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This historiographical study examines the Russian Orthodox Mission in Beijing from 1715 to 1956, revealing its historical impact on Christianity in China and Sino–Russian cultural exchanges. The research explores how the Mission functioned not only as a religious entity but also influenced diplomatic ties and scholarly pursuits, as documented in both Chinese and Russian historiographies. This study utilizes contemporary sources, exploring Chinese narratives to re-evaluate historical perspectives, and portrays the Mission as a critical mediator in Sino–Russian relations. An examination of the historical context shows that the Mission has undergone a transformation over time. It has evolved from an influential ecclesiastical presence to a cultural and diplomatic agency unobtrusively entered into Chinese society. From the mid-18th to the early 20th century, the Mission adapted to the local environment by combining the transmission of religious doctrine with engagement in China's political and cultural contexts. The article proposes a holistic interpretation of the Mission's function, encompassing not only evangelism but also diplomatic engagements, and adding to the multifaceted discourse within Chinese cultural heritage. In summary, the article recommends exploring the enduring impact and historical complexities of the Russian Orthodox Mission as it is grounded in a broader framework of global movements. The research suggests that it may be beneficial to broaden the scope of historiographic narratives to encompass a diverse range of interdisciplinary studies that reflect the complexity of the Mission's enduring impact and its role in shaping a shared global history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article addresses the trajectory of religious studies within academia, advocating for its recognition as a scientific discipline in modern research universities. It reflects on his extensive academic career and the historical context of religious studies, particularly contrasting European efforts to establish Religionswissenschaft with American theological concerns.

René Guénon, considered the founder of the traditionalist school, is a French philosopher and mystical writer. Guénon emphasizes that traditional values have disappeared in the modern world, and as a result, people live without spiritual meaning. He argues that in a world where traditions are rejected and destroyed by modernism, people must understand their roots and remain committed to their value systems. Guénon offers an approach to discovering the true meanings and essences of religious rituals and symbols. According to him, religion is linked to the experiences of our ancestors and the truths they lived through, and therefore has an inner meaning. Guénon presents an argument that all religions can be reduced to a fundamental truth, an absolute truth. According to him, it is important to focus on the inner essence of religions rather than their external appearance, and in this way one can see unity among different religions. Guénon discusses the traditional wisdom tradition and the secret knowledge it contains. According to him, although religions have emerged in different geographies and cultures, they are all expressions of moral and spiritual values that people naturally possess. According to him, humanity can only reach its true roots through a spiritual and mystical journey. Guénon argues that in order to understand a religion correctly, the esoteric dimension of that religion must be reached. Otherwise, only a superficial understanding of the religion will occur and it will not be possible to understand the real teachings. Guénon is known for his work on religious philosophy and esotericism, and remains influential today. In this study, we will focus on Gueno's understanding of religion and tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manichaeism is a gnostic religious tradition that emerged in the third century CE, when Mani declared himself to be the divine messenger who would lead humanity to salvation and the completer of all the religions that had existed until then. The main feature that distinguishes Manichaeism from other gnostic traditions is its universal perspective. While other gnostic groups of the time were closed communities that only addressed their own members, Mani built a religion based on the idea of imparting gnosis to all of humanity, which he attributed with universal significance. It is this universal perspective that Mani had, which reveals the basic thought that feeds the Manichaean mission understanding, which is the subject of this study. Thanks to its strong understanding of mission, Manichaeism rapidly spread from Babylon in Mesopotamia to the East and West, gaining a large following in many parts of the world in a very short time. In the third century CE, during the emergence of Manichaeism, the Sassanids held sway over the eastern regions of the Iranian geography, while the Roman Empire exerted its dominance in the West. These territories, encompassing the domains of these two formidable political powers of that era, constituted the most central geography where Manichaeism was accepted. The journey of the Manichaean tradition beyond the Sasanian borders to the East through the Silk Road gained significant momentum in the ninth century CE when the Uyghur ruler Bögü Qaghan accepted Manichaeism as the official state religion. In its western trajectory, the tradition's most notable achievement was its ascent to a position of competition with the increasingly influential Christian tradition within Roman lands. While studies exist concerning the history of Manichaeism's expansion eastward among Uyghur Turks, as well as its representation through Manichaean texts and art in the Uyghur language, there is currently no independent investigation into its dissemination to Roman territories based on its fundamental methods and developments in the West. This study aims to address this gap by examining the fundamental tactics and methods underlying the mission concept of the Manichaean tradition, which is frequently referenced in imperial decrees and the writings of Christian polemicists. The study also investigates how and when this tradition entered the borders of the Roman Empire, the facilitators or factors involved, the routes utilized, and the regions it reached. In this context, ancient and classical texts constitute the main sources related to the subject of this study, whose geographical focus is the Roman Empire. The study uses original Manichaean texts written in various languages such as Sogdian, Parthian, Middle Persian, and Coptic as well as non-Manichaean sources that provide direct or indirect information about Manichaeism from Roman, Christian, and Islamic sources. According to Manichaean records, the first person to spread Manichaeism to Roman lands was Addã, who was appointed by Mani, the founder of the religion. It is also seen that Christian polemic writers mention Addã's mission activities and their effects on Christian people in their works. In this context, this research aims to examine both the mission understanding that enabled Manichaeism's spread to Roman geography and Addã's mission activities in Roman Empire lands from detailed perspectives. To achieve this, descriptive, comparative historical, and textual content analysis methods were applied to scrutinize pertinent research findings. Following a comprehensive evaluation of existing data, the foremost finding is that the Manichaean mission was not a collection of random activities, but rather a systematic organizational structure carried out in accordance with the instructions of the religion's founder, Mani. Addã's adherence to the instructions received from Mani himself enabled him to successfully execute the mission process, leading to the establishment of the first Manichaean communities in the Roman Empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A text entitled "The Hymn of Judas Thomas the Apostle in the country of the Indians" in the apocryphal "The Acts of Thomas" has long been noticeable for the study of Gnosticism. This text, which has a content independent of the general narrative of the book in which it appears, has been discussed for its hymn-like structure and content that recalls many characteristic features of Gnosticism. Various scholars are of the opinion that this hymn carries a burden of meaning in the context of Christian theology and doctrine of salvation, even though it is independent of the general theme of the book in which it appears. On the other hand, many scholars of Gnosticism believe that this hymn is an important text reflecting early Gnosticism. Various opinions have been put forward regarding the origin of the text, called "The Hymn of the Pearl" or "The Hymn of the Soul", based on its content, the cultural world to which it belongs, and the characteristics of the themes in its content. This study will examine the text, generally known as "The Hymn of the Pearl", with reference to the question of whether Gnostic dualism, one of the characteristic features of Gnosticism exists, and will draw attention to its parallelism with the Gnostic doctrines in the Mandaean literature. The main thesis of this study is that the Hymn of the Pearl, the main theme of which is the salvation of the pearl that is captive in the world of darkness, is a text within early Christian Gnosticism based on Gnostic dualism and the doctrine of salvation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within Protestant theology, Arminianism is a theological perception based on the views of Jacob Arminius (1559-1609), who lived in the Netherlands in the 16th century, and it opposes Calvinism's theological propositions on fate, grace, human will, the atonement of Jesus, and the perseverance of believers. Arminianism, which started to find a place in England with the influence of Remonstrants, later moved to America with intense migrations. In America, John Wesley and Methodists especially played an essential role in the spread of Arminianism. Many Protestant denominations in America prefer the belief in destiny based on the emphasis of Arminianism on universal atonement and the will of man in salvation rather than the principles of Calvinism. This article begins by presenting an overview of Arminius' biography, followed by an examination of his challenges to Calvin's Reformed theology. After mentioning the dissemination of Arminianism in America, it discusses John Wesley's Arminianism. Then, the Protestant communities closer to the Arminian approach rather than Calvinism are addressed. This study explains Arminian Protestant theology in America although this theology is not entirely based on the arguments of classical Arminianism. Thus, it reveals the origin and course of the theological debates between Calvinism and Arminianism that have continued until today in America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Christianity has an exceptional place in diversifying and using colour symbolism. The understanding of God in Christianity, the doctrine of salvation, eschatology, important days in the liturgical calendar, special occasions in the practice of sacraments, elements that reveal the spirituality of the Church, and Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, the Apostles and Saints can find a place in colour symbolism. Among these colours, black and white represent almost the same meaning in many religious beliefs and cultures worldwide. Black has gained a negative connotation because it generally evokes emotions such as evil, darkness, aggression, mystery and fear in people, while white has become the colour of purity, innocence, chastity and virtue. In Christian symbolism, black has been the most used colour in scenes depicting original sin, the fall of man, death and Hell, and white has been the most used colour in works depicting the baptism of Jesus Christ, the good news of the Virgin Mary and the coming together of believers in Heaven. In this regard, the study aimsto emphasize the importance of colours in Christian symbolism in general and to specifically discuss in detail the meanings of black and white that come to the fore within this colour chart and the social reflection of this situation. Within the framework of this purpose, in the study, the comparative method was used since the meanings of both colours in Christian tradition and the conflict within them were included, and text analysis and interpretation development methods were used since the passages mentioned in the Bible specifically for these colours were examined. All these colours, which are considered within the scope of colour symbolism in Christianity, continue to be used in various celebrations, rituals and religious holidays, along with the meanings attributed to them in the historical development of this religion. Black and white colours go beyond the religions and worship dimension and constitute the threshold of social distinction. In this distinction, white is representatives of purity and innocence, while black is representatives of evil and rebellion. This situation symbolizes the conflict between Jesus Christ and the demonic forces, that is, between good and evil, and between the worldly and the spiritual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mesopotamia is a region where diverse beliefs merged and fused, generating an eclectic and syncretic framework. The lunar worshipping cult occupied a significant position among the convictions of the farming societies here and influenced their lifestyle. Particularly, lunar eclipses were significant natural phenomena meticulously observed in lifestyle manners according to the moon's phases. This article explores the significance of lunar eclipses, which had a considerable influence on the social life and religious convictions of Mesopotamian societies. Besides their religious and ritual significance, lunar eclipses also had political implications. Therefore, this paper examines the political consequences of lunar eclipses and scrutinizes their potential character. Mesopotamian civilizations viewed natural phenomena, mainly those linked to the moon's phases, as sings of retribution or as a warning from the moon god Sin. The significance placed on such natural phenomena by Mesopotamian societies, particularly by the governing institutions, is evident in the cuneiform tablets. It is possible to discern from both tablets and state official correspondence that warnings and disciplinary actions sent by Sin had a direct influence on the decision-making process within both the political and religious fields. The State Archives of Assyria and Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period features numerous prophesies and state inscriptions in which the name of the moon god Sin is referenced. Upon examination, an analysis of the religious and political nature of the practices performed to seek protection from the wrath of the moon god and to avoid negative effects during lunar eclipses can be conducted. This article evaluates the impact of Sin, the moon god of Mesopotamia, on political decisions made by the kings. Nevertheless, this study analyses practices performed during lunar eclipses that were found to have an effect in religious and political fields. The influence on monotheistic religions is examined within the scope of Judaism, and the resulting traces are pursued in the Old Testament corpus. Using the descriptive method, this paper evaluates the probable impact of lunar eclipses on Judaism during the monotheistic period through a comparative analysis. The study aims to identify potential parallels that exist. The research findings indicate that the moon god Sin played a significant role in political decision-making as the god of prophecy. Particularly during lunar eclipses, it was found that appointing a "substitute king" was an effective measure. It was found that several religious practices were performed during the lunar eclipses to protect against bad prophecies. The presence of the belief in the moon god in Judaism has been analysed and it was found that the bad prophecies and religious practices were parallel to some passages in the Old Testament. The study is restricted to primary sources from the ancient period due to the limitations of the research. The article primarily employs social science methodologies including description, interpretation, and comparisons. Additionally, a linguistic approach has been applied using Akkadian texts. The study suggests that lunar eclipses, associated with the cult of Sin, had a considerable influence on the religious and political domains, as found in the Judaist sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ōmoto is a Shinto-based Japanese New Religious Movement (NRM) that has made the most famous name for itself in Japanese Religious History. Initiated in the Meiji Period (1868-1912) in Japanese History, the movement came to the forefront in the Taishō (1912-1926) and Shōwa (1926-1989) periods by combining beliefs and worships with worldly-political thoughts. The movement, which became pacified with the Modern Period, entered a process of division with the influence of different tendencies within it. Today, they continue their activities as three separate religious groups. In Ōmoto, there are three temple officials in hierarchical order as kannushi, shinshoku and miko. They are responsible for the performance of collective worship at the shrine. Kannushi refers to the chief person in charge of the ritual in jincas. In Shinto shrines and Ōmoto, kannushi are not considered to be founders of a religion, but rather religious officials. In addition to presiding over rituals, they have a civilian life and may engage in other occupations and/or hobbies. They can marry and have children, in short, they can maintain their social life. In this sense, Ōmoto's co-founding leader Onisaburō presided over rituals and maintained a family and social life. Shinshoku is the general name given to the male officials who perform rituals in the jinja. This concept, which can also be used instead of kannushi, has sometimes led to confusion. This confusion has resulted from the name and mission changes in the historical process. Until the Edo Period, shinshoku was a comprehensive concept used for all the different names given to everyone involved in ritual activities according to their duties. In this context, with the Meiji Period, shinkan, the name of ritual officials in all the country’s jinjas, was abolished and replaced by shinshoku. Miko, which also means holy woman, female shaman, shrine woman, etc., is the name given to single, widowed and married female ritual attendants in the Jinja. They perform purification rituals, play percussion and wind instruments, and chant poetry during rituals, as well as perform daily chores in the cincas. Mikos are mostly young girls and a minority of older women. There are several stages of worship in the Shrine and at home: harai, shinsen, norito and naorai. Harai marks the beginning of Ōmoto rituals, without which the next stage of the ritual cannot proceed. There are many ways of practicing harai. Harai is performed by a shinshoku dressed in ritual garb with a purification tool called gohei. In Ōmoto, as in Shintoism, offerings are symbols of respect for the kami or spirit. Shinsen refers to the various foods and drinks offered to the kami. It generally includes plant products such as rice, grains, fruits and vegetables, as well as animals such as deer, pigs, rabbits, poultry and fish. In Shintoism, the norito recited during rituals is an essential element of religious practice. In Shintoism and Ōmoto, noritos are frequently used in regular annual, monthly, weekly and daily rituals; in rituals organized immediately after social events; and in the rites of passage of people. In Ōmoto, prayers in general are called norito. Specifically, there are four main prayers: kamigoto, amatsu norito, sosen-haishi and miyabi no kotoba. The first four of these have the same text as in Shintoism. Miyabi no kotoba is a prayer created by Onisaburō. It belongs to Ōmoto. Ōmoto is an ritual in which sake (a type of alcoholic Japanese drink) and other cooked and uncooked food offerings are eaten at the end of the ritual by all the people gathered for the ritual, both officials and non-officials. Eating the food offered at this event means sharing the same food and drink with the kami and gaining spiritual strength by feeding on their food. The ritual also aims to gain the power and protection of the kami. In Ōmoto, there are also prayers that take place at particular times. These are called Matsuri. Four are annual (taisai), one monthly (tsukinamisai), one weekly and two daily (asayu-sai). Annual worship in Ōmoto has a Shintoist basis, associated with the passing of the seasons and agricultural harvest times. It is celebrated in four periods, Setsubun Taisai, Miroku Taisai, Zuisei Taisai and Ōmoto Kaiso Taisai, respectively. In Ōmoto, there is only one main ritual that is organized around a specific topic each week. Unlike other rituals, this ritual, which is new in terms of its introduction, is organized in such a way that both physical and online participation is encouraged, and the majority of participation in the ritual is encouraged online. In Ōmoto, there are two daily and regular rituals, one in the morning and one in the evening, one at the shrine collectively and one at home individually, called asayu-sai. The rituals performed at the shrine have a ceremonial atmosphere, involving purification, offering and prayer. As far as Ayabe and Kameoka are concerned, these rituals take place in the presence of the shrine's officials, as well as visitors from different parts of the country and the world who come to strengthen their spirituality. Generally, annual and monthly prayers are performed in the shrine, while weekly and daily prayers are performed in homes and workplaces. Our study is an inclusive research in terms of Ōmoto's worship in our country and in the world literature, and it is aimed to contribute to the literature and new research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an interdisciplinary link between History of Religions and Sociology in terms of religious research. Thanks to Sociology, sacred and historical texts turn into a source that enables us to understand social life and allows them to be better understood by accurately constructing them through cultural codes as well as historical context. At the same time, thanks to the theories developed in the field, the emergence, development and change phases of religions can be examined scientifically and thus enable various analyzes to be made. Looking at previous studies, it is seen that most of the studies on religion and conflict in our country have been produced and progressed through Islam. It is obvious that examining different religions from a sociological perspective and with a unique method will contribute to similar studies and thus to the expansion of the literature in our country. Thanks to the method of Comparative History of Religions, societies with similar beliefs in different geographies or societies with different beliefs in similar geographies can be compared. In this study, the subject, the story of the emergence of Buddhism and Christianity, in addition to the reasons for the participation of new adherents in these religions during their establishment processes, were aimed to be examined sociologically on the axis of conflict theory and the documentation method was used for this purpose. In the study, first of all, an information transfer based on descriptive information on the History of Religions was made, then the conflict theory was discussed in a conceptual framework and its classical and modern representatives were emphasized, and finally, in the light of the analysis of Dahrendorf's theory within the scope of Sociology of Religion, it was concluded that leaders with charismatic authority emerging from the social structure in crisis or crisis due to the dominance of religious authority can mobilize the masses by starting a new religious and social movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first of the series of Graduate Symposia for the History of Religions took place in Ankara on May 8-9, 2023 hosted by Social Sciences University of Ankara. The symposium, which lasted for two days, started with welcome addresses and an opening session. It was completed in 11 sessions with the participation of History of Religions academics from various universities and the presentation of 55 graduate researchers. In addition to the original works of speakers on various topics, the valuable evaluations of the leading academics in the field of History of Religions about the studies in the field and the conference provided insight to the participants and listeners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been highly controversial from the beginning of the study of religion to the present day whether it is insiders who follow that religion or outsiders who understand the religion studied the best. It is also questioned if it is really possible to study a religion objectively whether the one who studies is an insider or outsider to that religion. This topic also brings with it the issues that need to be considered, such as emic/ethical positions, ‘experience-near’ and ‘experience-distant’ and the process of reflexivity. In this article, Kim Knott examines the problem of insider and outsider by considering the accounts of different researchers who have adopted the roles of complete participant, observer as participant, participant as observer and complete observer within the framework of these concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present series offers an anthology of excerpts from all types of Mircea Eliade’s writings, unpublished or published as journals, reminiscences, memoirs, articles, essays, and shorter pieces, which may as a whole describe his own production and continual re/use of personal manuscripts. There is at present no systematic inquiry into the nature, form, quantity and scope of his lost Bucharest archive. The rather large amount of Eliade Bucharest manuscripts sold through auctions since 2017 has already lethally interfered with the integrity of Eliade’s archive, as he bided farewell in August 1942 and the subsequent material owners offered after Eliade’s death no public catalogue or minimal listing of identified manuscripts, no indices, and almost no proper clues regarding its very size. Meanwhile, some manuscripts from this archive were sold directly by Eliade estates to public institutions in Romania (1986-1989) or sold directly to two public libraries in Bucharest by the sole material owner (and for his own personal benefit), in March-December 1989. Eliade’s published and especially unpublished manuscripts auctioned since 2017 are extraordinarily sundry, and only a part has been rescued by public institutions (17 manuscripts by the Library of the Romanian Academy in 2021, 67 manuscripts in 2022 and 10 manuscripts in 2023 by the donors of the Institute for the History of Religions of the Romanian Academy, and several grand others at present under critical scrutiny, also in 2023 and by the donors of the same Institute). All these manuscripts are only a fragment from the full archive Eliade left for good in Bucharest in 1942. Synoptic rereading may thus help indeed improve our knowledge of that very archive, its content being a source of endless litigious intervention. With a first part published in Transilvania 51 [155] (2023), no. 4, pp. 52-64, the series complements ECCE | The Complete Critical Edition of Mircea Eliade’s Scholarly Works before 1945, under the aegis of the Institute for the History of Religions, as well as MEUM | Mircea Eliade’s Unpublished Manuscripts from Private Collections, published by Eugen Ciurtin and Andreea Apostu in Transilvania 51 [155] (2023), no. 1, pp. 1-22 (Critical edition), no. 2, pp. 1-16 (Concordances A-E) and no. 3, pp. 1-16 (Commentary), with forthcoming instalments in 2023. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the meaning and importance of the crescent symbol in mythology, Jewish Christian tradition and Islamic tradition will be discussed. In addition to being present in many cultures, the crescent symbol has become a symbol reminding of the Islamic religion. Accordingly, it will be examined why the crescent symbol gained sanctity and became a symbol in the Islamic world. In this context, the general framework of the symbol will be created and the relationship between the crescent symbol and mythology, Jewish Christian tradition and Islamic tradition will be touched upon. Thus, it is aimed to reveal the values it represents by tracing the background of the crescent as a religious symbol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the meaning and importance of the crescent symbol in mythology, Jewish Christian tradition and Islamic tradition will be discussed. In addition to being present in many cultures, the crescent symbol has become a symbol reminding of the Islamic religion. Accordingly, it will be examined why the crescent symbol gained sanctity and became a symbol in the Islamic world. In this context, the general framework of the symbol will be created and the relationship between the crescent symbol and mythology, Jewish Christian tradition and Islamic tradition will be touched upon. Thus, it is aimed to reveal the values it represents by tracing the background of the crescent as a religious symbol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remaining faithful to its ancient roots while representing development and change, Jorge Mario Bergoglio was elected as the Pope of the Catholic Church on March 13, 2013 with the title of Romanus Pontifex (also used as Summus Pontifex). Since his election to the papacy, he has been a pioneer in many firsts. He is the first person from outside Europe to be elected pope since the eighth century. He is the first pope from Latin America, where the majority of the world's Catholic population resides, and the only person in Church history to use the name Francis for his papal name. More than these firsts related to his identity, it is his innovative decisions that should be discussed. This study focuses specifically on the changes made in the field of canon law. The current canon law text was adopted in 1983, and since then, every pope who has taken office has made changes to various laws. Francis, however, has made more changes than all previous popes, significantly renewing the legal text. During his ten-year papacy, Francis has published a total of twelve documents, large and small, related to the renewal of canon law. This study provides a general analysis of the content of these documents. In light of these documents, it can be said that the search for change and change itself continues, and the Church is on the verge of a major transformation. Whether the Church, in its current state, can complete the century in which we live in remains uncertain; however, it is clear that it is moving toward a more modern, disciplined, and egalitarian structure. In this context, this article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the changes made by Pope Francis in canon law and their impact on the Catholic Church. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Doukhobors are a religious sect that emerged in Russia in the 18th century. Because of their beliefs and practices contrary to the Russian Orthodox Church, they are considered heretics by the Church. This negative perception is also reflected in their nomenclature and they are called Doukhobor which translates to spirit wrestler. The Doukhobors perceive and use this name in the sense of wrestling with the spirit, not against it. In religious terms, they care more about spiritual things than material, visible things. For this reason, they do not accept the Church, the sacraments, the icons and the cross. They have problems with the Church and therefore with the state authority. The Church and the statesmen struggle with the Doukhobor in various ways. Exile and migration are two of these methods of struggle. The aim was to keep them away from the Orthodox population and prevent them from spreading their teachings. Thus, the Doukhobors first migrated to Malachnaya Vodu. Due to various problems experienced here, they were exiled to the Caucasus. They lived in three different settlements in the Caucasus; Tbilisi, Yelizavetpol and Kars. In the late 19th century, a crisis of religious leadership caused a split in the sect. Peter Verigin, the religious leader of one section, made some changes in the teaching. Actions that can be characterized as a rebellion against the authority of the state, which is put in opposition to the authority of God by saying "No one can serve two masters". In three places in the Caucasus weapons were burned in religious rituals. Because of this rebellion, they are subjected to further repression. They were deported to a mountainous region of Georgia where living conditions were very difficult. Nevertheless, they did not back down and persisted in their teachings. With the efforts of L. N. Tolstoy and his friends, who were aware of the unfavorable conditions of the Doukhobors, it was decided that they should migrate to a suitable place. As a result, while some of the Doukhobor stayed where they were, others migrated to Canada. This article aims to describe the history of the Doukhobors in the 18th and 19th centuries, from their emergence to the migration of some of them to Canada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The traditional reading of Isa 46:1–4 understands the Babylonian gods as falling or toppling. Interpretation of the nature of their actions depends upon how one reads the verbiage applied to the deities, which hinges upon the translation of a series of either difficult or semantically diverse Hebrew terms. This essay analyzes these terms in light of comparative Semitic evidence. It also considers the passage in light of broader ancient Near Eastern ideological and mythological patterns. Finally, it explores some prominent motifs in the traditions of the Akītu festival, which constitutes the immediate frame of reference for the oracle's imagery and against which Deutero-Isaiah was framing his rhetoric. Birth imagery, this essay contends, constitutes the primary rhetorical vehicle by which the prophet ridicules the Babylonian gods, portraying them as crouching in labor, and depicting them as inferior to Yahweh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the beginning of the 21st century, we have witnessed the return and renewal of historical sociology in the debate on secularisation through the contributions, among others, of Talal Asad, Charles Taylor, Jürgen Habermas, José Casanova and Hans Joas. The aim of the present text is to analyse the renewal of historical sociology, both through the potential dialogue that it raises with the classics of the sociology of religion, particularly with Max Weber, and through its contributions to research on the process of secularisation. To this end, and after considering the state of the question on secularisation and historical sociology, we address both the precedents of this return of a socio-historical perspective and the methodological and conceptual developments that this approach provides to the debate on secularisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the refutation of the Venetian Rabbi Leon Modena (d.1648) against the Christian Catholic Order named Magen Va-Herev (Shield and Sword). The author prepared his work as a response to Pietro Galatino’s (d. 1530) “De Arcanis Catholicae Veritatis” (Secrets of the Catholic Truth). Although Modena wanted to respond to the work of Galatino, he also targeted Thomas Aquinas, one of the most important Christian theologians of the Middle Ages, and his works. Modena designed the work as eight chapters but could only write five chapters. The work includes chapters of Original Sin, Trinity, Incarnation, Virginity of Mary, and the Messiah. Although Modena’s work shows similarities with previous Jewish polemics in terms of content and subject, it has a unique approach in terms of style, according to today’s researchers. This study deals with Modena’s objections to the Catholic claims about the virginity of Mary, her role in the birth and progeny of Jesus, and the glory of Mary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taḥrīf is one of the most fundamental Islamic arguments against the Jews and Christians for falsifying their Scriptures and one of the most critical issues discussed in the polemical tradition. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d. 751/1350) is one of the leading polemicists of the Islamic world in the Middle Ages. One of the issues that he examined in his work, Hidāyat al-Ḥayārā fī Ajwibat al-Yahūd wal-Naṣārā, which he wrote as a refutation to Jews and Christians, is the distortion of the Tanah and the New Testament. This article examines and analyzes Ibn Qayyim's views on taḥrīf and biblical criticism to determine its place and importance in the Islamic refutation tradition. For this purpose, his understanding of taḥrīf and his opinions in his polemic have been analyzed and revealed by descriptive and comparative methods. His views influenced the falsification conception in the Islamic tradition and scholars after him, which was also reflected in tradition. Based on Islamic sources and the Jewish and Christian scriptures, Ibn Qayyim concluded that most of the authentic texts of the Jewish and Christian scriptures had been distorted textually (taḥrīf al-lafẓ/al-nass) and interpretively (taḥrīf al-maʿnā). And he revealed his claims with theological and rational proofs in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The early Christians compiled lists of selected passages from the Jewish scriptures and preserved them as sacred writings. When the content of these extract collections is analyzed, the anti-Jewish apologetic-polemic characteristic stands out. These extract collections were also used in catechist education. Over time, early Christians attributed the status of testimonia to certain passages that became prominent among other prooftexts so that, compared to other circulating proof-texts, the testimonia passages were regarded as testimonials to the theological truth that did not even require interpretation. The creation and preservation of testimonia collections became not only a technical activity for Christians but also a tradition that shaped early Christian theology around certain central passages. Traces of this tradition can be seen in the works of the early church fathers. Indeed, it is possible to argue that the testimonia tradition also continued among subsequent Christians. Greek, Latin, and Syriac testimonia collections were translated into Arabic and used as sources of biblical proof-texts in both oral debates against Muslims and apologetic-polemical works. The primary purpose of this study is to examine the connection between the biblical quotations in the works of Christian Arab writers of different periods and the testimonia tradition. This study focuses on how biblical testimonia, which accompanied theological arguments from the first centuries onwards, were used and interpreted in Christian authors' apologetics and polemics against Muslims together with the strategy of "arguing from the book" and what are the similarities and differences in scriptural argumentation of Arab Christian authors compared to the previous testimonia tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Death, which is accepted as the last of the transition periods, is an inevitable end for all humanity. The fear of death has led to the emergence of various beliefs and rituals about death in societies. According to African local beliefs, life expectancy does not end with death. On the contrary, life continues in another realm. On the other hand, although death is a feared event, it is accepted as the beginning of communication between visible and invisible beings. The concepts of life and death are interrelated and even complementary. Although the majority of African local beliefs accept death as part of the life cycle, they agree that death has a connection with supernatural forces. In African local beliefs, care is taken to carry out funeral ceremonies in accordance with the rules. Although there are different practices in funeral ceremonies in African communities, it has been determined that similar customs are also observed. In this study, the beliefs and rituals of many communities in Africa about death will be examined. The article data obtained by the literature review were written using the descriptive method of the History of Religions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present series offers an anthology of excerpts from all types of Mircea Eliade’s writings, either unpublished or published as journals, reminiscences, memoirs, articles, essays, and shorter pieces, which may as a whole describe his own production and continual re/use of personal manuscripts. There is at present no systematic inquiry into the nature, form, quantity, and scope of his lost Bucharest archive. The rather large amount of Eliade Bucharest manuscripts sold through auctions since 2017 has already lethally interfered with the integrity of Eliade’s archive, as he bid farewell in August 1942 and the subsequent material owners offered after Eliade’s death no public catalogue or minimal listing of identified manuscripts, no indices, and almost no proper clues regarding its very size. Meanwhile, some manuscripts from this archive were sold directly by Eliade estates to public institutions in Romania (1986-1989) or sold directly to two public libraries in Bucharest by the sole material owner (and for his own personal benefit), in March-December 1989. Eliade’s published and especially unpublished manuscripts auctioned since 2017 are extraordinarily diverse, and only a part have been rescued by public institutions (17 manuscripts by the Library of the Romanian Academy in 2021, 67 manuscripts by the donors of the Institute for the History of Religions of the Romanian Academy in 2002, and several others at present under critical scrutiny, in 2023 and by the donors of the same Institute). All these manuscripts are only a fragment from the full archive Eliade left for good in Bucharest in 1942. Synoptic re-reading may thus help indeed improve our knowledge of that very archive, its content being a source of endless litigious intervention. The series complements ECCE | The Complete Critical Edition of Mircea Eliade’s Scholarly Works before 1945, under the aegis of the Institute for the History of Religions, as well as MEUM | Mircea Eliade’s Unpublished Manuscripts from Private Collections, published by Eugen Ciurtin and Andreea Apostu in Transilvania 51 [155] (2023), no. 1, pp. 1-22 (Critical edition), no. 2, pp. 1-16 (Concordances A-E), and no. 3, pp. 1-16, with forthcoming instalments in 2023. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Being a pilgrim in medieval Europe is very important for every faithful Christian. The presence of a large number of pilgrimages on the continent has made it easier for people to fulfill such a religious duty. The main purpose of pilgrimage is forgiveness of sins, but there are many other purposes such as healing, asking for children, thanking for the wish fulfilled. The exact number of pilgrims is not known as there are no reliable records. Women who lived under control throughout the age also made pilgrimages, but mostly went to places close to their homes. If they were to go far, they were usually accompanied by their husbands. There is no evidence that nuns made pilgrimages. Going to pilgrimage in this period is a dangerous and costly business. It is also possible to go on pilgrimage to someone else's place. Although the duration of pilgrimages varies according to the distance of the destination, they are usually long because transportation is not as developed as it is today. Events affecting many regions such as the great plague epidemic between 1346-51 and the Hundred Years War between 1337-1453 caused the pilgrimage to be interrupted. Nevertheless, the clergy and especially the popes encouraged people to go on pilgrimage. While one purpose of this encouragement is the forgiveness of people's sins, another purpose is for the clergy to earn a great income from pilgrimages. This income is so great that from time to time it has brought religious and worldly leaders against each other. The three most important pilgrimage centers of the continent in the Middle Ages were Rome, Santiego de Compostela and Canterbury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kokutai is an important concept that ideologically influenced the establishment and development of the Japanese nation-state. Kokutai represents the Japanese state based on the eternal-absolute sovereignty of the sacred Japanese emperors and the Japanese people united under this state. The concept, in this sense, was used for the first time in Aizawa Seishisai (1782-1863)'s Shinron written in 1825. The text became widespread in the country at the time it was written. Seishisai is a scholar who deals with Confucianism under the Mito Han and has p on the political and social problems of the country. Shinron, which he wrote, is a text that reflects Seishisai's views on how the Tokugawa Bakufu should take measures against the threat of foreign ships coming to Japan since the end of the 18th century. Seishishai advocated the slogan Sonnō Joi (respect the emperor and drive out the barbarians) in the text. He drew attention to the unity of the people and the emperor. In this article, the historical process in Japan that led to the emergence of the idea of kokutai is examined. In addition, the concept of kokutai in Shinron was analyzed by content analysis method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When religious traditions are analysed, it is observed that in almost all religious traditions, there are some groups that often manifest themselves with contradictory thoughts and acceptances against the party representing the orthodox belief. Although the reasons for the emergence of these movements, which are called ‘‘heretics’’ in modern literature, vary, it is possible to state that they sometimes arise from religious practices and sometimes from disagreements related to belief. The heresy sometimes manifests itself in the mystical sphere of religions, and Christianity has a long tradition in this area when it comes to ‘‘heresy’’. Although there are significant differences between different denominations of Christianity, it can be said that the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant churches represent the tradition in terms of religious doctrine (e.g. the Trinity) in Christianity. When we evaluate the history, it is possible to mention the existence of many movements, large and small, that oppose this tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ali İhsan Yitik’s book titled Batı’yı Aydınlatan Doğu was created by bringing together various translated and copyrighted articles. The book includes twelve articles gathered under three main headings. In the first chapter called “Hinduism from Different Pens” there are three different articles on Hinduism written by three different authors, namely Biruni, Dara Şukuh and Mahatma Gandhi and a translated article on missionary work in Hinduism. The second chapter, titled "Vedas, Cow and Woman", deals with the current debates on Hinduism. In addition to cow worship, the Vedas, which are considered sacred in Hinduism, are about the position of women in this religion, the resurrection in Islam and the doctrine of karma-reincarnation. In the last chapter with the same name as the book, Yitik, after introducing Indian thought through an article, inserts in the chapter three different articles on the impact of Indian culture on Western civilization. Ali İhsan Yitik, who has made a name for himself in the field of History of Religions with his studies on Indian religions, informs us comprehensively about Indian culture in this work that aims to introduce Indian religion and thought to the reader. In this direction, the author, who enlightens us about Indian religion, belief, worship and thought and their reflections on our day, also reveals the impact of Indian culture on our day. In this context, the book called Batı’yı Aydınlatan Doğu is an important reference source about Indian culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is a known fact that authors of Western literature, from the most devout Christian to the most ardent anti-Christian, frequently include religious phenomena in their works. Written by Aldous Huxley, one of the most important dystopian writers of the 20th century, Brave New World is a fiction that draws attention with its religious references, both overtly and skillfully hidden in the subtext. Meanwhile, although Brave New World is been referred as a dystopia, it can also be considered as a utopia from the point of view of the members of the society, because the members of the society living in it are extremely happy. Set in a World State in 632 A.F. (After Ford), the novel predicts scientific advances in psychological manipulation, sleep learning, classical conditioning, reproductive technologies. In the society, where the family is completely eliminated, individuals who are reproduced in laboratories by reproductive technologies are divided into classes such as alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon similar to the Hindu caste system and are employed according to their classes. The society, in which religion, science, art, literature and philosophy are long lost in the dusty pages of history, has taken on a completely hedonistic identity with individuals who have random intercourse in pursuit of sheer pleasure and use a drug called soma. The World State was divided into ten separate regions and an administrator similar to the governor was appointed to the head of each region. The region outside the World State is called the Savage Reservation and the people in this region still live tribal life. Through a character he fictionalised, Huxley expresses that God manifests himself as an absence. Instead of a traditional God, Henry Ford shows up as a divine and Messianic figure. Solidarity rites are held in the World State in order to worship Ford and allow him to manifest among the congregation. These rites share common phenomena with actual religious beliefs and rites such as Jewish Merkava mysticism, ancient Greek and Anatolian orgy rituals, Christian Eucharist and the Vedic narcotic soma. In common with all these rites, the phenomenon of "numinous", which the famous German theologian and philosopher Rudolf Otto defines as "experience of the sacred", and "mysterium tremendum" (trembling mystery), which is the object to which numinous consciousness is directed are seen. Huxley, envisaged a system in which there is no religion in the traditional sense, but still replaces religion. This system ensures the continuation of social order and security, strengthens the bonds of solidarity and brotherhood between people who pursue the common ideal which is to be as one with Ford, the god and also the Messiah of the World State. This system was actually the religion of the Brave New World because it performs the social and psychological function of religion. Huxley refers to the Bible and some other books about religion. In a world in which all religions were abolished, the Bible appears as an ancient religious text known only to the governors of the World State. They keep the Bible in a safe and share it with nobody. He also refers to The Varieties of Religious Experience written by remarkable philosopher and psychologist William James. Another work he referred is De Imitatione Christi (The Imitation of Christ) which was composed by Thomas à Kempis and being read by Christians in order to develop themselves personally and spiritually. In this study, the most remarkable of the religious phenomena that Aldous Huxley includes explicitly and implicitly in his fiction will be put forward and these phenomena will be examined in the context of the methods of comparative history of religions and the hermeneutic phenomenology. This study will be an exemplary one for theologians in reading the subtexts of dystopian, utopian and anti-utopian works in which phenomena such as world religion, deus otiosus (static god), savior/Christ have an important place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present series of contributions critically edits in Romanian and English, with concordances and commentary, a string of unpublished multilingual manuscripts written in South Asia, from 1929 to 1931, by the young Mircea Eliade, Indologist and historian of religions. Previously unknown, the manuscripts were purchased by a private collector, who most graciously contacted the editors in February 2023 and bequeathed them for the present publication. The series complements ECCE | The Complete Critical Edition of Mircea Eliade’s Scholarly Works before 1945, under the auspices of the Institute for the History of Religions in Bucharest (first two volumes forthcoming). The first two instalments of MEUM | Mircea Eliade’s Unpublished Manuscripts from Private Collections were published in Transilvania 51 [155] (2023), no. 1, pp. 1-22 (Critical edition) and no. 2, pp. 1-16 (Concordances A-E). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cult of sainthood has occupied an important place in the religious life of Christian societies since early times. In the beginning, the apostles and all those who followed the teachings of Jesus were considered saints; however, as Christianity spread to large masses and the teachings began to take shape over time, changes occurred in the perception of saints in Christian societies. At a time when Christianity was practiced in secret and not recognized by the state, those who were martyred for their faith were accepted as saints. However, with the legitimization of Christianity by the Roman Empire, the possibility of achieving this kind of martyrdom disappeared. From this moment on, there was a significant break in the perception of sainthood and monks who renounced the world for the sake of their faith began to be seen as saints. Monastic life and monasticism, which began in Egypt and Syria, moved to the West in the V. century and had an impact on the development of Christianity in Europe. At this point, the first monk pope in history, Gregorius Magnus (d. 604), who held the office of bishop of Rome between 590-604, and his work Dialogi, in which he tells the stories of European saints, are in an important position. This work of Pope Gregorius I was influential in Europe for centuries and shaped both the faith and religious life of Christians. This study will examine the transformation of the perception of sainthood over time and Gregorius Magnus' contribution to this transformation through the Dialogi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present series of contributions critically edits in Romanian and English, with concordances and commentary, a string of unpublished, multilingual manuscripts written by the young Mircea Eliade, Indologist and historian of religions in South Asia, from 1929 to 1931. Previously unknown, the manuscripts were purchased by a private collector, who most graciously contacted the editors in February 2023 and bequeathed them for the present publication. The series complements ECCE | The Complete Critical Edition of Mircea Eliade’s Scholarly Works before 1945, under the auspices of the Institute for the History of Religions in Bucharest (first two volumes forthcoming). The first (double) instalment was published in Transilvania 51 [155] (2023), no. 1, pp. 1-22. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the refutation of the Venetian Rabbi Leon Modena (d.1648) against the Christian Catholic Order named Magen Va-Herev (Shield and Sword). The author prepared his work as a response to Pietro Galatino's (d. 1530) "De Arcanis Catholicae Veritatis" (Secrets of the Catholic Truth). Although Modena wanted to respond to the work of Galatino, he also targeted Thomas Aquinas, one of the most important Christian theologians of the Middle Ages, and his works. Modena designed the work as eight chapters but could only write five chapters. The work includes chapters of Original Sin, Trinity, Incarnation, Virginity of Mary, and the Messiah. Although Modena's work shows similarities with previous Jewish polemics in terms of content and subject, it has a unique approach in terms of style, according to today's researchers. This study deals with Modena's objections to the Catholic claims about the virginity of Mary, her role in the birth and progeny of Jesus, and the glory of Mary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food and nutrition are subjects that religions have focused on meticulously throughout history. As in traditional religions, new religious movements that have started to operate in different parts of the world since the second half of the twentieth century include prohibition, release, or advisory rules regarding foods and beverages. When the new religious movements are examined, it is seen that some of them have developed various food rules in accordance with the healthy life philosophy and others within the framework of ritual practices. Based on these and similar issues, in this study, it is aimed to determine what kind of eating and drinking rules or practices are encountered in new religious movements. In this direction, qualitative research techniques were used in the study; rather, descriptive and comparative methods were used. It is obvious that it is an almost impossible attempt to reach the entire problem area in research. For this reason, instead of attempting the difficult task of determining the thoughts of all the new religious movements on the subject, reference was made to the prominent groups in terms of the rules they determined and the rituals and practices they developed. As a result, the subject has been dealt with under the headings of i) prohibitions on food and beverages, ii) provisions and practices regarding vegetarian nutrition, iii) attitudes and activities based on natural nutrition, iv) use of food and beverages in religious rituals, and v) abstinence or fasting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present series of contributions critically edits in Romanian and English, with concordances and commentary, a string of unpublished, multilingual manuscripts written by the young Mircea Eliade, Indologist and historian of religions in South Asia, from 1929 to 1931. Previously unknown, the manuscripts were purchased by a private collector, who most graciously contacted the editors in February 2023 and bequeathed them for the present publication. The series complements ECCE | The Complete Critical Edition of Mircea Eliade’s Scholarly Works before 1945, under the auspices of the Institute for the History of Religions in Bucharest (first two volumes forthcoming). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article makes a historical review of the conflicting implantation of Protestantism in Paraíba, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. With the opening of the ports in 1808 and the agreements signed between the Portuguese Crown and England, there was the possibility of a continuous establishment of Protestants in Brazil. In Paraíba, it was no different from the rest of the country, with the presence of illustrious Protestants in the state being reported, such as José Bates (1825) and Perish Kidder (1839). However, the lasting implantation of a Protestant church in Paraíba only occurred in 1878, through missionary work. The implantation and development of the Protestant church in the state were not smooth, having faced persecution in several places, from nicknames to murders. The worst cases occurred in the interior of the state and during Holy Missions held in the city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In our article, we seek to find answers to questions such as whether there are a differences between the depictions of Jesus' personality in the Gospels and the Qur’ān, and if so, whether these differences indicate distortion or have a specific meaning in the sources. Using the documentation method, We first try to reveal how Jesus was introduced in the religious sources of Christianity and Islam. Later, we determine the personality of Jesus by referring to the Gospels and the Qur’ān. The interpretations of Christians' holy books and Islamic interpretations, encyclopedias, books, magazines and articles about the personality of Jesus were copyrighted after being labeled and classified. Jesus, as a historical figure, is the most commented prophet on his life.Issues such as his birth, childhood, youth, death and resurrection have been discussed for years by both Christian and Muslim theologians. The issues discussed by the theologians have been wondered by people and many works have been put forward.The basic sources about Jesus, which is the subject of the research, are the Bibles and Bible interpretations for Christians; for Muslims, they are the Qur’ān, tafsir and hadith books. As a historical figure, Jesus is the most commented prophet on his life. For this reason, the personality of Jesus in the Gospels and the Qur’ān has been tried to be presented comparatively. In our opinion, it will be useful to reveal the differences between the texts of the Bible and the Qur’ān. Although the personality of Jesus is described in the Gospels by entering details such as place, time and people, it is revealed as a phenomenon in the Qur’ān without giving any details. In the Christian faith, St. Jesus is considered as one of the elements that make up the trinity, the fundamental belief of many Christians. According to them, St. Jesus is not merely a prophet, but also the eternal word of God, the son of God, who is essentially one with God. Furthermore, according to Christian belief, Jesus who originally resided with God, came to Earth after Adam’s expulsion from heaven, assuming human nature to save people living in sin by purifying them from their sins. In contrast, the Qur’ān offers a distinct portrayal of Jesus. According to the Qur’ān, he is a prophet appointed by Allah. The Qur’ān aims to correct the erroneous beliefs of Christians. Accordingly, The personage of Jesus is not a fable or a story, but a real piece of evidence from which people should learn. Unlike the Christian belidf, the Qur’ān does not present Jesus as the son of God; rather, he is recognized solely as a prophet. According to the Qur’ān, Jesus proved his prophethood through his personality and revealed the infinite power of Allah to the people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gaziantep is one of the oldest settlements of humanity, which has continually enriched the region throughout history. When we review this accumulated wealth, we come across traces of various religions and beliefs at every stage. Researches have also revealed that no society has ever existed without faith. In other words, belief is an integral part of human history. Gaziantep is located at the crossroads of routes connecting the South and the Mediterranean to the west, north and east as well as being traversed by the renowned Silk Road. That has made it a hub for diverse communities since prehistoric times and for various religions and beliefs to live in. The first civilizations flourished here. This diversity has increased gradually due to the social, cultural and political changes and transformations that the region has experienced throughout history. It has been maintaining this feature for a long time by incorporating the religion of Islam in the most important stage of its history. Thanks to the tolerant environment and tradition provided by Islam, it is still possible to encounter and observe traces of old religions and beliefs. In our study, we will briefly discuss the traces of religions and beliefs other than Islam. First, we will point out the ancient periods of Gaziantep. In this context, we will give examples from the Hittite era. We will evaluate the traces of the period on the basis of the district and the ruins there. Then, we will move to the fact that the Romans and Greeks left important traces in Gaziantep and its surroundings. In this context, we will indicate the importance of Dülük and Zeugma cities. Furthermore, we will delve into the traces of the cult of Mitra. Proceeding to later periods, we will discuss Judaism and Christianity, which are among the religions that have preserved their existence until recently in Gaziantep and its surroundings. We will also discuss the initial emergence and historical development of these religions in the region as well as their interactions with Muslims and how these relations continue. Finally, we will deal with the recent and current situations of the religions mentioned and their members, drawing conclusions based on our findings. In addition, Gaziantep is one of the important cities located on the main roads starting from Birecik to the Mediterranean coast, starting from Kahramanmaraş to Aleppo and starting from Diyarbakır to Iskenderun, and is also one of the prominent cities in the relations between Turkey and Syria. Therefore, we will try to express that Gaziantep and its surroundings have maintained their potential to be center of belief, culture and trade throughout history. We preferred the descriptive approach in order to present the topics covered in our research in an accurate and objective way. We scanned the sources of our study and then examined them with the evaluation method. In addition, we gave priority to the sources that deal with Gaziantep directly. In this context, we tried to select some examples related to the recent period, especially from the memories of the people of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From a historical phenomenological perspective, it was the Jewish God who transformed Jewish history into a history of salvation. Hence, the Jewish tradition has endeavored to develop unique theological discourses in response to challenges encountered in every era. This study argues that the Israelites’ understanding of God shows parallel phenomenological developmental stages in relation to the historical journey of the Jewish people. In the first phase, Yahweh appears as the Supreme Being who promises the land to Abraham, the father of the Israelites. In the second phase, Yahweh becomes a supreme God who, as a community, frees the Israelites from slavery in pagan Egypt and can be expressed in the terminology of the existing polytheistic world. In the final phase, the national God of the Israelites with a universal character appears as a developed teo-political monotheism, which enters into monolatry or syncretic interactions thanks to strengthening political leadership and emerges as the Singular God who destroys other local deities. In recent times, especially under the pressure of modernism, Judaism continues to see itself as a monotheistic ethno-cultural and theo-political tradition, dedicating itself to the purpose of "being a people in the image of God," while continuing to identify God's absoluteness and infinity with its ethno-cultural existence and its longing for eternal permanence from a human perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pope Gregorius I (d. 604) or more commonly known as Gregory the Great; he is one of the most important figures in the history of the Papacy. He was given the title of "Magnus" (great, supreme) due to the arrangements that he made in the church structure during the Papacy, the political relations that he established with the kingdoms in Europe and the Eastern Roman Empire, and the activities that he carried out in order to maintain the existence of the Roman Church and strengthen its authority. Gregorius, who is an extremely prolific writer compared to other popes, not only made structural arrangements, but was also very busy with the moral level of the Christian society and wrote works for this purpose. The works of Gregorius had a very important place in the formation of Europe's understanding of religion during the Middle Ages. His work 'Liber Regulae Pastoralis', which is the subject of our article, was also accepted by the Church and played a major role in shaping the clergy class. In this work, Gregorius talks about who can be a bishop, what kind of features the bishop should have, what kind of life he should lead and how he should preach, and finally, he ends his work by explaining how the spiritual world of the bishop should be. When the characteristics and behaviors described in the book are examined, it is seen that only a bishop or clergyman who fulfills certain religious duties is not described. The ideal bishop described by Gregorius should have the characteristics of a monk. In our article, Gregorius' definition of ideal bishop and the background of this definition are examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of religion in societies is an ongoing debate even for most of the Western countries, which have advanced in terms of modernity. Particularly, the studies show that the impact of Christianity moved from the public sphere to the private domain due to the Modernist worldview that evolved in the context of Reformation and French Revolution. At the end of the 19th century, religious groups have arised out of questioning the division between the individual and public spheres of religion in Europe. One of the foremost of these movements is the Neo-Calvinist tradition shaped by Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920). This study is to deal with the main intellectual resources of the Neo-Calvinist tradition, which Kuyper developed by reinterpreting Calvinism in the context of "worldview" and to explain its effects on Western societies. By opposing modern secular society, Kuyper tried to develop a social system that is pluralistic in religion. Calvinism, in contrast to the guiding principles of contemporary secular culture, has the qualities to permeate society as a whole, according to Kuyper, who builds a theological foundation for the entire truth. Kuyper developed a worldview based on the Christian belief systems through antitheses after critically reconsidering the underlying principles of modernity. In contrast, he asserts, there is a widespread perception in America that Calvinism is the most effective safeguard against the loss of liberties, but the idea that people's beliefs must be abandoned for freedom predominates in Europe. Kuyper developed a worldview based on Christian belief principles through antitheses by critically revising the fundamental ideas of modernism. He described the period he lived in as a crisis period and did not hold back while expressing the problematic aspects of Christianity. He contended that the church must acknowledge the reality of contemporary culture, have a theology that is relevant to the society in which it lives, and acknowledge its own cultural captivity, which it ignores. Kuyper viewed the conflict between the sacred and the secular as a war between good and evil in his mind, which is why he prefers military imagery when explaining the role of the church and compares the church to the army when discussing it in his works. According to Kuyper, who supports the understanding of cultural diversity and pluralism, the paradigm of "Sphere Sovereignty" also displays a variety of worldviews. Everyone has a worldview that affects how they live, and he claims that institutional manifestations of people's worldviews, such as Islamic schools and Jewish butchers, should exist in the open. After many years as a member of parliament, served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 1901 to 1905. Through his "Sphere Sovereignty" model, he attempted to reshape the relationship between religion and politics as well as the role of religion in society. In a society where Modernism, which rejects religious values, is dominant, he battled for religious life and opposed the "neutral worldview" principles that Modernism developed. It is possible to say that with his studies and the practices he followed, he ignited the fuse of today's cultural conflicts and debates in Western societies. /The purpose of this research is to examine how Neo-Calvinism came to be a comprehensive belief system within the framework of Abraham Kuyper's reinterpretation, and to clarify the core principles of the Neo-Calvinist worldview for social and religious life. It is also to explain the theological foundations of the long-standing struggle between modernism and Christian worldviews, and thus to increase the level of consciousness and awareness about the role of the Protestant Neo-Calvinist worldview in international politics in the new world order shaped by the USA. Therefore, we searched the literature on national and international sources using the descriptive method of the History of Religions. By doing so, the article will provide the theoretical framework of Neo-Calvinism, which shaped the state, religion, science, philosophy, education, politics, and social life. It also will demonstrate how significant the achievements in the struggle against secular, modern, and positivist living based on the Neo-Calvinist worldview have become in current Western society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of studies on the History of Religions conducted in Turkey has been increasing in recent years. Therefore, there is a need for studies that examine the progression of the History of Religions in Turkey numerically and thematically. Some studies on this subject have been conducted so far. This study aims to present numerical ratios, thematic data, and brief evaluations of postgraduate theses in the field of the History of Religions in Turkish universities. This study is limited to theses completed in 2021 due to the abundance and diversity of theses in the History of Religions from the past to the present. It was carried out using document analysis, one of the qualitative research methods used in the Social Sciences. The research data were obtained by scanning postgraduate theses on the Council of Higher Education (YÖK) National Thesis Center website. Fifty-seven theses met the relevant criteria, and the data set was created. The study presents these theses under thematic categories by listing their full details and Turkish-English short summaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The testing aspect of Satan is present in many religious narratives. Satan has tried to mislead many religious leaders chosen by God. However, Satan is also seen as the real reason for humanity's earthly life and for being sinners. In the Christian religious tradition, Satan is known for this feature, and when we look at the Gospels, it is seen that Jesus encountered such a situation. At first, Satan deceives Adam and his wife, Eve, causing them to fall from heaven. The dialogue with Jesus, on the other hand, contains a paradise depiction of Jesus being with wild animals. Satan, a being depicted in Jewish tradition by his evil qualities in God's service, has been positioned before God along with the Christian tradition. Satan subjected Jesus to an important test in the desert. Jesus' resistance to forty days of hunger and thirst is similar to the attitude of the Jews during their forty years in the desert. In this process, Jesus, unlike the Jews, frustrated Satan's efforts in the face of being tested by being the sinless Son. The accounts of Satan's testing of Jesus in the Canonical Gospels contain variances as well as similarities. This article discusses baptism, the tearing of the sky, the manifestation of the Holy Spirit, Jesus' testing in the desert, Satan's approach to Jesus, and Satan's despair. The article provides a table that summarizes and describes the discrepancies and inconsistencies in the Gospels concerning Satan's testing of Jesus. It used a comparative method to reveal and evaluate the differences between the Gospels and contribute to a better understanding of the narrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Trinity (taslīs in Arabic), which constitutes the most fundamental dogma of Christianity, expresses a triune conception of God represented as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. In its current form, the Trinity has been made the official belief basis of Christianity following the decisions taken in the councils, which occupy a significant place in the history of Christianity. In the most general terms, Trinity is the belief that each of these three entities, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is God and that there is no superiority or difference between them in divinity. Acceptance of the Trinity is necessary for becoming a Christian. Nevertheless, it is wellknown that in the history of Christianity, some individuals and groups rejected the Trinity despite identifying themselves as "Christians". The most notable of these names is Michael Servetus, who is also considered the founder of the movement known today as Unitarianism. Servetus wrote some books in which he seriously criticized the Holy Trinity. According to Servetus, the Trinity is not mentioned in the Holy Bible, and this dogma has no place in the essence of Christianity. The Trinity is a construct fashioned by Greek philosophy and falsifies Christianity. These objections, which made an overwhelming impression in his time, greatly angered the Protestant and Catholic theologians. Servetus was burned to death in Geneva in 1553 due to Catholic and Protestant collaboration. This study examines the religious thought of Michael Servetus, particularly his interpretation of the Trinity, and analyzes his challenges to the traditional understanding of the Trinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Celtic Christianity significantly contributed to the medieval Christian mission in the Christianization of Britain and Ireland. The Celtic missionary monks, particularly in the sixth century, set out in groups, traveled across Europe, and carried out the most remarkable missionary movement. The Celtic missionaries employed preaching methods that included non-Christians and Christians they saw as corrupted. This study examines the introduction of Christianity to Britain and Western Europe, as well as the religious and political developments that occurred in these regions until the seventh century. It also discusses the concept of peregrinatio, which describes the journeys of Celtic missionaries to spread the message of Christ. It analyzes this movement through the three key figures of the Celtic missionary movement: St. Columba (520-597), St. Aidan (590-651), and St. Columbanus (543-615). Finally, it highlights the similarities and differences among the names mentioned above in carrying out their missionary activities, including the materials they used, the problems they encountered, and the methods they used to achieve the missionary objective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diwali is derived from the word Deepavali, which means "series of lights", and has had wide repercussions in the Indian world and continues to do so. As Diwali is determined according to the lunar calendar, it has different celebration days. It is usually celebrated at the end of October and the beginning of November in the Gregorian calendar. There are different mythological accounts of the origin of Diwali. The most prominent origin narrative, as a Hindu festival in the first stage, is the one centered on Rama-Sita-Ravana. This narrative was later reinterpreted by Sikhs in line with their own traditions, and this is how the understanding of Diwali emerged in Sikhism. In the Rama-Sita-Ravana narrative, which represents the central narrative of the origin of Diwali in Hinduism, Rama's wife Sita is kidnapped by Ravana, King of Lanka, then Rama wages war on Ravana and saves his wife by defeating him. Afterwards, a magnificent welcome is organized for the couple who come to Ayodhya, and with their return, abundance and fertility occur in the city. Hindus adopted this narrative to their daily lives and believed that Goddess Lakshmi, who is a prominent figure in Diwali, also provides abundance and fertility today. Diwali celebrations last for five days. On the first day, when a different God/Goddess stands out on each day, houses are cleaned, and decorations are made. On the second day, preparations continue. On the third day, the most important day of Diwali, Lakshmi Puja, is worshiped. The third day is also important financially because it is the day when the account books of the previous year are closed, and the new account books are opened. Also, on the third day, Ganesha is in the foreground, as well as Lakshmi. As a matter of fact, Hindus believe that without Ganesha, worshiping Lakshmi would be meaningless. The fourth and fifth days of Diwali are the time when family relationships are developed. Because on the fourth day, while the parents are holding a feast and presenting gifts to their newly married children; On the fifth day, sisters and brothers are given gifts and treats in return. Although Diwali is a Hindu festival at first glance, it also has an important place in other Indian religions. Diwali celebrations in Jainism are partly calm due to the principle of Ahimsa. The Jains trace the origin of this festival back to the 6th century BC. Thus, aiming to show that Diwali already exists within the tradition, the Jains celebrate this festival in memory of Mahavira's attainment of Moksha. As with Hindus, Jains light oil lamps, open new financial books, and go to temples at this festival. Another religious tradition in which Diwali is celebrated with enthusiasm is Sikhism. Although there are different narratives about the origin of Diwali within Sikhism, the Guru Har Gobindcentered narrative is generally accepted. He is taken into captivity by Emperor Jahangir. Freed from captivity in 1619, Har Gobind moved to Amritsar with the princes beside him. The people of Amritsar celebrate the guru's liberation and entry into the city with great enthusiasm. Another significance of this festival for Sikhism is the renewal of the financial books, as in Hinduism and Jainism.Diwali is a festival also celebrated by Buddhists. Unlike other religious traditions, different mythological narratives are not encountered in Buddhism for this festival. The importance of this festival for Buddhists is based on King Ashoka's adoption of Buddhism on Diwali day in the 3rd century BC. It is seen that Christians and Muslims of Indian origin also participated in Diwali. For these two religious traditions, Diwali has a cultural meaning. Diwali celebrations are witnessed in different countries besides India. For Indian families, Diwali has an important function in the context of transmitting their traditions. However, it has been a controversial issue whether Diwali can be considered a public holiday in diaspora countries. Although this issue was sometimes brought to the official authorities, it did not receive a positive response in most cases. During the COVID-19 process, Diwali celebrations have lagged behind their previous splendor. The COVID-19 epidemic, which affects Indian religions as well as other religions, has caused the Diwali celebrations to shift in different dimensions. The vast majority of street celebrations were suspended, celebrations held in great temples were broadcast online, and visits were not permitted. In this study, first of all, different narratives regarding the origin of Diwali from the Hindus’ perspective were revealed, and then the five-day celebrations and its reflection on the society were described in detail. The meaning and importance of Diwali for different religious groups have been discussed comparatively. With the gains that the Diwali celebrations outside India have provided to people of Indian origin and the possible situations to be encountered in the future, information on how the Diwali celebrations took place during the COVID-19 epidemic process has been discussed in light of current data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noah's flood is one of the ancient narratives of humanity. In this regard, the sources belonging to many different civilizations, beliefs, and mythologies mentioned, have narratives of a flood event believed to have happened in the past. According to the information on the tablets of ancient civilizations such as Sumer and Assyria, the deluge occurred as a result of the gods' desire to completely eliminate the human race. These tablets have different expressions. However, the general opinion is that a large-scale flood or deluge occurred. It has believed that this event took place because of the increase in human evil and the wrath of God. Along with the Abrahamic religions, there are also such expressions in traditional religions. This event has been called Noah's Flood in three divine religions that have a large audience around the world. Besides this, the cause and result of the flood event that took place in the period of Noah, one of his names given in the Qur’an, has been explained. According to the Qur'an, Allah punished people for their various sins and saved people who believed and did good deeds. In this direction, according to the Torah, Noah's ark landed in the Ararat Mountains after the flood. Accordingly, what the concept of Ararat means gains importance. Therefore, Jewish sources come to the fore as the most important data sources. At the same time, also the Assyrians living in the region have various accounts of the flood. The Qur'an indicates the place where the ship landed as Mount Cudi. In this case, the issue becomes even more important since the main source of Muslims is the Qur'an. Besides this, Islamic scholars have described Cudi and its surroundings as the place where the flood took place. In this context, the decimation incident has caused controversy in our country, between the provinces of Şırnak and Ağrı, as it has a religious, cultural, and historical value, while also creating a scientific research area in the context of the place where the decimation occurred. While some of these are scientific studies, some of them have been carried out by people and institutions who are curious about the subject. At the same time, this has been reported a lot in the media because this topic is popular. Moreover, it is a separate reality that this topic is transmitted both in writing and orally in both the Ağrı and the Şırnak regions, and a common memory is formed. The research is based on the evaluation of the data obtained from previous studies in this field, as well as the studies in the symposiums of Mount Ararat and Noah's Flood, and Mount Cudi and Noah's Flood. In addition, other scientific studies in this field have also been used for a better understanding of the subject. Subjects have been examined under certain headings accordingly. Furthermore, the suitability of the region for living conditions, where the name Ararat refers to, archaeological findings on this subject, the approach to the issue in travelogues, the data and information of exegetes and hadiths about the place where the ship landed have examined. In addition, numerical values have been given in terms of how much the studies on the flood event in Şırnak and Ağrı regions deal with the flood. In this context, it has been tried to understand how the relationship of the subject with the religious field is established. Because the religious dimension of the flood is brought to the fore in the studies. The study is aimed at the literature analysis and comparison of the studies on the subject. This article is limited to the available studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fact that God is one and has no equal is a belief that all Jews must believe. In Judaism, the sentence expressing this belief and the sentence that comes after it and mentions the love of God are mentioned in the Torah and are known as Shema. Essentially, the Shema consists of three texts in various parts of the Torah. Jewish clergy recognized the connection between these three texts and brought them together. Thus, the Shema, which gained a wholeness, gained a distinctive character of its own. In this study, the most important sentence of the Shema, which also reflects the title of the study, is Deuteronomy 6/4 (Listen, O Israel! The Lord our God is the only Lord) and Deuteronomy 6/5 (you will love the Lord our God with all your heart, with all your soul, with your strength) is emphasized. Texts other than these are excluded from the scope of the study. As a result of some discussions, the Shema was created by bringing together the relevant texts towards the end of the 2nd century and has been said as a whole until today. Shema reading is the holiest and most important practice in Jewish life. Because the Shema is considered the essence of the Jewish creed. The Shema is a confession of the Jewish faith more than a prayer. According to Jewish belief, the Shema refers to the dialogue between God and the Jews on Mount Sinai. In this context, the Shema is the call of God and the response of the Jews to that call. Schema is also a political discourse for Jews. It is said that the Jews never let the Shema down their tongues until their last breath. As a matter of fact, it is pointed out that even if all traces of Jewish identity are lost, Shema will retain its place in Jewish memory. As a matter of fact, Jews taught their children Shema even under the most difficult conditions. On the other hand, it is also known that Shema was used to provide moral support to Jewish patients. It is accepted that the first words of Shema have a protective power as well as a healing quality. The Word “Listen” in the first sentence of the Shema (Listen, O Israel! The Lord our God is the only Lord) refers to obedient listening. Listening also means listening carefully and thinking about the subject, understanding and comprehending. Because the listener not only hears the words of the speaker, but also becomes aware of the deep meanings underlying those words. The word "Israel" in the Shema refers to the entire Jewish nation that Moses called to "hear the unity of God." The first sentence of the Shema also clearly expresses the monotheistic belief in Judaism: "God is one". In Jewish thought, monotheism means that there is no god but Yahweh. The following second sentence of the Shema (Deuteronomy 6/5) is also frequently repeated: “You shall love the Lord our God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength.” This statement emphasizes that a Jew should not only seek God's good pleasure, but also develop a loving relationship with God. According to Jewish belief, loving God is an act of worship. Recognition of God's oneness necessitates love of God. According to the generally accepted view, the love meant here should be a concrete love, not an abstract one. Concrete love, on the other hand, should be a concrete sign of fidelity, such as "obedience to God's law". On the other hand, the phrase you will love God “with all your heart” refers to all the passions of a Jew, including cognitive as well as emotional. In addition, with the command "You shall love God with all your might", Jews are asked to love God enough to sacrifice their possessions for God. However, the extent of the sacrifice to be made is a matter of debate. According to the most extreme view expressed in this regard, Jews are asked to give up all their material possessions for their faith and love for God. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study discusses the evolution and expansion of the concept of Iran in the historical process. The concept of Iran covering different layers of meaning and reflecting different intonations of the three dynasties (Persian, Parthian, and Sasanian) is examined with relation to geographical, religious, political and national theme/dimensions. Afterwards, it is explored how the concept of Aryan/Iran, which found its existence beyond a fictional claim, was perceived in the Islamic period. This study elaborates the etymological adventure of Iran, whose conceptual structure has changed and transformed in the process. The data of the religious literature consisting of the Avesta and its interpretation of the Zends and the royal inscriptions, inscriptions and classical sources from Persians to Sasanians shed light on the main theme of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mammoth bone heaps found by a villager in the year 1965 have the potential to be a source of scientific discourse ranging from the intersection of archaeological history and architecture to the fields of anthropology, psychology, and the history of religions. In Central Ukraine, as a result of the archaeological studies, four huts consisting of approximately 150 mammoth bones were found. Those huts were built approximately 15,000 years ago. Such evidence seems to suggest that the skeletons and skins of large mammals were used as shelters during the Ice Age, perhaps as an alternative to cave dwellings. In doing so, the earliest communities may have attempted to create a more permanent, higher, and wider-span shelter with the same materials. Transforming a mammoth corpse into a shelter – temporary or not – is most likely a communal effort that may have not only led to the construction of more permanent structures but also provided an iconic model for the carrier system used in tent-type huts built with available materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]