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The goal is to explore the changes in the perception of crimes in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 16th — early 17th century based on a wide range of sources, including legal norms (the 2nd and 3rd Statutes of Lithuania and diet constitutions) and court records of the Volynian Voivodeship. the research is focused not only on the legal norms adopted in the center and mandatory for the entire noble estate, which symbolized change but also on the response of the nobility from one voivodeship, which was analyzed based on a wide array of court records. The multifaceted research material requires an appropriate methodology developed primarily in regard to the new social history and historical anthropology. The research focus shifts from stable objects and structures to the process of their construction and constant transformation, from the top view (the perspective of the power / culture that enforces its will) to the view from below (the perspective of the subjects whose role was not limited to submitting to the will of the authorities: they resisted and adapted the projects enforced by those in power and the surrounding reality to their needs); lastly, from conflicts authorities — people to their cooperation. Conclusions. Several phenomena analyzed in the article signify changes in crimes interpretations. They were no longer seen as an offense against the victim and, therefore, an essentially private matter but as a violation of the basic rights of the Szlachta and an attack on the public order, therefore, as a crime against the public. These processes in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were generally analogous to similar processes in Western Europe. Some scholars of state formation treat them as the state affirming its monopoly on legitimate violence and, therefore, as the strengthening of the power of the state and the king. Despite that, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, these trends were initiated by the Szlachta communities themselves, at least in part; the materials from the Volynian Voivodeship demonstrate that local nobility transformed the legal norms to fit their cultural needs. The legal sphere was the space of active negotiations on the intersection of interests of various players, individual, corporate, and national. This aspect demands a significant reconsideration of our understanding of the early modern state and its role in curbing violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crystal morphology, chemical composition and mineral inclusions of large Nb-rutile polyhedra from chamber pegmatites of Volyn region were studied. X-ray data for one niobium rutile crystal were also obtained. The sizes of twinned black crystals of the mineral are from 10 to 35 mm. They are interbedded with clevelandite and rare relict microcline. Simple forms of crystals: tetragonal prisms {110} and {100}, dipyramid {111} and sometimes pinacoid {001}. The habit of the crystals is dipyramidal and dipyramidal-prismatic, the shape of the crystals is isometric and short-prismatic. The faces of the prisms are covered with parallel hatching in the vertical belt [001], the faces of the dipyramids are covered with trigon overgrowths. Crystals are twins according to (101), some of them are irregular growths of twins. The unit cell parameters for the studied niobium rutile crystal are a = 4.6159 Å, c = 2.9715 Å. The chemical composition of the mineral, the content of the main components, in mass. %: TiO2 — average 76.16, Nb2O5 — up to 20.45 (average 12.77), Ta2O5 — up to 4.92 (average 3.49) and FeO — up to 6.61 (average 4.56). Mineral inclusions in Nb-rutile crystals are columbite, ilmenite, cassiterite, Fe-phase, W-phase, and quartz. A comparison of the morphology of Nb-rutile from crystalline rocks of Ukraine was made and the dependence of their shape on their chemical composition was analyzed. The probable temperature of the mineral formation lies within the crystallization parameters of clevelandite — approximately 300-400 °С. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose is to analyze the legal and actual situation of Jews in Volyn in the early modern period and to find out their place in the region society of that time. The methodology is based on the principles of historicism, systematicity, scientificity, and comprehensiveness. Historicalcomparative, problem-chronological, and retrospective methods were also used in the work. The scientific novelty lies in the comprehensive study of the source base (both published and scripted) and the historiography of the problem, which made it possible to present a spectrum of Jewish life in Volyn more broadly. Conclusions. A thorough study of the sources made it possible to prove the exceptional role of Jews in the life of Volyn at the specified time. The Jews used the privileges granted to them by the kings / grand dukes and the owners of the cities in which they lived. Royal privileges were often granted to boThentire urban communities and individual Jews. The norms of Lithuanian Statutes and Seim constitutions influenced the life of Jews. Jews used the right to move freely from one settlement to another. In the royal cities, agreements were often concluded between the townspeople and Jews regarding their occupations in craft s and trade, and Jews also tried to participate in the tax and financial life of the city. There are known cases of Jews conversions to Christianity. Jewish communities were su bordinated to governors and elders and, in private cities, to the owners of these settlements, who took care of the Jewish justice system. There was also a Jewish court for petty cases. Despite the "infidelity", the jurat of the Jews was recognized in court. Sources prove that it was quite possible for Jews to find justice in city and town courts. There are well-known cases of banishment of burghers and nobility as a result of lawsuits by Jews against them. Litigations between Jews, in the case of the impossibility of solving them in the Jewish court were considered in the city court. As we know from sources, Jews were also in the service of the nobility. Christians (burghers and peasants) were hired by Jews. There was tension in the relations between the clergy (Catholic and Orthodox) and the Jews. The sources confirm the presence of certain restrictions on Jews, but do not provide grounds to claim that the Jewish population of Volyn was deliberately persecuted or humiliated during this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of History Pages is the property of National Technical University of Ukraine KPI and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This is a study of the historical destiny of many former towns of right-bank (along the Dnipro) Ukraine on the example of the ancient Volyn princely town Olyka. The study is based on the analysis of encyclopedic texts over four centuries. It is shown that after the partition of Poland and the arrival of the Russian Empire in this territory, most of them lost such town-forming elements as fortresses and castles, palaces, religious buildings, etc. This tendency intensified especially after the establishment of Soviet power in these lands. Therefore, many of them gradually turned into small towns and then villages. A certain exception is Western Ukraine, where there was no active destruction of monuments in the interwar period. Therefore, here, in contrast to Central Ukraine, there is still a “Western Ukrainian Golden Meridian of Monuments” from Chernivtsi to Olyka and Lutsk. As in the former Ukrainian SSR no special attention was paid to its historical past, until recently the history of former towns could be read mainly in Polish and Russian-language editions of previous centuries. Their ancient history is most often associated with the names of the owners, as – on the example of the Volyn region in the middle of the 17 century – out of the total number of towns 125 were private 111. Regardless of the personalities of these owners, the population of cities carried through the centuries the Ukrainian language, rituals, culture in general. In particular, the primary sources of modern history allow us to trace the manifestations of the high cultural level of the urban population of Olyka in connection with the traditions of Magdeburg law and the educational factor. [На прикладі княжого міста Олика розкрито характерну для багатьох колишніх міст Правобережної України історію їхнього розвитку. Матеріалами для дослідження слугували енциклопедичні тексти різних часів. Після поділів Польщі та захоплення цих територій Російською імперією більшість міст утратила свої історичні споруди – фортеці, замки, палаци, церкви, костели, синагоги тощо. Цю руйнацію посилила радянська влада, що поступово змінила їхній статус на містечка, а нерідко й на села. Певним винятком стали західноукраїнські терени, де пам’ятки не зазнали активного нищення в міжвоєнний період. Оскільки в УРСР про знакові події минулого забороняли писати або висвітлювали це побіжно й тенденційно, то ще донедавна основ­ним носієм інформації про об’єктивну історію колишніх міст були здебільшого польсько- та російськомовні видання попередніх століть. Минуле цих населених пунктів пов’язане зазвичай з іменами їхніх власників, що промовисто засвідчує історія Волинського воєводства середини 17 ст.: із загальної кількості міст (125) приватними були 111. Роль особистості не впливала на подальшу еволюцію міст – їхнє населення зберегло українську мову, традиції, обрядовість, народну культуру тощо. Джерела новітньої історії дають змогу відстежити вияви високого культурного рівня населення Олики, залишки традицій Маґдебурзького права та розвитку освіти як одного з важливих еволюційних маркерів народного буття. ]

У статті обгрунтовано та підтверджено роль віртуальних екскурсій як засобу покращення і пожвавлення туристичної діяльності на Волині, адже впровадження сенсорних заходів у музеях та визначних пам’ятках значно підвищує задоволеність відвідувачів. Визначено, шо віртуальні екскурсійні тури стискають враження від подорожі, включаючи лише основні моменти або найцінніші та найцікавіші частини. Наприклад, 2-годинна екскурсія може бути скорочена до кількох хвилин. Проте, віртуальні екскурсії на Волині стають все більш популярними в останні роки, так як технології стають все більш досконалими. Охарактеризовано основні маршрути віртуальних екскурсій Волині і графічно відображено основні визначні пам’ятки. Досліджено, що створення успішного віртуального екскурсійного туру вимагає інноваційного підходу, який дозволяє користувачеві відчути себе у реальному часі. Важливо надати користувачам достатньо інформації, щоб вони могли зрозуміти те, що бачать, і відчути зв’язок з реальним світом.

Після завершення Першої світової війни внаслідок розпаду двох імперій – Габсбургів і Романових – на карті Європи з'явилися нові держави, точніше відновили свою незалежність. Таку спробу здійснили й українці. Проте через внутрішні причини та вплив зовнішніх чинників Україна, як суверенна держава не втрималась. Більшою частиною її теренів заволоділа більшовицька Росія, створивши згодом СРСР. Частина ж західноукраїнських земель потрапила під панування сусідніх країн. Власне, сказане стосується й західної частини історичної Волині, яка у міжвоєнне двадцятиліття перебувала у складі Польщі. Тепер – це Волинська, Рівенська і частина Тернопільської областей.У статті розглядається діяльність українських просвітницьких організацій того часу на Волині. Мова зокрема про Просвіту, яка ще за часів Австро-Угорщини виникла в Галичині і поширила свою діяльність на інші українські землі. Польська влада на Волині побачила у діяльності Просвіти загрозу полонізації краю, намагалась обмежити її діяльність, а згодом сприяла утворенню лояльного до себе Волинського українського об'єднання, яке й могло замінити заборонену Просвіту. Проте більшість жителів краю складали українці і ВУО по суті продовжило справу Просвіти, хоч формально іншими методами. Слід зазначити, що з початком Другої світової війни і включенням Західної Волині до складу СРСР, влада останнього, керуючись засадами своєї політико-ідеологічної доктрини, ліквідувала тут не лише польське панування, але й ґрунтовно руйнувала суспільно-культурні організації – і українські і польські, що на багато десятиліть відкинуло розвиток громадянського суспільства.

Volyn region, western districts of which became a place for a constant combat struggle starting from 1915, severely suffered during the World War I. The region was crowded by the militaries from both sides, and this reflected on the condition of the locals. On the other hand, several military operations conducted in Volyn region have been eternalized in the military craft handbooks. Purpose of the research is to conduct assessment of the World War I events as to their impact on the separate region, in particular - Volyn region, and to trace the course of episodes of the Great War during, first of all, 1915-1916, a period when Volyn finally entered the theatre of the combat actions. Research methodology is based upon the general methods of analysis, synthesis, and generalization. It is also based upon the principles of critical analysis of archive and documentary sources and methods of comparative analysis of the sources and historiography. Scientific novelty is in the fact that the authors confirmed the general tendencies of how the World War I deployed in Volyn region and formulated the peculiarities of the separate aspects of the military events occurring there during 1914-1916 (based on the little-known or even unknown documents from the archives of the Volyn, Zhytomyr and Rivne region). Conclusions. Volyn region, which from the beginning of the World War I received a frontline status, for several years became a place of, firstly, active (1915-1916) and, then, permanent (1917-1918) combat actions. A considerable amount of the local male population was conscripted to the Russian army, whereas most of the state authorities of the western districts and local population were evacuated deeply into the Russian Empire. The regional infrastructure was severely damaged, while most of the settlements in the area of the combat actions were destroyed with local citizens being relocated to both sides of the front. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Вивчення гастрономічної культури суспільства минулого стає актуальною проблематикою в українській історіографії. Проте харчування волинського міщанства й селянства наприкінці XV — у середині XVI ст. поки що не було предметом самостійного дослідження. Зокрема, поза увагою дослідників залишалося вживання хмільних напоїв і їхнє місце у повсякденному житті суспільства. Тож у цій статті авторка намагалась з’ясувати специфіку джерельної бази для дослідження трунків, визначити асортимент хмільних напоїв, методики приготування, місця вживання. Основною ж метою дослідження була спроба окреслити місце трунків у харчовій культурі міщан і селян литовської доби. З’ясовано, що у опублікованих судових актах, документах великокнязівської канцелярії, актах продажу-купівлі землі містяться фрагментарні деталі, які, втім, дають дослідникові змогу репрезентувати хмільні напої, які займали вагоме місце у харчуванні волинських містян і селян литовської доби. Вдалося встановити, що волиняни вживали слабоалкогольне пиво як повсякденний напій, оскільки воно було калорійним і сприяло щоденному поповненню енергії. Водночас вино залишалося атрибутом заможних представників суспільства. Така тенденція є характерною для багатьох країн Східної Європи. Сичений мед усе ще був популярним упродовж кінця XV — середини XVI ст. У другій половині XVI ст. помітно зросла популярність горілки. Окрім того, на побутування певних видів напоїв впливали географічні та кліматичні умови Волині, технологічний прогрес, особисті вподобання, матеріальне становище середньовічної людини тощо. Трунок могли придбати на ярмарках і торгах, у гостьових будинках, приготувати вдома, проте найпопулярнішим місцем купівлі була корчма, де вживання хмільних напоїв поєднували із розвагами — бесідами, танцями тощо.

The article analyzes the processes that took place in the cultural and spiritual sphere in the territory of Soviet Ukraine, Eastern Volyn, and Western Volyn, which was part of the Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Res Publica) after the end of the First World War. In the 20th century, the events of the centuries-old history of the Ukrainian people intertwined, which became a bunch of the most important milestones in the nation's fate, in the survival struggle for the state and independence. This century has concentrated in itself a powerful national liberation movement and attempts to obtain state independence, the tragedy of defeats, and the division of ethnic Ukrainian lands between different states, the national revival, and the formation of the state at the end of the century. Volyn concerning the integrity of the Ukrainian lands played a special role due to its geopolitical position for a century. In the context of all these events, the period of the 1920's and 1930's occupies a significant place for the western Ukrainian lands, including Volyn. Its lands were a reflection of the most tragic pages in the history of Ukraine. More than once they played an outstanding role in the history of the Ukrainian people, re- flected in their fate. The defeat of the national liberation struggle in 1917--1921 and the tragic consequences of these events for Ukrainian statehood turned Volyn into a specific socio-political and geopolitical region. The events in these territories, as well as the policies of the governments of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the USSR and the Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, were decisive for the Ukrainian population living on ethnic Ukrainian lands and those in other countries. Our research allows us to argue that the socio-economic processes in Volyn in the interwar period were an interesting social phenomenon when Ukrainians in their ethnic lands in the Ukrainian environment were in the status of immigrants. The line of the Soviet-Polish border, which was the limit of confrontation, attracted the most active participants in the national liberation struggle, who continued it in the new conditions of lack of statehood, political and ideological pressure, persecution and repression by the ruling regimes. The work and activities during the interwar period of prominent political figures from the time of the Ukrainian National Republic (UNR), religious, cultural and education figures in the territory of Western Volyn, were of crucial importance not only for the population of the region but also for the Ukrainian nation. Volyn, despite the delimitation of the state border, remained the only region where the indigenous population lived compactly. Political and ideological pressure from the dominant regimes in the interwar years did not significantly affect the mentality of Volyn. The population of the region has preserved the Ukrainian language, Orthodox faith, spiritual and cultural traditions. Despite the confrontation between the political systems of the USSR and the Second Commonwealth, the people of Volyn treated the inhabitants living behind the region border with sympathy and liking. Therefore, immigrants who found themselves on Volyn lands adapted to the new environment without any particular problems. The local population often facilitated border crossings and provided temporary shelter. In Western Volyn, immigrants were not only quickly accepted into the new environment but also became the organizers of cultural and educational institutions and societies, leaders in political life. If we take into account the fact that after the defeat of the liberation struggle, Western Volyn became a kind of political refuge for many of their participants, then the experience of their struggle in the new conditions was used to develop active socio-political activities in the region. Moreover, the intellectual and political elite was concentrated among immigrants. Therefore, in the environment of the relatively backward eastern Volyn territory, thanks to the work of immigrants from Naddniprianska Ukraine, the level of national consciousness rises, education develops, and educational work is activated. Individual immigrants from Naddniprianska Ukraine were selected by the local population as ambassadors and senators in the Polish parliament. They headed political organizations, Ukrainian cooperation, took an active part in the life of the region. Local Enlightenment societies «Prosvita» played an important role in the cultural life of Volyn. Since a large part of the Naddniprianska Ukraine intelligentsia found themselves in immigration in Western Volyn, where the indigenous intelligentsia was relatively small, it mainly organized the Enlightenment movement. In their programs and charters, -- county societies «Prosvita». A characteristic feature of the first post-war years was the opposing trends in this process of the Polish and Ukrainian sides. The Polish regime, established on Volyn lands, was forced to reckon with such authoritative cultural and public associations as «Prosvita » at that time. The Ukrainians, who found themselves in the lands occupied by Poland, still cherished the hope of a possible entry into the new state formation with the preservation of their own national and cultural interests. In July 1922 a congress of cultural and educational organizations of Volyn was held in Lutsk. The congress discussed the charter of the unifying center and the adoption of its name, namely: «Association of cultural and educational organizations of Volyn called "Volyn Prosvita"». The commission to edit the statute included well-known Ukrainian figures in immigration, such as Ivan Vlasovskyi, Mykhailo Cherkavskyi, Serhii Miliashkevych. The congress expressed demands to the Polish authorities to open in Volyn the number of state Ukrainian schools, corresponding to the number of the Ukrainian population in the region. To achieve their goals, societies opened reading rooms, bookstores, cinemas, arranged lectures, laid out for ordinary people, published books, magazines, and the like. To spread education, primary and secondary schools were organized, funds were created to assist capable students. It is advisable to compare the processes that took place in the cultural and spiritual sphere in the territory of Soviet Ukraine and Eastern Volyn. In fact, in the same period, the 30s, after the collapse of Ukrainization, the Soviet government began to actively pursue a national policy leading to the assimilation of the Ukrainian population. The slogan of culture «national in form, socialist, international in content», created in the formally «sovereign USSR, covered the comprehensive falsification of Ukrainian national culture with the widespread use of propaganda means of the press, school, theater, radio, etc., and inculcating Soviet patriotism with a lasting affirmation about the advanced role of the «great Russian nation». Thus, again, the two political regimes that ruled in Volyn in the interwar period, despite the polarity of their ideologies in the field of cultural and national policy, carried out identical measures. Their ultimate goal was the assimilation of the Ukrainian population, the loss of their national identity, culture, language. Thus, the integration of Western Volyn into the Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, especially in the sphere of cultural and spiritual life, was contradictory and with great difficulty. Ukrainian public and cultural figures, a significant part of whom were immigrants from Prydniprovia, searched for ways of national-cultural coexistence in the political system of Poland. However, the course of the Polish authorities, which was taken to assimilate, militarize and catholicize the Ukrainian population, towards forced integration into the Polish state, sharpened Polish-Ukrainian relations more and more, giving rise to contradictions and conflicts. Such a policy of the states that divided Volyn was caused by the situation at that time. Firstly, an attempt was made to enlist the support of the local population in carrying out political reforms and strengthening local positions, when the situation at the borders was still unsettled, and the states themselves were weakened by the consequences of the war. Secondly, the centuries-old confrontation for the Ukrainian flock determined the relationship between Catholic Po land and the Orthodox population of the eastern lands. Even though the Soviet leadership in the field of spiritual life announced a policy of atheism, and the Polish religious authorities in religious and spiritual life in the occupied lands took a course towards Catholicization, the opposition of these political regimes allowed the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church to arise and for some time to actively operate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article on the basis of documentary materials and chronicles the author defends opinion that the units of foreign mercenaries, which formed a part of army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, caused substantial civilian casualties in Volyn during the Khmelnytskyi Uprising.

The article deals with the history of everyday life of the Ukrainian parochial clergy of the late 16th – first half of the 17th century. This was a very important time period for both the history of the Church in Ukraine and Ukraine itself. It was then when the Ukrainian society, divided by confessional identification, found itself on the crossroad of civilizational choice. Further political, social, and religious transformations in Ukraine were significantly influenced by national and religious movements of that epoch. In native and foreign historiography, the mentioned processes were examined within the context of global political and cultural development of Central and Eastern Europe. However, “small living worlds” of petty nobles, clergy, bourgeoisie, and peasants have not been sufficiently studied, as well as the motivation for actions of great masses of population, who profoundly impacted the cultural progress of Ukraine. The article is based on the polemical work by Cassian Sakowicz “Perspektiwa” (“Perspective”) (1642), with the additional information from the works of his opponents (Petro Mohyla and Pachomiusz Oranski). The author makes an attempt to explore the everyday life history of the Ukrainian parochial clergy belonging to the first generations after the Union. The author examines the questions related to the origin of the parochial church senior priests, level of their education, professional ability, and material security. Major attention is paid to venal practices in the church structures (both Orthodox and Uniate), which considerably caused the decay of religious life on the parochial level. The social state of the priests is examined separately, as well as their interactions with the land-owners and parishes. The author argues that despite the low level of professional ability of the priests and lack of special educational institutions, the representatives of higher Uniate clergy and well-educated monks from the Basilian Fathers’ community did their best to improve the educational level and religious upbringing of the parochial priests. It can be concluded that this activity caused the development of the confessional identification of the Uniate believers.

The purpose of the study: to outline new approaches in the study of testamentary issues and heuristic possibilities of acts of the last will of the inhabitants of the towns of the Volynian Voivodeship in early modern times. The article considers various methods of research of testamentary problems in the line of New Social History: historical, cultural and social anthropology, comparative-historical, micro-historical, everyday history. Scientific novelty. For the first time in Ukrainian historiography the methodological tools of research of testamentary problems are outlined and potential possibilities of these sources are opened. Conclusions. As the latest developments of historians show, wills as multifaceted sources are suitable for research not only a number of basic problems of social and economic history, but also much broader topics. In the arsenal of researchers of testamentary problems is a variety of methodological tools, represented by different areas of the New Social History. Due to its interdisciplinarity, this topic quickly became a place of active dialogue between representatives of various fields of humanities in European historiography, but Ukrainian material in this diversity is practically not represented. The article outlines the prospects for further research, shows that Ukrainian testamentology has great prospects and a wide field of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research objective is to analyse Jewish entrepreneurial activity in early modern Volynian towns and to clarify its significance for their economic development. The article methodology is guided by the principles of historicism, systematicity, scientificity and comprehensiveness. Such methods as historical and comparative, problem-chronological and retrospective were applied as well. The scientific novelty consists in the integral review of the source base of the problem which allowed presenting a wide range of Jewish commercial and industrial activities in the Volynian towns and showing its importance for the economic development of the region. Conclusions. Thorough study of the sources let for confirming the important role of Jews in the economic life of Volyn during the specified time. First of all its trading activity, though it wasn't always purely trading, but mostly combined with other types of business. Part of the Jewish population was engaged in crafts, usually connected with leather (shoemakers and skinners) and somewhat lesser number of Jews was engaged in farming. The organisation of the production of ash, soda, alcohols distillation, mead and beer brewing and their sale was popular among the Jews. The Jews kept tenement houses, were active in lending money, and engaged in driving the cattle for sale. The renting activities of the Jews were successful too. They rented duties, taverns, mills, malting and wax refineries, bridges, crossing sites and pond draining activities. What was popular was renting of a measuring levy, beverage industry levies, Schoss levies, castle and gmina revenues. Villages and cities were often rented. Sub-renting was also well-known. Not only things and houses, but also villages and cities were mortgaged to the Jews. All of this allowed collecting and accumulating large capitals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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У статті досліджено обставини екзистенції шкільних ботанічних садів римо-католицького ордену піарів, що функціонували на Волині протягом ХVІІІ – першої третини ХІХ ст. З’ясовано, що вони заклали підвалини становлення садово-паркового мистецтва на теренах краю, бо найдавнішим ботанічним садом в Україні був саме сад при Любешівському піарському колегіумі, заснований 1730 р. Ці окультурені природні зони стали місцем інтелектуальних, науково-дослідницьких, експериментальних, навчальних, а також господарських занять. Підсумовано, що скасування піарських навчальних закладів як один із виявів реакції російського самодержавства на польське повстання 1830–1831 рр. призвело до поступового занепаду і, зрештою, нищення їхніх шкільних ботанічних садів.

The purpose of the article is to study the music education of Zhytomyr on the eve and during the creative path in the specified city of Viktor Kosenko. Research methodology. The methodology of work is based on the application of analytical, systematic, biographical methods, which revealed the place and significance of the figure of V. Kosenko in the development of the musical culture of Zhytomyr during the life and work of the composer in this place in 1918- 1929. Features of tendencies in the educational musical movement of that period, in particular, sociocultural and artistic factors of formation of music education and its positioning in the context of musical life of the specified period. The scientific novelty of the article is that for the first time the level of development of music education in Zhytomyr during the stay of the famous composer V. Kosenko (1918-1929) was analyzed and evaluated, which influenced the further development of educational and cultural branches of Zhytomyr region. Conclusions. The article outlines the peculiarities of music education in Zhytomyr on the eve and during the period of creativity in the city of Viktor Kosenko. It is established that at the beginning of the last century Zhytomyr was one of the important cultural and educational centers of the Right Bank of Ukraine, where there were schools and gymnasiums, theological and teacher's seminaries, as well as dozens of educational institutions of various specializations. It was found that one of the first in Ukraine in Zhytomyr opened a public library, theater, and cinemas. It was found out that the stay in Zhytomyr was a unique opportunity for V. Kosenko to be in Ukrainian (and not Russian or Polish) center (after Warsaw and St. Petersburg, where the urban cultural tradition prevailed, oriented differently) (not only Ukrainian but also European culture). It was important for Ukrainian music to position itself as European, and for the composer to have a kind of shelter from the control of the Soviet government, he had the opportunity to delve into himself, to find his own style. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The village has always been the cradle of the Ukrainian people. The spiritual world of our ancestors was formed in it, on the inseparable unity of man and the environment. The language, rites, and customs of the lands were subject to a certain worldview, traditions that reached the depths of millennia. In the nineteenth century about 92% of the population lived in the villages of the Volyn province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of History Pages is the property of National Technical University of Ukraine KPI and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The purpose of the article is to analyze the structure (form) of testaments of Volynian citizens and to investigate some linguistic features of the writing of these private acts at the end of the 16th and 17th centuries. Research methodology: according to the interdisciplinary approach there were used the methods of diplomatic analysis, external and internal criticism of historical sources. Scientific novelty: for the first time it was committed a diplomatic analysis of the texts of unpublished 170 testaments of the inhabitants of Volynian towns from the town and castle books of the end of the 16th and 17th centuries, and revealed some linguistic features of the writing of these acts. Conclusions. The Volyn testament form contains all the main clauses characteristic of this type of documents of early modern times. As for the structure, they are almost indistinguishable from the form previously established in the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, with the exception of introductory formulas, when sometimes invocation and arenga, as well as final ones. The testaments of the inhabitants of Olyka, where the town chancellery was well developed, had a more complex form. It is obvious that most of the orders of the last will were pronounced orally before the city officials and the clerk, who gave these statements a written character, inscribing the verbal narrative in a text template. The testators wrote down the formulas established at that time, sometimes bringing in their own opinions about the circumstances and causes of death, as well as the personal reflections of the testator. Typical clichés, produced in the offices of that time, remained in force until the beginning of the 18th century. At the same time, a comparative analysis of Volynian urban wills shows the presence of emotional rhetoric, dialogues, and sometimes a detailed description of property, which was not typical of the testaments of the western regions of the Commonwealth, which were formalized and followed the latest European traditions of these acts. Linguistic analysis of the testaments of Volynian citizens shows the presence of numerous Ukrainian words in Polish-language texts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Мета статті – виявити особливості розвитку й функціонування хорового мистецтва в музичному житті Волині досліджуваного періоду; реконструювати фактологічну картину діяльності хорових колективів Волині. У дослідженні застосовано такі методи: історико-порівняльний (для з’ясування хронологічної послідовності розвитку хорового мистецтва та його особливостей), описовий (для розгляду діяльності хорових колективів), метод архівної документалістики та джерелознавства (для залучення архівних матеріалів). Наукова новизна дослідження полягає у висвітленні історичної динаміки становлення хорового мистецтва Волині та введенні до наукового обігу нових документальних архівних матеріалів і періодичних видань, де наявні відомості про функціонування хорових колективів краю. Висновки. Становлення музичної культури Волині 20–30-х рр. ХХ ст. було зумовлене активною діяльністю українських громадських об’єднань культурно-мистецького спрямування всупереч антиукраїнській окупаційній політиці Польської держави. З’ясовано, що на популяризацію хорового мистецтва краю вплинули такі фактори, як організація музичної освіти (курси диригентсько-хорового мистецтва, лекторії з теорії та практики співу й диригування), музично-творчий процес (композитори М. Тележинський та А. Річинський), видавнича справа (публікація українською мовою методичних рекомендацій, репертуарних збірників, церковних співаників), конкурсні змагання й концертно-гастрольна діяльність колективів. Новим етапом у розвитку хорового мистецтва стало затвердження унікального документа – «Статуту українських народних хорів», що позитивно вплинуло на вдосконалення виконавської майстерності колективів. Хорове мистецтво ґрунтувалося на діяльності аматорських хорових колективів, які популяризували музику українських композиторів й українську народну пісню, долучалися до церковних богослужінь українською мовою, до різноманітних форм співпраці з драматичними та хореографічними колективами, сприяли залученню волинян до хорової музичної культури.

Purpose. The research is related to the study of bandura artist performances and the identification of means of their influencing the public in the region, based on the overview and analysis of concert programmes of the groups and of publications in the press. The methodology of research is to combine the sociological method used in the process of interviewing representatives of bandura art, and a descriptive method for the concert activity analysis of individual performers and bands of bandura players. Results and conclusions. The influence of social and cultural realities on the progressive development of bandura art in Volyn is emphasized. It has been proved that the performing art of bandura players is characterised by an educational and patriotic mission, namely the promotion of the best samples of elevated spiritual musical and poetic heritage, the popularisation of T. Shevchenko and Lesya Ukrainka’s works, as well as works of heroic and patriotic orientation (dumas, historical songs, striletski and guerilla songs), folklore melos. It was clarified that in various historical periods the performance of bandura players encouraged Volynians to preserve and develop spiritual traditions and cultural heritage, having become the means of spiritual enrichment of the Volyn community, the intention of the idea of national self-establishment. It has been found that bandura performance is a significant factor in the patriotic education of young people, which is especially important in the process of forming the national priorities of modern young generation and that will in some way affect the content and structure of the values of Ukrainian society in the future.

Згідно з даними емпіричних досліджень, зокрема Лабораторії соціологічних досліджень СНУ імені Лесі Українки (2010, 2015), високий рівень релігійної й віросповідної самоідентифікації жителів Волинської області є відмінним для жителів міста Луцька та сільської місцевості (89 і 75 % відповідно), однаково (по 7 %) в обох випадках не змогли вказати конфесійної належності. Поселенські відмінності спостерігаємо в показниках частоти відвідування церкви й моління. «Лише у релігійні свята» та частіше церкву відвідує 83 % містян і 80 % селян; «один раз на тиждень» та частіше молиться 56 і 60 % відповідно. Сумарно тих, хто молиться щодня чи декілька разів на тиждень, однакова кількість серед обох порівнюваних груп населення, проте більше містян зазвичай молиться щодня (34 %), а селян – декілька разів на тиждень (25 %). Тих, хто ніколи цього не робить поза церквою, дуже мало. Тренди додаткових релігійних практик мають такі особливості: топовою практикою є проведення спільних обрядів у сім’ї, конкретизація практик допомоги призводить до зниження участі в них. Показник звернення до священика як лідера громади є найнижчим. Загалом сільське населення вирізняється більшою активністю щодо релігійних практик. Найважливішою для всіх жителів області є віра в Бога та цінність цієї віри; найменше вірять у безсмертя душі, особливо селяни. Вони також значно сильніше вірять у божественну причинність людських страждань у цьому світі, у фатальність долі, хоча першочерговою причиною в обох когортах уважають «злі вчинки людей». Загалом більшість жителів Волині, особливо сільської місцевості, тяжіють до традиційної релігії з підтриманням сімейної обрядовості.

The purpose of the research is to try to study selected aspects of the prisoner's daily life at Second Polish Republic (based on the materials of Volyn and Eastern Halychyna): to clarify the issue of classification of prisoners, to trace their incarceration and adaptation to new realities, to explore problems related to the nutrition, work, education and religious practices of prisoners, to find out the causes and methods of escape from prison, to trace the contacts of prisoners with families and public organizations, to trace after prison life. The research methodology is based on the use of general scientific and specially historical research methods, including problem-chronological, synchronous, diachronic, comparative-historical and other. The scientific novelty is that the author for the first time in modern Ukrainian historiography made an attempt to research selected aspects of the prisoner's daily life at Second Polish Republic (based on the materials of Volyn and Eastern Halychyna). Conclusions. Volyn and Eastern Halychyna penal centers had different categories of prisoners, who had regulated everyday life from entering the prison and to release from prison. Newcomers were in some special temporary quarantine areas. Prisoners systematically complained about nutrition. The prisons had hospitals or inpatient clinics. Prisoners were involved in labor activities that had an educational and material effect. In prisons convicts could receive elementary education and were able to satisfy their religious needs. Some inmates for various reasons resorted to shoots. Meetings with relatives and friends were a sporadic phenomenon in the daily life of prisoners. An important role in preparing prisoners for their release and post-prison life was played by the NGO "Patronat". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study is to clarify the circumstances of the existence of school botanical gardens of the Roman Catholic Order of Piarists, which functioned in Volyn during the XVIII -- first third of the XIX century, and to analyze their significance in the context of the establishment and development of park and garden art of the region. The methodology of the research is based on systematic analysis, general scientific methods of systematization and generalization, the method of comparative analysis. The scientific novelty consists of systematization of all empirical material available at present in the national art criticism about the functioning of botanical gardens at the Volyn Piarists monasteries, as well as of the attempt to carry out analytical generalizations regarding their phenomenon. It was concluded that Piarists botanical gardens were a unique component of the cultural and artistic space of Volyn because they laid the foundations for the formation of landscape art in its territory. It is justified, that their activity was related to the needs of educational, scientific and experimental, artistic and economic work of Piarists monks and their pupils. At the same time, a significant direction of the activity of botanical gardens of the Order of Piarists in Volyn was that they became the centers of training botanists, landscape designers, and gardeners, and some of them became outstanding figures in these industries. It is outlined that the school botanical gardens of the order of Piarists in Volyn were one of the manifestations of the European culture of parks in those days, strongly connected with the arrangement of greenhouses in the palace and park ensembles of szlachta in Right-Bank Ukraine. The closure of the public educational establishments as one of the manifestations of the reaction of Russian autocracy to the Polish rebellion of 1830-1831 led to a gradual decline and, ultimately, to the destruction of their school botanical gardens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study is to examine, on the basis of documentary materials, quarantine measures taken by Lutsk city and country officials to curb the plague epidemic of 1601 in Lutsk county, as well as to elucidate the lifestyle of representatives of certain categories of the population at that time. The methodology of the study is to apply the comparative-historical method, the principles of objectivity and the systematic approach in the study of socio-historical phenomena and processes. Scientific novelty. The specific anti-epidemic measures and their effectiveness in preventing the spread of the plague epidemic to which representatives of the City and Zemskyi authorities of Lutsk county have been identified. The features of epidemiological consciousness and behavior of representatives of different social strata of the population are outlined. Conclusions. It was established that the epidemic lasted for about four months in the territory of the county - from September 2 until almost the end of December 1601. In the beginning of October, the local government postponed the session (rochky) of the Zemskyi Court to the beginning of 1602. The City Court session was postponed to six. until November 15, and after that it was rescheduled - to December 27, 1601. Despite the protests by some representatives of the dominant social status, who saw the abolition of judicial years as a violation of their private interests, in fact this decision was quite important from an epidemiological point of view. After all, due to this "departmental quarantine", instituted by the City and Zemskyi states, the judicial and administrative institutions of the nobility managed to avoid coming to Lutsk from different parts of the county covered by the plague, a large contingent of noble claimants and defendants, as well as their servants. At the same time, these anti-epidemic measures were actually half-hearted. After all, throughout the epidemic (except for a short period), the Lutsk City Government regularly met, receiving visitors from both urgent and various routine matters. The county was constantly plied by small court officials. The epidemic threat did not force some nobles to abandon gun violence. One of the consequences of such conflicts was the frequent trips of their participants from the periphery to Lutsk, to the City Government. In the meantime, the population of the rural hinterland, which had not yet reached the plague, did not change too much the usual tribe of life, in particular, took an active part in the fair trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the position of Sangushko princes during the existence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, their influence on the socio-political and economic life of the state until the time of the Union of Lublin. A comparative analysis of the level of land ownership among the richest families of Volyn and the presence of the most prominent representatives of the family in public positions are made. The place of Sanhushko princes on the political palette of the early modern Lithuanian-Russian state was determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Kyivan Academy / Київська Академія is the property of National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, Faculty of Humanities and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

У статті на підставі документального матеріалу з актових книг волинських ґродських і земських судів та літописних джерел досліджується проблема втрат мирного населення Волині від епідемічних захворювань у роки Визвольної війни українського народу середини ХVII ст. під проводом Б. Хмельницького

The research goal. To assess the Ukrainian-Polish conflict during World War II, in particular the events of 1943 in Volyn, according to the Genocide Studies methodology. The research methodology relies on the general scientific methods of analysis, comparison, and generalization. Comparative-historical, structural, and systemic functional methods of research have been used, as well. Scientific novelty. For the first time, the Ukrainian-Polish conflict of 1943 in Volyn has been analyzed from the perspective of how these events meet the typological characteristics of genocidal acts: the structure of the phenomenon; the interdependence and the dynamics of development of its elements; the specific aspects manifested at the certain stages of genocide preparation and commitment. Conclusions. It is impossible to commit genocide without a lengthy period of preparation or without using specific social mechanisms that do not appear by themselves, but are the result of purposeful activities of the government machinery. The Ukrainian nationalist movement never had a well-defined anti-Polish ideology that would enforce the concept of Ukrainian domination and socio-cultural marginalization of the Polish people that would be, in its turn, an ultimate reason for the organization and propaganda justification of the genocidal acts. The Ukrainian side never took any actions that could be qualified as the preparation for the genocide (encouragement for social exclusion and discrimination of the Polish people that would make them less resistant; propaganda dehumanization and discrediting of the Poles living in Volyn; consistent shaping of the enemy image etc). The Ukrainian nationalists never tried to develop social mechanisms that could make the Poles living in Volyn more vulnerable and helpless or to shut them out of society and marginalize them. In 1943, the Ukrainian insurgents in Volyn had neither resources nor military potential to organize a systematic, wellcoordinated, and lengthy campaign of genocidal acts against the Polish people living in the region. During World War II, the Ukrainian side neither effectively controlled the Volyn territories nor claimed the monopoly on violence. It should be emphasized that during that time mass violence in Volyn was not one-sided. Therefore, there are no reasons to assess the anti-Polish acts of the Ukrainian guerrilla movement in Volyn in 1943 as a pre-planned and organized genocide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article observes the clothes of noble household workers of early modern Volhynia in the context of social practice of awarding with clothes for service. The article also describes the nomenclature of garments that were used by servants and wage workers.

Проаналізовано соціально-економічну ситуацію на Волині, яка склалася в результаті наступу австро-угорських і німецьких військ під час Першої світової війни, охарактеризовано основні напрями та механізм евакуації яку проводили органи влади. З’ясовано роль земств у наданні допомоги біженцям. Охарактеризовано протидію органів влади, військового командування та місцевого самоврядування зростанню цін.

The evolution of agricultural production in Volyn in the second half of the ХIVth and the first half of the XVIth century. The article deals with the development of agricultural production in Volyn in the second half of the ХIVth and the first half of the XVIth century. The purpose of the study was to find out the features of agricultural production in Volyn in the second half of the ХIVth and the first half of the XVIth century. The author’s conclusion is the agriculture was the basis of Volyn economy in the Lithuanian-Rus era. The nature and content of socio-economic processes in the Volyn village during this period determined the entry of Volyn into foreign states and the extension of Lithuanian-Rus and Polish law to them; formation of new elements in the field of land tenure and land use; accession of Volyn to the internal market formed in Polish Kingdom and Grand Duchy of Lithuania and integration of its economy into the pan-European economic system; overall technical and economic progress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the development of church music art in the leading cultural and educational centers of Volyn at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries Ostroh, Derman and Lutsk on the base of comprehensive analysis of historical sources and works of modern scholars in the fi eld of history and art. The author came to conclusion, that church music in Ostroh was most actively cultivated on the residence of Prince K.I. Ostrohsky, what contributed to his personal commitment to choral singing. It was this cell that the famous Ostroh Chant appeared. The Ostroh Slavic-Greek-Latin School-Academy developed a lot of choral singing and its students sang in the choir. The printing house founded by Prince Ostroh produced liturgical editions, which used in liturgical practice and served as music guides for students of the educational institution. Transferred to the Derman Monastery, the printing house continued to print liturgical editions for choral singing, the most important of which was Oktoikh. An important role in the development of musical art also belonged to Lutsk through the activities of the local fraternity. Documentary sources testify to the high level of musical preparation of Lutsk Brotherhood School students, who became regents of other choirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the complex of documents dedicated to the princely family of Chortoryiski from the "West Rus Acts" collection of the National Library of Russia in St. Petersburg which materials cover the period from 1528 to 1646 and documents of Lithuanian Metrica. The family founder Vasyl Kostiantynovych Chortoryiskyi's sons Ivan and Mykhailo were members of the Council of the grand Lithuanian duke Švitrigaila in the 15th century. Nevertheless, the destiny has parted them in two different ways. The first one's heirs received state positions and estates in the Moscow state, the second one's - in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The "West Rus Acts" represent the Chortoryiski family of the Lithuanian branch. The main figures involved in property transactions of the Chortoryiski family were the Lutsk head (1522-1542) prince Fedir Mykhailovych and his son prince Ivan Fedorovych. Prince Fedir was prince Mykhailo Vasyliovych's son who was a marshal of the duke Švitrigaila's court from 1445 to 1452 and the Bratslav deputy from 1452 and also the grandson of the family's founder - prince Vasyl Kostiantynovych Chortoryiskyi. His son prince Ivan Fedorovych (1564-1565) held the position of spravtsa of the Kyiv palatine for about two years. Together with prince Ivan his wife, princess Hanna Kuzmivna Zaslavska and his daughter, princess Olena Ivanivna also are mentioned in documents. Princess Olena became the wife of the Navahrudak deputy Ostafii Ivanovych Hornostai. The documents, first of all, are of great value for studying the property aspect of some family representatives, in particular, Lutsk head Fedir Mykhailovych Chortoryiskyi and his heirs. Property affairs of Fedir Mykhailovych and his son Ivan Fedorovych reflect the formation, expansion, transfer to inheritance and upholding in courts the princes Chortoryiski patrimonial property fund in the second half of the 16th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the first time an attempt was made to distinguish in the study German-language sources, which provide an opportunity to consider one of the important periods from the history of colonization of the Volynian province in the XIX - early XX centuries. The historiographical survey of various German-language sources from newspapers, periodicals, articles, monographs to Germans’ memoirs is presented for the first time. The analysis of the sources is presented in chronological order from the XIX to the beginning of the XXI century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyzes socio-economic situation in Volyn province that resulted from the military offensive of the Austro-Hungarian and German troops during World War I. The study shows that local authorities and the Russian military command had been preparing ahead of time to move the state and educational institutions, as well as a number of enterprises, to the eastern provinces. The enterprises that could not be moved were to be dismantled. Using primary sources, the author for the first time explores the mechanism of evacuation in Volyn during the summer and autumn of 1915. The military faced a number of shortcomings that resulted in failure to move certain property. The author also explores evacuation of officials and their families at the state expense. The situation was significantly complicated by the refugees from Galicia, who were originally placed in camps in the front-line districts, and later near Rivne and Zhytomyr. Zemstvos played an important role in supporting refugees, who were moving eastward on foot or by trains. Due to zemstvo’s efforts and funding, refugees were provided with food and basic goods. At the same time, zemstvos played an important role in fighting infectious diseases that proliferated in the region during that period. It was found that an increased flow of refugees boosted prices for basic goods and food products, despite the rigorous counter-effort from the military command and the administration. Local self-government tried to counteract these processes, however they did not always fully meet those goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the documentary sources based research of the issues of origins and development of Principality of Volhynia–Galicia. The role of Prince Roman the Great in the first union of Volhynia and Galicia is considered in the article as well as his own model of the state administration. The second union of these lands by Roman’s son Danylo is explored. The impact of Danylo’s rule for the gathering of the Ukrainian lands into one Principality and later – the Kingdom is considered. The author imaged Danylo’s attempts to stand against the Mongols with the help of the broad population support. Diplomacy of Danylo with the Golden Horde and neighboring European states, his role for the development of the Kingdom and the founding of metropolitan ate in the Volhynia–Galicia state are outlined. The author remarked the great historical impact of the state of Danylo Romanovych. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The realization of the immigration policy of the Jewish population of Volyn in the 1930s was researched. The peculiarities of resettlement are revealed. In the early 1930s, the resettlement of Jews into a republican colonization fund was not massive, since the land resources of the South of the Ukrainian SSR had actually been exhausted. At this time, the resettlement measures in Birobidzhan in large groups became a priority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides comprehensive analysis of the sources and historiography concerning the problem under consideration. The goal of the analysis is to reveal the factors of the Volynian Czechs participation in the Resistance Movement in the years of the Second World War in Volyn. The article lays emphasis on the stages of formation of the Czech organization of the Resistance movement («Blanik»), its basic principles, goals and means of struggle. The attitude of the Czech community to the 1943 conflict in Volyn and to the Ukrainian insurgents movement are analyzed. Thestudy sheds light on the issues of the Czechs participation in partisan units of various political orientations is discribed and considers the conflict of 1943 in Volyn as one of the major factors strengthening the re—emigration moods of Czechs. The author elucidates the specifics of the conflict impact on the adaptation of the Volyn Czechs in their homeland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the history of the Volyn's Jewish community from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the twentieth century. Causes, dynamics and legal conditions of Jewish migration to the territory of the region, peculiarities of material culture and spiritual life of Volyn's Jews are retraced. Particular attention is paid to the policy of the states (the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rzecz Pospolita, the Russian Empire) regarding to the Jewish population during the specified period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the activities of hired officials in the Volhynian towns. An important place among them was occupied by city scribes. In the smaller towns, the scribe was only one, but in the larger cities, primarily the county ones, there were two scribes -- for the council and the vogt. In private towns, the scribes were mostly noblemen, but in the royal cities -- burghers quantitatively dominated. Some scribes acted also as lawyers, apart from their main job. Municipal finances were managed by "shafars" and interests of the burghers were defended by the "instigator". Vogt and municipal servants carried out the instructions and orders of the city council and the court. The announcements in the cities were made by the herald. In emergency cases, church bells were used to alert citizens. Public order in the city was supported by day and night guards. The punishment in the cities was carried out by the executioner. From the city service of a smaller rank mention cannons, locksmiths, shepherds and trumpeters. There are also mentioned gunmen, locksmiths, shepherds and trumpeters among the city service of a smaller rank. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]