions attractive to bowhead whales, with an estimated 33% of the bowhead population present on the eastern portion of the shelf at the time of the August 2008 aerial survey. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences were analyzed from 106 bowhead whale ( Balaena mysticetus) specimens dating 471 ± 44 14C b.p.-10,290 ± 150 14C b.p. to evaluate whether historical changes in distribution and connectivity were detectable in levels of diversity and population structuring in the Central Canadian Arctic. The species has maintained levels of mtDNA diversity over 10,000 yr comparable to other nonbottlenecked large whale species. When compared to data from the Holocene East Greenland/Spitsbergen and contemporary Bering-Chuckchi-Beaufort populations, differentiation was low ( FST≤ 0.005, ΦST≤ 0.003) and no temporal or geographical genetic structuring was evident. A combination of analyses suggests that the population has expanded over the past 30,000 14C yr. This genetic signature of expansion could result from population growth, admixture of multiple gene pools, or a combination of both scenarios. Despite known climatic change that altered bowhead distribution and led to isolation of populations, there is no detectable population structuring or change in genetic diversity during the Holocene. This may be due to long generation time, occasional population connectivity and a historically large global population. These characteristics warrant caution when interpreting contemporary bowhead whale DNA data, as it is unlikely that any population will be in mutation-drift equilibrium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laidre, K. L., and Heide-Jørgensen, M. P. 2012. Spring partitioning of Disko Bay, West Greenland, by Arctic and Subarctic baleen whales. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 69: .Movements of co-occurring bowhead (Balaena mysticetus) and humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae) whales in Disko Bay, West Greenland, were examined using satellite telemetry. Data on movements, habitat use, and phenology were collected from tagged 49 bowheads and 44 humpbacks during the transition from sea-ice breakup to open water between 2008 and 2010. Bowhead whales began their northward spring migration around 27 May (median day-of-the-year departure date = 147, interquartile range 141–153) and were distributed broadly in northern and central Disko Bay in water depths between 100 and 400 m. Humpback whales arrived in Disko Bay no later than 2 June and were located in shallow water (<100 m) along the coasts of the mainland or Disko Island. Trends in departure date from Disko Bay were significant for bowhead whales (∼15 d later, p < 0.001) between two periods: 2001–2006 and 2008–2010. Many species are predicted to arrive earlier in the Arctic and to expand their range northwards with reduced sea ice and increasing temperatures under climate change. Quantifying the spatial and temporal relationships between co-occurring Arctic and Subarctic top predators allows for baseline insight to be gained on how climate change might alter interspecies interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We used baleen lengths and age estimates from 175 whales and body lengths and age estimates from 205 whales to test which of several single- and multi-stage growth models best characterized age-specific baleen and body lengths for bowhead whales ( Balaena mysticetus L., 1758) with the goal of determining which would be best for predicting whale age based on baleen or body length. Previous age estimates were compiled from several techniques, each of which is valid over a relatively limited set of physical characteristics. The best fitting single-stage growth model was a variation of the von Bertalanffy growth model for both baleen and body length data. Based on Bayesian information criterion, the two- and three-stage versions of the von Bertalanffy model fit the data better than did the single-stage models for both baleen and body length. The best baleen length models can be used to estimate expected ages for bowhead whales with up to 300-325 cm baleen, depending on sex, which correspond to age estimates approaching 60 years. The best body length models can be used to estimate expected ages for male bowhead whales up to 14 m, and female bowheads up to 15.5 m or ages up to approximately 40 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerial photographs were analyzed to investigate the feeding habits of the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) population of bowhead whales ( Balaena mysticetus), particularly epibenthic feeding near Barrow, Alaska. Evidence of epibenthic feeding was based on mud visible on the dorsal surface of whales, resulting from feeding near the seafloor. Other cues used to assess feeding were an open mouth or the presence of feces in photographs. Over 3,600 photographs were analyzed including photos from surveys in spring and late summer and in both the western and eastern Beaufort Sea. Of all the photographs analyzed, 64% were scored as definitively muddy. In spring, ratios ranged from a low of 27% in 2003 to a high of 76% in 2004. When all May sample sets off Barrow were combined (1985, 1986, 2003, 2004), there was a significant difference ( t-test, P < 0.004) between the proportion of muddy juveniles to the proportion of muddy adults, with muddy adults being more common. The Barrow area was a commonly used feeding ground during migrations in both the spring (61% of the sample were feeding; 55% epibenthically) and autumn (99% of the sample; 97% epibenthically). Bowheads both migrate and feed through areas where petroleum extraction is underway and anticipated; hence, exposure to oil after a spill is of considerable concern to Native communities and management agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The build up of information in a continued capture-recapture experiment of simple random sampling of an open population is studied by predicting the conditional approximate Fisher information for abundance in data from one survey given the previous data. By neglecting the stochasticity in survival, a simple approximate likelihood is obtained. Optimal temporal allocation of a given total effort is found by numerical optimization for various objective functions based on the approximate Fisher information. For aerial photographic surveys of bowhead whales, the performance of estimates of abundance and of demographic parameters is compared between constant yearly survey effort and nominally optimal sampling by simulating a realistic model over 50 years. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ice edges and polynyas have long been noted for their high biological productivity within the Arctic environment. In June 2008, an aggregation of belugas and bowheads was identified at the Franklin Bay ice edge in the eastern Beaufort Sea, adjacent to the Cape Bathurst polynya. We conducted five ice-edge surveys by helicopter to study the distribution and behaviour of the whales. Bowheads were sighted in significantly shallower water than belugas. In addition, we used the helicopter platform to observe behaviour. Belugas and bowheads were engaged in directed travel and diving near and under the ice. Five beluga dives were timed and found to have an average duration of 106 ± 61 s (± SD) and a range of 30 - 197 s. One bowhead under-ice dive was timed and had a duration of 417 s. The under-ice dives are consistent with feeding behaviour observed for belugas and bowheads in other ice-edge locations. We hypothesize that higher prey densities along the Franklin Bay ice edge than in the adjacent open water may attract belugas and bowheads to the ice edge in June. Further research is needed to identify the abundance and type of prey species consumed and to assess the relative energetic importance of spring ice-edge feeding to the eastern Beaufort Sea beluga and bowhead populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study which aims to develop a statistical approach in detecting changes in the calling distribution of bowhead whales Balaena mysticetus exposed to fluctuating anthropogenic sounds. Call locations offshore Northstar Island in the Beaufort Sea and underwater sound levels were estimated with the use of the data from the 11 Directional Autonomous Seafloor Acoustic Recorders (DASARs) set up in the seafloor. It reveals that the method was successfully applied in the similar data collected near the island and can be used in studies related to animal locations and fluctuating stimuli.

The article presents a study which analyzes the spatial characteristics of the annual Bowhead Whale Survey Project (BWASP) survey design. It says that the study aims to evaluate the potential impact of oil and natural gas exploration, development and production activities on the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) bowhead whales. The study uses sampling lags of more or less 20 kilometers along the east and west axis of the study area which is located in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea, computer simulations, and pooled transects. Results show that the BWASP surveys increased the understanding of the patterns of bowhead distribution, behaviour, and relative abundance.

Collection of minimally invasive biopsy samples has become an important method to establish normal stable isotopes reference ranges in various wildlife species. Baseline data enhance the understanding of feeding ecology, habitat use, and potential food limitation in apparently healthy, free-ranging cetaceans. Epidermis and muscle were collected from subsistence-hunted northern Alaskan bowhead ( n= 133 epidermis/134 muscle) and beluga whales ( n= 42/49) and subsistence-hunted Russian gray whales ( n= 25/17). Additional samples were obtained from gray whales stranded in California ( n= 18/11) during mortality events (1999, 2000). Both δ15N and δ13C are trophic position and benthic/pelagic feeding indicators, respectively, in muscle and epidermis. Epidermis is generally enriched in 15N over muscle, while epidermal 13C is more depleted. Lipid extraction does not alter δ15N in either tissue, but affects epidermal δ13C. Nitrogen-15 is enriched in muscle, but not epidermis of stranded compared to subsistence-hunted gray whales, indicating probable protein catabolism and nutritional stress in stranded whales. Similarly, epidermal δ13C of harvested whales is lower than in stranded whales, suggesting depleted lipid stores and/or food limitation in stranded animals. Epidermal isotope signatures are similar in both present-day bowheads and in an ancient sample from the Northern Bering Sea region. Although only one specimen, this suggests trophic level of the ancient whale compares to modern bowheads after a millennium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the International Polar Year (IPY), acoustic recorders were deployed on oceanographic moorings in Fram Strait and on the Chukchi Plateau, representing the first coordinated year-round sampling of underwater acoustic habitats at two sites in the High Arctic. Examination of species-specific marine mammal calls recorded from autumn 2008-2009 revealed distinctly different acoustic habitats at each site. Overall, the Fram Strait site was acoustically complex compared with the Chukchi Plateau site. In Fram Strait, calls from bowhead whales ( Balaena mysticetus) and a variety of toothed whales (odontocetes) were recorded year-round, as were airgun pulses from seismic surveys. In addition, calls from blue whales ( Balaenoptera musculus) and fin whales ( B. physalus) were recorded from June to October and August to March, respectively. Conversely, at the Chukchi Plateau site, beluga ( Delphinapterus leucas) and bowhead whale calls were recorded primarily from May to August, with airgun signals detected only in September-October. Ribbon seal ( Phoca fasciata) calls were detected in October-November, with no marine mammals calls at all recorded from December to February. Of note, ice-adapted bearded seals ( Erignathus barbatus) were recorded at both sites, primarily in spring and summer, corresponding with the mating season for that species. Differences in acoustic habitats between the two sites were related to contrasts in sea ice cover, temperature, patterns of ocean circulation and contributions from anthropogenic noise sources. These data provide a provisional baseline for the comparison of underwater acoustic habitats between Pacific and Atlantic sectors of the High Arctic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working with subsistence whale hunters, we tagged bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) with satellite-linked transmitters and documented their movements in the Bering Sea during two winters. We followed 11 whales through the winter of 2008 - 09 and 10 whales in 2009 - 10. The average date that bowhead whales entered the Bering Sea was 14 December in 2008 and 26 November in 2009. All but one tagged whale entered the Bering Sea west of Big Diomede Island. In the winter of 2008 - 09, whales were distributed in a line extending from the Bering Strait to Cape Navarin, whereas in 2009 - 10, the distribution shifted south of St. Lawrence Island, extending from Cape Navarin to St. Matthew Island. Bowhead whales were most likely to be found in areas with 90% - 100% sea-ice concentration and were generally located far from the ice edge and polynyas. The average date whales left the Bering Sea was 12 April in 2009 and 22 April in 2010. During the spring migration, all whales but one traveled north along the Alaska coast to summering grounds in the Canadian Beaufort. The remaining whale migrated a month later and traveled up the northern coast of Chukotka, where it was located when the tag stopped transmitting in August. It is unlikely that this whale migrated to the Beaufort Sea before returning south to winter within the Bering Sea, indicating the movements of bowhead whales are more complex than generally believed. Declining sea ice in the Bering Sea may result in the expansion of commercial fisheries and shipping; areas where such activities may overlap the winter range of bowhead whales include the Bering and Anadyr straits, the eastern edge of Anadyr Bay, and St. Matthew Island. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Spitsbergen bowhead whale stock is critically endangered. It is believed to number in the tens. Here we report results from the first satellite transmitter ever deployed on an individual from this stock. A female whale was tagged on 3 April 2010 (at 79°54' N, 01°03' E), but no locations were transmitted by the tag until 30 April 2010, after which data were received continuously for 86 days. Additionally, three small clusters of locations were transmitted later in the year; the latest was received 20 December 2010 (262 days after deployment). During the 86 days of continuous tracking, the whale initially remained in the middle of the Fram Strait, between 77°45' N, 5° W and 80°10' N, 5° E. For a two-week period starting around 10 June 2010, the whale traveled southwest down to 73°40' N (at least 950 km). Subsequently it remained at southern latitudes between ~70° and 73° N until the tag stopped continuous transmissions on 24 July. Movement patterns analyzed using first-passage times (FTP), fitted as functions of various environmental variables using Cox Proportional Hazards models, showed that the whale spent most of its time in waters close to the ice edge with modest ice coverage, over areas where the bottom slope was relatively steep. Winter positions (27 November - 20 December 2010) revealed that the whale was back in the North at about 80° N. This information, in combination with recent data from passive acoustic listening devices, suggests that the Spitsbergen bowhead stock overwinters at high-latitude locations. The north-south movements of this whale during summer are consistent with the patterns that early whalers described for bowhead whales in this region in the 16th and 17th centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objective of this paper was to investigate and illustrate how insights gained from experience managing human activities in order to protect North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) along the heavily industrialized east coast of North America might be applied in the Arctic, where bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) face some of the same risks as right whales. The reduced extent and thickness of sea ice and the resultant longer open-water season have major, complex implications for the Arctic marine ecosystem. Increased maritime ship traffic and commercial fishing in the Arctic are bound to affect bowheads and Native (indigenous) hunting communities who depend on whales for subsistence and cultural identity. Bowheads and right whales were greatly depleted by commercial whaling in the 19th and early 20th centuries. While the Western Arctic bowhead population has been recovering steadily in recent decades, North Atlantic right whales remain highly endangered because of persistent lethal and sublethal vessel strikes and frequent entanglement in commercial fishing gear. Entanglement can be transitory or persistent, with debilitation lasting for months before the animal finally succumbs. Vessel strike and fishing gear trauma has been documented in bowheads, but at a much lower rate than in right whales. Initiatives intended to mitigate the impacts of ship traffic on North Atlantic right whales have included speed limits and routing changes. Those meant to reduce the incidence and severity of entanglements include the modification of gear design and gear deployment practices. Management measures need to be considered in advance in the Arctic in order to minimize the risks to bowhead whales as shipping and industrial fishing expand in the Arctic with ice retreat. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Predation can regulate prey numbers but predator behaviour in multiple-prey systems can complicate understanding of control mechanisms. We investigate killer whale ( Orcinus orca) predation in an ocean system where multiple marine mammal prey coexist. Using stochastic models with Monte-Carlo simulations, we test the most likely outcome of predator selection and compare scenarios where killer whales: (1) focus predation on larger prey which presumably offer more energy per effort, (2) generalize by feeding on prey as encountered during searches, or (3) follow a mixed foraging strategy based on a combination of encounter rate and prey size selection. We test alternative relationships within the Hudson Bay geographic region, where evidence suggests killer whales seasonally concentrate feeding activities on the large-bodied bowhead whale ( Balaena mysticetus). However, model results indicate that killer whales do not show strong prey specialization and instead alternatively feed on narwhal ( Monodon monoceros) and beluga ( Delphinapterus leucas) whales early and late in the ice-free season. Evidence does support the conjecture that during the peak of the open water season, killer whale predation can differ regionally and feeding techniques can focus on bowhead whale prey. The mixed foraging strategy used by killer whales includes seasonal predator specialization and has management and conservation significance since killer whale predation may not be constrained by a regulatory functional response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study which determined whether bowhead whale calls were directional. It states that a directional autonomous seafloor acoustic recorders (DASARs) array was put on the seafloor of Northstar island in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Results revealed that on average, calls of bowhead whales were directional.

(Received 26 January 1998; accepted in revised form 24 August 1999) ABSTRACT. There is interest among the Inuit of Nunavut in renewing subsistence hunting of bowhead whales. Managing a limited [...]

Simultaneous production of two harmonically independent sounds, the two-voice phenomenon, is a well-known feature in bird song. Some toothed whales can click and whistle simultaneously, and a few studies have also reported simultaneous sound production by baleen whales. The mechanism for sound production in toothed whales has been largely uncovered within the last three decades, whereas mechanism for sound production in baleen whales remains poorly understood. This study provides three lines of evidence from recordings made in 2008 and 2009 in Disko Bay, Western Greenland, strongly indicating that bowhead whales are capable of simultaneous dual frequency sound production. This capability may function to enable more complex singing in an acoustically mediated reproductive advertisement display, as has been suggested for songbirds, and/or have significance in individual recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unlike other mammals, odontocetes and mysticetes have highly derived craniofacial bones. A growth process referred to as 'telescoping' is partly responsible for this morphology. Here, we explore how changes in facial morphology during fetal growth relate to differences in telescoping between the adult odontocete Stenella attenuata and the mysticete Balaena mysticetus. We conclude that in both Stenella and Balaena head size increases allometrically. Similarly, odontocete nasal length and mysticete mouth size have strong positive allometry compared to total body length. However, the differences between odontocetes and mysticetes in telescoping are not directly associated with their fetal growth patterns. Our results suggest that cranial changes related to echolocation and feeding between odontocetes and mysticetes, respectively, begin during ontogeny before telescoping is initiated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used lengths and reproductive data for bowhead whales ( L., 1758) harvested by Alaskan Eskimos to estimate female reproductive parameters and age. Data from 117 females determined that 75 were sexually mature and 42 were immature. Estimated length at sexual maturity was 13.35 m. Counts of ovarian corpora were obtained from 50 mature females. Corpora and baleen data were used with aspartic acid racemization (AAR) data to obtain estimated age at sexual maturity (ASM) at ≈26 years. The number of corpora counted in both ovaries (or estimated when only one ovary was counted) was used with ASM and estimated ovulation rate (OR) to obtain corpora age estimates ranging from 26 to 149 years. A stone harpoon tip recovered from whale 92B2 was consistent with her corpora age of 133 years. The correlation between corpora and AAR age estimates was 0.77. Estimated standard errors of corpora ages tended to be somewhat higher than those for comparable AAR ages. A sample of potentially mature females examined for maturity and presence of a corpus luteum and (or) fetus provided an OR value of 0.332·year-1 and an estimated pregnancy rate of 0.326·year-1, implying intervals between ovulations and pregnancies of 3.0 and 3.1 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Satellite images, along with oceanographic, meteorological, and whale aerial survey data, are used to illustrate aspects of ocean circulation associated with a bowhead whale feeding ‘hotspot’ near Barrow, Alaska. In response to weak winds, a strong front forms near the shelf-break along the southern edge of Barrow Canyon when the Alaska Coastal Current flows adjacent to the southern flank of Barrow Canyon or intrudes onto the western Beaufort shelf. This front is of particular local interest because it is indicative of aggregation and retention of zooplankton on the western Beaufort shelf and, as a result, is a locus for bowhead whales pausing to feed during their westward fall migration. Groups (4 or more individuals) of bowhead whales are primarily seen on the western Beaufort shelf following wind conditions that promote the formation of this front. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents a study on the annual changes in the winter songs produced by bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in Disko Bay, Western Greenland intended for intrasexual competition and intersexual selection. It mentions that the songs that they produce, resemble a repeated pattern which becomes complex during winter breeding season. It states that the song repertoire of the whales changes from year to year based from the spectograms of the bioacoustics recordings.

Surveys in six areas along the Gulf of Boothia produced large collections of radiocarbon samples from raised beaches that yield six new relative sea-level curves and information on Holocene bowhead whale ranges. In addition, on the lower beaches, we documented 482 Paleoeskimo dwelling features spanning about 3500 years (4200-800 14C years BP). Spatial densities of sites are only about half those reported by us from adjacent regions, but other attributes are remarkably similar. On the basis of feature elevation, corroborated by radiocarbon dates, Paleoeskimo occupation appears to have passed through a series of boom-and-bust cycles, the first being the most prominent. After the first peopling about 4200 BP, populations rose between about 3900 and 3600 BP to their all-time maximum, which was followed by a dramatic crash. Population recoveries after the initial crash were small and perhaps temporary. A final increase between 1900 (1500) and 800 14C years BP was followed by the disappearance of the Paleoeskimo. No compelling evidence yet points to the cause of the population declines; climate change and resource over-exploitation are equally plausible. The frequency distributions of dwelling sizes and numbers of dwellings per site closely resemble those in adjacent regions, suggesting similar social dynamics. Specifically, dispersed nuclear families or small extended families characterized Paleoeskimo settlement patterns for most of the year, but annual aggregations involved 100 or more people. The only significant architectural change coincides with the arrival of Late Dorset people bringing distinctive triangular midpassages and soapstone lamp supports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on agendas and issues discussed at the Third Intersessional Workshop on the Review of Maximum Sustainable Yield Rate (MSYR) for Baleen Whales held in Seattle, Washington from April 20 to 24, 2011. The findings of photo-identification studies of North Atlantic right whales, South Atlantic right whales and bowhead whales, among others, are detailed. The methodology employed for estimating the coefficient of variation (CV) and temporal autocorrelation for the calving proportion index and calving interval data is explained. The developments regarding issues listed in the Work Plan for Completion of the MSYR Review including other taxa, genetic data and environmental variability are also detailed.

The stomach contents of four bowhead whales ( Balaena mysticetus) harvested between 1994 and 2008 from the Canadian Arctic were examined to assess diet composition. Three samples were collected from bowhead whales of the Eastern Canada-West Greenland (EC-WG) population and represent, according to our knowledge, the first diet analysis from this bowhead whale stock. We also examined the stomach content of one bowhead whale from the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) population hunted in 1996. All four whales had food in their stomachs and their diet varied from exclusively pelagic (BCB whale), with Limnocalanus macrurus being the main prey, to epibenthic and benthic (EC-WG) with Mysis oculata playing an important role. These results indicate broad foraging spectrum of the bowhead whales and add to a basic knowledge of their diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there are several isolated references to the olfactory anatomy of mysticetes, it is usually thought that olfaction is rudimentary in this group. We investigated the olfactory anatomy of bowhead whales and found that these whales have a cribriform plate and small, but histologically complex olfactory bulb. The olfactory bulb makes up approximately 0.13% of brain weight, unlike odontocetes where this structure is absent. We also determined that 51% of olfactory receptor genes were intact, unlike odontocetes, where this number is less than 25%. This suggests that bowheads have a sense of smell, and we speculate that they may use this to find aggregations of krill on which they feed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 1970s, new forms of public scrutiny were applied to the research methods of field biologists in the United States, particularly those studying endangered species and marine mammals. This paper shows how such scrutiny affected researchers' choice of research methods through an analysis of a key moment in a decade-long controversy over the conservation of bowhead whales. In 1978, researchers at the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory received funding from the Bureau of Land Management to radio-tag bowhead whales. Although this promising but still largely untested technique might have answered one of the central scientific questions in the controversy, it ultimately went unused. Technical considerations played a role in the decision not to use the technique, but the most important factor was scientists' concerns about potential backlash from Iñupiat whalers and animal protectionists. The same forces that had made marine mammalogists more influential than ever and that had put into their hands the resources necessary to develop more effective research techniques also placed serious constraints on where, when, and how they could do their research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sixty hours of direct measurements of fluorescence were collected from six bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) instrumented with fluorometers in Greenland in April 2005 and 2006. The data were used to (1) characterize the three-dimensional spatial pattern of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in the water column, (2) to examine the relationships between whale foraging areas and productive zones, and (3) to examine the correlation between whale-derived in situ values of Chl-a and those from concurrent satellite images using the NASA MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) EOS-AQUA satellite (MOD21, SeaWifs analogue OC3M and SST MOD37). Bowhead whales traversed 1600 km2, providing information on diving, Chl-a structure and temperature profiles to depths below 200 m. Feeding dives frequently passed through surface waters (>50 m) and targeted depths close to the bottom, and whales did not always target patches of high concentrations of Chl-a in the upper 50 m. Five satellite images were available within the periods whales carried fluorometers. Whales traversed 91 pixels collecting on average 761 s (SD 826) of Chl-a samples per pixel (0-136 m). The depth of the Chl-a maximum ranged widely, from 1 to 66 m. Estimates of Chl-a made from the water-leaving radiance measurements using the OC3M algorithm were highly skewed with most samples estimated as <1 mg m-3 Chl-a, while data collected from whales had a broad distribution with Chl-a reaching >9 mg m-3. The correlation between the satellite-derived and whale-derived Chl-a maxima was poor, a linear fit explained only 10% of the variance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Inupiat of Arctic Alaska identify themselves as the “People of the Whales.” The flesh of the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) is high in vitamins and other components that traditionally sustained human physiology in a climate that is unsuitable for agriculture. Not surprisingly, the People of the Whales depend on the bowhead for sustenance and cultural meaning. The bowhead remains central to Inupiat life and culture through the hunting process, the communal distribution of meat and other body parts, and associated ceremonials and other events to sustain cultural well-being, which I call the Inupiat whaling cycle. For this study, I coined the term cetaceousness as a hybrid of cetaceous and consciousness, which links human awareness with cetaceans or whales. I use this term to refer to human-whale interactions at all levels. Particularly in Alaska, cetaceousness is a social and emotional process for the Inupiat to communicate with the whales. Based on my ethnographic fieldwork in Barrow and Point Hope, Alaska, from 2004 through 2007, this study reveals how collective uncertainty about the environment is expressed and managed in Inupiat practices and, by extension, how deeply global warming penetrates the cultural core of their society. To do so, I illustrate different aspects of Inupiat-bowhead whale relationships or the ways people make whales a central feature of their lives. By influencing the bowhead harvest and the Inupiat homeland, climate change increases environmental uncertainties that both threaten and intensify human emotions tied to identity. This emotional intensity is revealed in the prevalence of traditional and newly invented whale-related events and performances, the number of people involved, the frequency of their involvement, and the verve or feelings with which they participate. Thus, this study investigates how collective uncertainty about the future of the environment would be expressed and managed in Inupiat practices and, by extension, how deeply climate change penetrates the cultural core of their society. My findings demonstrate how the Inupiat retain and strengthen their cultural identity to survive unexpected difficulties with an unpredictable environment by reinforcing their relationship with the whales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working with subsistence whale hunters, we tagged 19 mostly immature bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) with satellite-linked transmitters between May 2006 and September 2008 and documented their movements in the Chukchi Sea from late August through December. From Point Barrow, Alaska, most whales moved west through the Chukchi Sea between 71° and 74° N latitude; nine whales crossed in six to nine days. Three whales returned to Point Barrow for 13 to 33 days, two after traveling 300 km west and one after traveling ∼725 km west to Wrangel Island, Russia; two then crossed the Chukchi Sea again while the other was the only whale to travel south along the Alaskan side of the Chukchi Sea. Seven whales spent from one to 21 days near Wrangel Island before moving south to northern Chukotka. Whales spent an average of 59 days following the Chukotka coast southeastward. Kernel density analysis identified Point Barrow, Wrangel Island, and the northern coast of Chukotka as areas of greater use by bowhead whales that might be important for feeding. All whales traveled through a potential petroleum development area at least once. Most whales crossed the development area in less than a week; however, one whale remained there for 30 days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a research study on subsistence harvests and commercial harvests of bowhead whales in West Greenland-eastern Canada area that was started 1200 AD and 1530 AD, respectively. Estimates of a revised historic abundance was used to examine the recovery level with information from multiple archeological, anthropoligical and recent sources for estimating the subsistence and commercial harvests in the area. Decline of traditional Inuit bowhead whaling was seen after commercial whalers overhavested whales from 1918 to 2009. Results after combining whale harvest data from 1530-2009 showed there have been 70,000 estimated whale kills, 88% of which were by commercial whalers.

The article discusses a research study on the simulation-based approach for population structure evaluation of non-equilibrial generic dynamics called Generational Gene Shift (GGS) of species such as the bowhead whales or Balaena mysticetus. Researchers created an individual-based model of generic and population dynamics of bowhead whales using the R package rmetasim that recreates various aspects including demography, whaling history and sex matched with datasets from simulated populations for genetic analyses. Results of empirical data indicated that of the 33 loci, nine were out of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) while the age-stratified cohorts showed that four out of the 60 tests have significant genetic differentiation.

The article discusses a research study on Bering Chukchi-Beaufort (B-C-B) bowhead whale abundance in Alaska using photo-identification data in 2004. Concerns were raised on the inaccuracy of ice-based survey that aerial photographic surveys were done in Alaska during bowhead whales spring migrations from 2003 to 2005, where marked whales data were gathered through a closed population model for capture-recapture. Investigated were other models accounting for heterogeneity but the simple, no covariates model was used resulting to an estimate of 12,631 B-C-B bowhead abundance with a 95% bootstrap percentile confidence interval and 5% lower limit. Conclusions indicated the consistency of photographic data with the trend estimates and expectations of the ice-based surveys from 1978-2001.

Recently, it was proposed that stable isotope patterns can be used to quantify the width of the ecological niche of animals. However, the potential effects of habitat use on isotopic patterns of consumers have not been fully explored and consequently isotopic patterns may yield deceptive estimates of niche width. Here, we simulated four different scenarios of a consumer foraging across an isotopically heterogeneous landscape to test the combined effects of habitat and diet selection on the widths of the isotopic niche. We then modeled the actions of a naïve researcher who randomly sampled consumers from the simulated populations, and used these results to assess the overlap and partitioning of the isotopic and the ecological niches when habitat-derived differences among isotope signatures are not considered. Our results suggest that populations of dietary specialists exhibited broader isotopic niches than populations composed of dietary generalists, and habitat generalists exhibited narrower isotopic niche widths compared with populations of individuals that foraged in specific habitats. The conversion of isotopic niches to ecological niches without knowledge of foraging behavior and habitat-derived isotopic differences transformed an informative δ-space into ‘a blurry p-space’. Therefore, knowledge of habitat-derived differences in stable isotope values and understanding of habitat use and individual foraging behavior are critical for the correct quantification of the ecological niche. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which examines the seasonal selection behavior of sea ice landscape of bowhead whales or Balaena mysticetus based on satellite tracking data of the whales across Eastern Canada-West Greenland. The study investigates the movement of the whales and their habitat selection throughout summer and winter seasons, and employs resource selection functions to evaluate their habitat selection behavior. The results show that bowhead whales preferred areas with low ice coverage, thin ice and small floe size during winter, while areas with high ice coverage, thick ice and large floe size during summer.