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Current information on biosecurity measures implemented by shrimp farmers in Indonesia is limited. This study describes farmer demographic characteristics, on-farm biosecurity practices, farm production and disease status, among small and medium holder shrimp farms on Java Island, Indonesia. A questionnairebased survey was conducted from November 2019 to May 2020 to collect data from shrimp farms operating in various regions of the Java Island. A numerical score was assigned for each of the assessed biosecurity practices, based on whether it was a conventional risk factor or a protective factor. Based on responses from 90 shrimp farmers, who volunteered to participate in the study, mean overall biosecurity scores ranged from 32 to 54 (out of a maximum score of 100). Most farms (88.9%) either shared common water sources with other aquaculture farms or were connected to other farms via water channel. Farm equipment sharing was common both within (91.1%) and between (41%) farms. Water pre-treatment was common (99%), but approximately a third of the farms did not practice any routine quality assessment for post larvae before stocking. On average, farms produced 1.6 kg/m² (95% CI: 1.2, 2.0) of shrimp with a harvest size of 43 shrimp/kg (95% CI: 37, 49) or an average weight of 23.3 g at time of harvest. An increasing trend in harvest weight per pond area and shrimp size at harvest was noted with increasing overall biosecurity score. These results indicated that farms with better biosecurity practices tended to have a higher production yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, the 2 organizations have coorganized workshops on agrocrime and disinformation, facilitated the exchange of experts across the law enforcement and veterinary sectors, and are mapping future areas of cooperation such as wildlife crime, falsified veterinary products, disease intelligence, and interoperability in incident management systems. In an all-hazards approach to biological threats, the veterinary and law enforcement sectors have important roles to play alongside public health, and they must jointly plan to prevent and respond to criminal activities affecting primarily animal health in the form of agrocrime acts, including agroterrorism. Veterinary professionals may not necessarily see how crimes are associated with disease spread, and law enforcement officials may not understand how crimes could cause disease introduction or spread, especially if the disease does not directly affect human health. Keywords: Agrocrime; Agroterrorism; Law enforcement; Veterinary services; Animal health EN Agrocrime Agroterrorism Law enforcement Veterinary services Animal health 415 420 6 10/04/23 20230901 NES 230901 Background The COVID-19 pandemic, suspected to have originated from spillover events,[1] has significantly increased the visibility of biological threats, whether their origins are natural, accidental, or deliberate.[2] The pandemic has also revealed vulnerabilities and gaps in emergency preparedness planning that were exploited by criminals during the crisis. [Extracted from the article]

As a form of bioterrorism, agricultural terrorism/agroterrorism leads to livestock and crop interventions. Agroterrorism is part of economic warfare, which involves the destruction of a country's agricultural or ecological infrastructure using biological weapons. Agroterrorism leads to a country's food insecurities and the collapse of its economic climate. The development of biotechnology allows the modification of biological elements to result in changes in the characteristics of living things infiltrated by these agents. Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) technology, for instance, is a paradoxical double-edged sword. GMOs can generate economic benefits, but can also result in huge economic losses if they are weaponized as agroterrorism. Using a qualitative approach, this study conducts a policy analysis to explain the factors that impact the absence of food safety policies from agroterrorism threats in Indonesia. Data collection was conducted through literature searches in the form of articles, documents, and policies with the keywords "agricultural terrorism"; "Genetically Modified Organism"; "food insecurity"; "biotechnology", and "national security"; as well as by analyzing the experiences of other countries. As a country with direct land borders with other countries, Indonesia needs extra efforts to secure the country's biodiversity. As one of the consequences of the ASEAN-China free trade, the possibility of agroterrorism events has become more likely to occur in Indonesia. The development of a solid food infrastructure may overcome this problem. Recommendations for safe and resilient food policy scenarios should be pursued to ensure quality food production and sustainable economic growth for a better Indonesia, not only in the present, but for the sake of sustainability in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review addresses ways to prepare for and to mitigate effects of biohazards on primary production of crops and livestock. These biohazards can be natural or intentional introductions of pathogens, and they can cause major economic damage to farmers, the agricultural industry, society, and international trade. Agroterrorism is the intentional introduction of animal or plant pathogens into agricultural production systems with the intention to cause socioeconomic harm and generate public fear. Although few acts of agroterrorism are reported, the threat of agroterrorism in Europe is real. New concerns about threats arise from the rapid advancements in biotechnology and emerging technologies. FORSA, an analytical framework for risk and vulnerability analysis, was used to review how to prepare for and mitigate the possible effects of natural or intentional biohazards in agricultural production. Analyzing the effects of a biohazard event involves multiple scientific disciplines. A comprehensive analysis of biohazards therefore requires a systems approach. The preparedness and ability to manage events are strengthened by bolstered farm biosecurity, increased monitoring and laboratory capacity, improved inter-agency communication and resource allocation. The focus of this review is on Europe, but the insights gained have worldwide applications. The analytical framework used here is compared to other frameworks. With climate change, Covid-19 and the war in Ukraine, the supply chains are challenged, and we foresee increasing food prices associated with social tensions. Our food supply chain becomes more fragile with more unknowns, thereby increasing the needs for risk and vulnerability analyses, of which FORSA is one example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large-scale agroterrorism attack on the United States would likely have severe economic and social consequences. In particular, the destruction of crops with pests or pathogens could cause substantial damage to food, economic, and social stability, with relatively little health risk to the perpetrators. The tools of engineering biology could enable a well-trained, nefarious actor to amplify their desired impacts through the development of disease-intensifying traits. In the United States, plant health emergencies are handled first at the local and state levels, then escalated to include the support and leadership of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and other federal agencies. We used publicly available documents and interviews across government, academia, and industry to explore the strategic and tactical approaches of the US federal government to detect and respond to plant agroterrorism. In this article, we discuss the agroterrorism preparedness and response capabilities at 3 levels of federal response: (1) within the Plant Protection and Quarantine program of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service at the USDA, (2) between USDA components, and (3) between federal agencies. We outline the approaches currently taken and identify opportunities to strengthen these approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The early part of the twenty-first century saw a revolution in the field of Homeland Security. The 9/11 attacks, shortly followed thereafter by the Anthrax Attacks, served as a wakeup call to the United States and showed the inadequacy of the current state of the nation's Homeland Security operations.Biodefense, and as a direct result Biosurveillance, changed dramatically after these tragedies, planting the seeds of fear in the minds of Americans.They were shown that not only could the United States be attacked at any time, but the weapon could be an invisible disease-causing agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this world, there are many potential hazards that could lead to a nationwide biosecurity threat. On the one hand, there are the unintended perils that result from natural outbreaks, such as with domestic food contamination. On the other hand, there are the intentional actions that lead to incidents of agroterrorism, which can reap significant economic loss, widespread destruction of crops and livestock, as well as increased human illness and death. For these reasons, the United States government has implemented various mechanisms over time in order to combat the food-borne threats imposed by both intentional and unintentional biosecurity hazards. For the purpose of this paper, these mechanisms will be referred to as the "food safety fence." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attack on America's food supply could come in many forms such as: poisoning imported food, burning crop fields, or a conventional terrorist attacks on food centers; however, one of the most frightening and potentially disastrous scenarios for an attack is a coordinated, biological agroterrorism attack released on the nation's livestock or crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Livestock Emergency Response Plan (LERP) was published in 2014 as a toolkit to assist state agricultural emergency planners in writing or modifying state foreign animal disease/high-consequence disease (FAD/HCD) plans. This research serves as a follow-up to and expands on an initial survey conducted in 2011 by the Department of Homeland Security Office of Health Affairs, Food, Ag, and Veterinary Defense Branch. The purpose of this project is to describe the status of current state animal disease response plans in relation to how closely their content, order, and terminology relate to that described in the LERP template. The analysis was compared to the 2011 study to identify advances, trends, continued areas for increased alignment, and fulfillment of planning gaps in individual state plans. While vast improvements were made in the status of state animal disease response plans from 2011 to 2016, there is nonetheless significant room for enhancing consistency between and identifying gaps in FAD/HCD plans. As awareness of the LERP toolkit grows, the authors hope its use as a template by the states will expand accordingly, thereby increasing consistency between plans and more thoroughly addressing challenges in an FAD/HCD outbreak. The results of this study support the need for curriculum planning resources at the state level. Development of a training curriculum and planning workshops for state agriculture emergency planners will produce a consistent planning philosophy and skill set among state planners-another means of indirectly addressing current planning gaps in agricultural emergency response. The Livestock Emergency Response Plan (LERP) was published in 2014 as a toolkit to assist state agricultural emergency planners in writing or modifying state foreign animal disease/high-consequence disease plans. The purpose of this project is to describe the status of current state animal disease response plans in relation to how closely their content, order, and terminology relate to that described in the LERP template. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the authors' views about the potential impacts that agroterrorism and bioterrorism could have on America's agricultural aerial application operations as of 2017, and it mentions efforts to prevent the intentional misuse of chemicals and agricultural equipment. The historical aspects of aerial pest control in U.S. agriculture are addressed, along with America's Federal Aviation Administration, agricultural security, and the certification of air pilots.

This article explores the under-researched subject of agroterrorism, and how this is being addressed in the Republic of Korea (South Korea). It first outlines the differences between bioterrorism, food terrorism and agroterrorism and why it is becoming increasingly important to focus on risks to farming and the food chain. The article then explores a range of international models of organisational structures and processes designed to counter agroterrorism in the USA, Australia and the UK, based on an analysis of all available open-source materials at the time of writing. This provides a critical picture of the understanding of risk, security and preparedness in those three countries against which the South Korean model can be compared. We found that, compared to the mature arrangements in place in the USA and Australia, both the UK and the Republic of Korea have relatively immature strategies to protect farmers, food production and rural communities, focussing only on maintaining alternative safe food sources for consumers. These relatively weak policies essentially ignore the potentially significant social and economic impact of agroterrorism. We conclude by proposing further research, including fieldwork with local communities in the agricultural sector, including first responders, within South Korea. Overall, these findings may help Korean policy makers to consider their current approach within an international perspective and encourage them to consider both national resilience and local interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroterrorism poses a significant threat to food supplies and the stability of agricultural markets. The industrialization of agricultural has substantially improved productivity and efficiency, but has also contributed to the sector's declining resilience-the ability to withstand and adapt to stress and change. Consequently, agriculture has become increasingly vulnerable to possible agroterrorist attacks. However, by working to increase biodiversity and minimize the connected and concentrated nature of agricultural production, the industry can lower its vulnerability to attack. Indoor agriculture may be one way to accomplish this goal. This Article describes indoor agriculture, explains the concept of agroterrorism, and explores the potential risk of an agroterrorist attack on the United States. It concludes by suggesting possible ways to increase the resilience of the agricultural industry, particularly through the use of indoor agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foreign animal diseases (FADs) are recognized as a threat to agriculture, with potential devastating effects on our nation's livestock and poultry industries. As weapons of bioterrorism, FADs also represent a threat to our nation's homeland security. Veterinarians play a vital role in protecting our nation's agricultural resources through their ability to identify and promptly respond to FADs, some of which are of public health concern. Veterinarians working in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania were surveyed to assess their awareness of FADs and their preparedness to recognize and respond to potential cases. Two hundred thirty-seven veterinary practitioners completed an online questionnaire which included demographic and practice characteristics, federal accreditation status, awareness of FAD history in the United States, awareness of current FAD threats, training, and professional experiences with FADs. In the analysis, we identified topics respondents were most familiar, and those which they feel pose the greatest disease threat. We also assessed respondents' interest in receiving supplemental training on FADs. Results of this survey indicate that most participating Pennsylvania veterinarians are familiar with FADs and have had educational exposure to FADs either during their formal veterinary education or through the United States Department of Agriculture veterinary accreditation program. However, the majority feels unprepared to recognize FADs. Most survey respondents expressed an interest in receiving supplemental training on FADs, and were willing to travel to receive the training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural Heritage Systems Tourism (AHST) has increased considerably in the past ten years and is projected to continue growing in the future. Despite such growth, there is not a shared understanding of many aspects of the tourism development framework for all kinds of agricultural heritage sites. Given that meanings and characteristics are critical to determining the appeal of a particular activity among tourism consumers and because the development directions of AHST are essential for achieving heritage conservation goals, a study was conducted in 2014-2015 to assess stakeholder preferences for definitional phrases and their perceptions. This manuscript summarizes the characteristics of AHST in four aspects, taking agricultural heritage systems in China as examples: 1) synthesis of agritourism, cultural heritage tourism, and ecotourism; 2) annual variation of tourism attractions and activities; 3) the dominant role of artisan farmers; 4) the unique gastronomic experiences of traditional food. Finally, there are some objectives offered by this research from economic, environmental, cultural, social and political perspectives to build a framework of AHST according to its features and characteristics. Based on environmental and cultural objectives, with political and social support, through reaching the core objectives of economic development, AHST will be sustainable and agricultural heritage systems will be well conserved. This study carries important implications for the further applications of AHST. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the WHO, dual use research of concern (DURC) is 'life sciences research that is intended for benefit, but which might easily be misapplied to do harm'. Recent studies, particularly those on influenza viruses, have led to renewed attention on DURC, as there is an ongoing debate over whether the benefits of gain-of-function (GOF) experiments that result in an increase in the transmission and/or pathogenicity of potential pandemic pathogens (PPPs) are outweighed by concerns over biosecurity and biosafety. In this Viewpoint article, proponents and opponents of GOF experiments discuss the benefits and risks associated with these studies, as well as the implications of the current debate for the scientific community and the general public, and suggest how the current discussion should move forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroterrorism is a collective term that describes an intentional criminal attack against crops or mankind using viral, bacterial, fungal, or insect-borne agents. Agroterrorism also includes attacks against animals using infectious pathogens such as Burkholderia mallei (glanders), Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), viral avian influenza, foot and mouth disease, and several equine encephalitis viruses. Agents that could be used against crops include the causative agents of wheat blast, rice blast, rice brown spot disease, and wheat stem rust. The primary goal of terrorists using agroterrorism is to spread fear and cause massive economic loss. Subsequent goals include causing disease and death to humans and animals. The use of bioterrorism agents is a much more practical approach than using explosives, for example, to achieve those results since many of these biological agents are commonly found naturally in the environment and are difficult to detect with modern technology. The effective use of biological warfare dates back centuries and can still can be employed by terrorist groups, lone wolves, and political and religious groups to cause death and mayhem on a grand scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an apparent paradox, bioenergy crops offer potential benefits to a world adjusting to the challenges of climate change and declining fossil fuel stocks, as well as potential ecological and economic threats resulting from biological invasions. In considering this paradox it is important to understand that benefits and threats may not always be apparent in equal measure throughout the potential range of each candidate biofuel species. In some environments, a species could potentially produce valuable biological materials without posing a significant invasion threat. In this study, we develop a bioclimatic niche model for a candidate biofuel crop, Millettia pinnata, and apply the model to different climatic and irrigation scenarios to estimate the current and future patterns of climate suitability for its growth and naturalization. We use Australia as a case study for interpreting the niche model in terms that may be informative for both biofuels proponents and biosecurity regulators to plan management programmes that reflect the invasive potential in different areas. The model suggests that suitable growing conditions for M. pinnata in Australia are naturally restricted to the moist and semimoist tropics. Irrigation can extend the suitable growing conditions more widely throughout the tropics, and into more arid regions. Under future climate scenarios, suitable growing conditions for M. pinnata under natural rainfall contract towards the east coast, and extend southward into the subtropics. With irrigation, M. pinnata appears to have the potential in the future to naturalize across much of Australia. The bioclimatic modelling method demonstrated here is comparatively quick and easy, and can produce a rich array of data products to inform the interests of both bioenergy proponents and biosecurity regulators. We show how this modelling can support the development of spatially explicit biosecurity policies designed to manage invasion risks in a manner that balances bioenergy and biosecurity concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Agro-terrorism is a hostile attack, towards an agricultural environment, including infrastructures and processes, in order to significantly damage national and international political interests. This article provides a framework for reducing agro-terrorism-related risks by either means of foresight (prevention) or early detection of exotic/foreign pathogenic agents and their dispersion patterns. It focuses on intention detection using overt data sources on the World Wide Web as they relate to agro-terrorism threats. The paper defines agro-terrorism, examines data characteristics, identifies weaknesses among the intelligence community that must be addressed, then integrates the classical intelligence cycle for early detection that may lead to prevention of such acts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Attacks against livestock and poultry using biological agents constitute a subtype of agroterrorism. These attacks are defined as the intentional introduction of an animal infectious disease to strike fear in people, damage a nation's economy and/or threaten social stability. Livestock bioterrorism is considered attractive to terrorists because biological agents for use against livestock or poultry are more readily available and difficult to monitor than biological agents for use against humans. In addition, an attack on animal husbandry can have enormous economic consequences, even without human casualties. Animal husbandry is vulnerable to livestock-targeted bioterrorism because it is nearly impossible to secure all livestock animals, and compared with humans, livestock are less well-guarded targets. Furthermore, anti-livestock biological weapons are relatively easy to employ, and a significant effect can be produced with only a small amount of infectious material. The livestock sector is presently very vulnerable to bioterrorism as a result of large-scale husbandry methods and weaknesses in the systems used to detect disease outbreaks, which could aggravate the consequences of livestock-targeted bioterrorism. Thus, terrorism against livestock and poultry cannot be thought of as either a 'low-probability' or 'low-consequence' incident. This review provides an overview of methods to prevent livestock-targeted bioterrorism and respond to terrorism involving the deliberate introduction of a pathogen-targeting livestock and poultry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: During the last few decades, the media, government leaders, scholars and national security analysts have all called attention to the potential threat presented by terrorism. In general, analyses have focused on the use of biological agents to kill or injure people. Consequently, the intentional contamination of crops by biological agents has received less attention in the media and counter-terrorism efforts when compared to possible attacks on civilian populations. However, in many countries, agricultural systems are one of the main economic sectors contributing to political stability, and the present literature lacks examples of terrorist attacks to agricultural systems. This paper is one of the first to discuss a concrete case of the appearance of a plant pathogen in an economically important region, possibly motivated by agro-terrorism. We highlight the differences between agro-terrorism and biocrime, and the causes and the consequences of the intentional introduction of pathogens as a means of causing economic damage. In particular, we argue that agro-terrorism and biocrime are both intentional criminal acts of introducing pathogens into agricultural systems to cause economic damage, but only agro-terrorism does so to advance a political agenda. Also, we argue that agro-terrorism can be difficult to distinguish from biocrime, and even if the intentional introduction of a pathogen is a political act of agro-terrorism, the consequences may or may not follow the desired script contemplated by the perpetrators, as pest outbreaks can entrain unintended economic, political and ecological consequences. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the early 21st century, food security has become an urgent public concern, arguably more entangled with social, political and environmental problems at multiple scales now than in the past. This paper examines approaches to food system change emphasizing regionalization, rather than either localization or globalization, to consider framings of food security. An enlarged food security risk frame—one that starts with food safety crises and the threat of agrifood terrorism but also recognizes new, more diffuse threats to food availability likely with global environmental change, provides common ground now for diverse institutional interest in regional food systems models. Combining discursive approaches to food security with territorial and relational conceptualizations of the region and regionalization, the paper develops a comparative analysis of three emerging regionalization initiatives in the United States: 1) work by the Northeast Sustainable Agriculture Working Group (a civil society organization); 2) the U.S. Department of Agriculture''s Know Your Farmer, Know Your Food initiative; and 3) the Walmart Corporation''s Heritage Agriculture initiative. It finds that institutions with markedly different histories, interests and power can align with a widening, ascendant food security risk frame. However, their approaches to regionalization reflect varying combinations of territorial and relational priorities, and suggest uneven implications for other food security concerns, such as community and food access. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of this statewide study was to determine Oklahoma beef producers' perceptions of the susceptibility of the state's beef industry to a terrorist attack. Participants in this study were randomly selected from a population of 48,000 beef producers in this Oklahoma. All 470 respondents completed a telephone survey conducted by the Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service. Descriptive statistics, t-tests, and cross tabulations were used to analyze the data. Oklahoma beef producers perceived the beef industry was susceptible to an agroterrorism event, believed the feedlots to be at an elevated level of threat, were confident in their own operation's biosecurity measures, believed their own operation was not susceptible to an agroterrorism event, and did not believe they had enough information about protection from terrorism to the beef industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The agricultural sector is highly vulnerable to bioterrorism attacks with the potential for severe economic consequences. This article presents estimates of state-by-state total economic impacts of a hypothetical agroterrorism attack that uses foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) pathogens, which is one of the most contagious animal diseases and can be easily weaponized. The authors estimate the economic impacts across the U.S. states by applying the National Interstate Economic Model (NIEMO), a multiregional input output (MRIO) model. Total economic impacts range from $23 billion to $34 billion. The overwhelming sources of the losses are due to domestic and international demand cuts. The results of this research highlight the point that the economic impacts are nationwide, regardless of the location of the attack because of large-scale export losses. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Nipah virus (NiV) was first recognized in 1998 in a zoonotic disease outbreak associated with highly lethal febrile encephalitis in humans and a predominantly respiratory disease in pigs. Periodic deadly outbreaks, documentation of person-to-person transmission, and the potential of this virus as an agent of agroterror reinforce the need for effective means of therapy and prevention. In this report, we describe the vaccine potential of NiV virus-like particles (NiV VLPs) composed of three NiV proteins G, F and M. Co-expression of these proteins under optimized conditions resulted in quantifiable amounts of VLPs with many virus-like/vaccine desirable properties including some not previously described for VLPs of any paramyxovirus: The particles were fusogenic, inducing syncytia formation; PCR array analysis showed NiV VLPinduced activation of innate immune defense pathways; the surface structure of NiV VLPs imaged by cryoelectron microscopy was dense, ordered, and repetitive, and consistent with similarly derived structure of paramyxovirus measles virus. The VLPs were composed of all the three viral proteins as designed, and their intracellular processing also appeared similar to NiV virions. The size, morphology and surface composition of the VLPs were consistent with the parental virus, and importantly, they retained their antigenic potential. Finally, these particles, formulated without adjuvant, were able to induce neutralizing antibody response in Balb/c mice. These findings indicate vaccine potential of these particles and will be the basis for undertaking future protective efficacy studies in animal models of NiV disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the survey conducted on veterinarians to investigate the biosecurity procedures they practiced and the challenges they experienced in protecting their customers from diseases in Kansas. The methods and materials used by researchers are also mentioned. Moreover, details of the result of the survey are also mentioned.

Aim: To provide an up-to-date overview on the role of Brucella as a possible biological (B-) agent to be used in biological warfare, biological crimes and biological terrorism (with special respect to agroterrorism) scenarios. Methods: An analysis of current literature and of Internet-based sources was made. Results: Brucella spp. have always been in the focus of military decision. The main reason for military research on Brucella was driven by the finding that the organism can easily be transmitted via aerosols. Confronted with the new challenge of global terrorism in the last decades of the 20th century, experts tried to evaluate the risk that Brucella spp. are used against the civilian population. Based on criteria concerning public health demands brucellosis was rated to have only a lower medical and public impact. Nevertheless, small-scale outbreaks in humans will pose problems in all those countries where first responders are usually not aware of the clinical syndrome. Countries which have eradicated brucellosis from their livestock successfully may face another severe threat: agroterrorism. Brucella spp. might be introduced intentionally into livestock (cattle, small ruminants, pigs). Undeterminable losses for a state's economy may be the result of such an attack. Conclusions: The world has become safer in the last decades due to the intensive efforts of the global community to effectively ban the use of weapons of mass destruction. However, bio- and agroterrorism especially an attack against the agricultural infrastructure is considered to be a permanent danger. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two important features of agricultural quarantine inspections of shipping containers for invasive species at U.S. ports of entry are the general absence of economic considerations and the severe uncertainty that surrounds invasive species introductions. In this article, we propose and illustrate a method for determining an inspection monitoring protocol that addresses both issues. An inspection monitoring protocol is developed that is robust in maximizing the set of uncertain outcomes over which an economic performance criterion is achieved. The framework is applied to derive an alternative to Agricultural Quarantine Inspection (AQI) for shipments of fruits and vegetables as currently practiced at ports of entry in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper examines the relationship between risk perceptions, affect and the economic consequences of a bio-security threat against the U.S. food system. The main argument is that there exists a link between risk perceptions and economic behavior. The paper raises conjectures through a utility-theoretic economic model and examines these through two separate surveys, the first being a hypothetical agroterrorist attack and the second a hypothetical discovery of ‘bird flu’ in the United States. The results provide strong evidence that risk perception and fear can interact with consumption in an economically significant way. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]