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This case of sarcoidosis mimicking metastatic breast cancer serves as a reminder of the need to consider differential diagnoses even when the clinical scenario and imaging findings are highly suggestive of metastases.

Background Rising antimicrobial resistance rates may impact the efficacy of empirical antibiotic treatment for febrile neutropenia in high-risk cancer patients. Lacking contemporary data about the epidemiology, antibiotic resistance patterns, and clinical outcomes from bloodstream infections (BSIs) in US cancer patients, it is unclear if current guidelines remain relevant. Methods In a cross-sectional study, 14 US cancer centers prospectively identified BSIs in high-risk febrile neutropenic (FN) patients, including those receiving chemotherapy for hematologic malignancies or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Results Among 389 organisms causing BSI in 343 patients, there was an equal distribution of gram-negative (GN) and gram-positive (GP) bacteria, with variability across centers. Cefepime and piperacillin-tazobactam were the most commonly prescribed empirical antibiotics for FN, at 62% and 23%, respectively; a GP-directed agent was empirically included in nearly half of all FN episodes within the first 24 hours. Susceptibility to fluoroquinolones, cefepime, piperacillin-tazobactam, and carbapenems was 49%, 84%, 88%, and 96%, respectively, among GN isolates. Critical illness (CrI), defined as a new requirement for mechanical ventilation, vasopressor, or death within 30 days, occurred in 15% and did not correlate with fluoroquinolone prophylaxis, organism type, initial antibiotics, or adequacy of coverage. Only severity of illness at presentation, signified by a Pitt bacteremia score ≥2, predicted for critical illness within 30 days. Mortality was 4% by day 7 and 10% overall. Conclusions In accordance with US guidelines, cefepime or piperacillin-tazobactam remain effective agents or empirical treatment for high-risk cancer patients with FN who are stable at presentation, maintaining high GN pathogen susceptibility and yielding excellent outcomes.

Febrile neutropenia (FN) is a common serious complication in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) requiring urgent evaluation and initiation of empiric broad spectrum antibiotics (BSA). The appropriate duration of BSA for FN in patients with negative cultures and no identifiable infection remains undefined. We retrospectively analyzed allogenic and autologous HSCT patients with FN and negative infectious work-up at our facility from 2012 to 2018. The early de-escalation group (EDG) included those who had BSA de-escalation to fluoroquinolone prophylaxis at least 24 h prior to absolute neutrophil count (ANC) recovery after the patient was fever-free for at least 48 h. Among 297 patients undergoing their first HSCT who experienced FN with negative infectious work-up, 83 patients were de-escalated early with the remaining 214 in the standard of care group (SCG) whose BSA were continued until ANC was > 500. Duration of broad-spectrum antibiotics was shorter in EDG compared to SCG (3.86 days vs. 4.62 days, p = 0.03). Rates of mortality, new infections, and clinical decompensation requiring intensive care unit transfer and/or pressor use within 30 days were all similar between the two groups (0% vs. 0.4% p = 1.00, 0% vs. 1.4% p = 0.56, 13.2% vs. 8.4% p = 0.27). This indicates that it is safe to de-escalate antibiotics prior to ANC recovery, leading to less BSA exposure.

The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, was first detected as a respiratory illness in December 2019 in Wuhan City, China. Since then, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has impacted every aspect of our lives worldwide. In a time when terms such as social distancing and flattening the curve have become a part of our vernacular, it is essential that we understand what measures can be implemented to protect our patients and healthcare workers. Undoubtedly, healthcare providers have had to rapidly alter care delivery models while simultaneously acknowledging the crucial unknowns of how these changes may affect clinical outcomes. This special feature reviews strategies on how to mitigate transmission of COVID-19 in an effort to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with the disease for patients with cancer without infection, for patients with cancer with COVID-19 infection, and for the healthcare workers caring for them, while continuing to provide the best possible cancer care. [Editor’s Note: This article includes the most current information available at time of publication; however, recommendations regarding public safety and practice may change rapidly in this situation. Individuals should get the most up to date information from the CDC website.]

Immunoglobulin administered to adults with neuroinvasive disease appeared to be safe but was not demonstrated to improve clinical outcomes., West Nile Virus (WNV) can result in clinically severe neurologic disease. There is no treatment for WNV infection, but administration of anti-WNV polyclonal human antibody has demonstrated efficacy in animal models. We compared Omr-IgG-am, an immunoglobulin product with high titers of anti-WNV antibody, with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and normal saline to assess safety and efficacy in patients with WNV neuroinvasive disease as part of a phase I/II, randomized, double-blind, multicenter study in North America. During 2003–2006, a total of 62 hospitalized patients were randomized to receive Omr-IgG-am, standard IVIG, or normal saline (3:1:1). The primary endpoint was medication safety. Secondary endpoints were morbidity and mortality, measured using 4 standardized assessments of cognitive and functional status. The death rate in the study population was 12.9%. No significant differences were found between groups receiving Omr-IgG-am compared with IVIG or saline for either the safety or efficacy endpoints.

Febrile neutropenia remains an important complication of treatment with cytotoxic chemotherapy. It is often the first and sometimes the only sign or symptom of infection in this vulnerable patient population. Urgent and appropriate evaluation and treatment are imperative because delay in initiating appropriate antibiotic therapy may be life threatening. Selection of antibiotics should be based on the patient's symptoms, previous culture data, and institutional antibiograms. Ongoing therapy should be guided by culture and clinical data. Antimicrobial resistance is of great concern, particularly in this population, so careful attention to antibiotic selection and duration is needed.

Pathologists collect swab samples for Papanicolaou (Pap) staining to diagnose various diseases including cancer and HIV. Time constraints and limited resources, may preclude staining a sample immediately. To re-confirm results, samples must be frozen for later analysis. We present a method for Pap staining cells that have been stored long term. An effective method for Pap staining of frozen cells should enable flexibility for processing samples.

Infection is a common complication of certain cancer treatments, particularly cytotoxic chemotherapies and stem cell transplantation which render patients neutropenic for various periods. In the absence of adequate neutrophils, bacterial infections may cause rapid onset of sepsis, typically heralded by the occurrence of fever. Accordingly, immediate administration of empiric antibiotic therapy is a standard approach to neutropenic patients who develop fever. Additionally, the presence of indwelling venous catheters, recent surgery or prolonged use of steroids and other immunosuppressant drugs can potentiate infections. Risk of infection varies significantly with underlying disease and those with hematologic malignancies are most prone to serious infectious complications including bacteremias, pneumonias and invasive fungal infections while those undergoing cycles of cytotoxic therapy for solid tumors are less commonly affected. Oncologists and other providers of cancer care must be familiar with the types of infections that can occur in patients with different cancers and therapies, and have a working knowledge of how to manage fever during neutropenia as swift and proper intervention may be life-saving for many patients.

In a retrospective case-control study, we aimed to assess the utility of plasma BK viral load value to predict hemorrhagic cystitis (HC) symptoms after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT). During first 100 post-transplantation days of all adult AlloHSCT recipients at the University of Nebraska Medical Center from October 1, 2011, to June 30, 2014, 8 unexcluded cases of HC were identified and matched with 88 unexcluded unaffected control cases. Viral loads were determined for archived DNA extracted from plasma collected within 3 weeks before transplantation until ∼100 days after transplantation. Clinical factors, time of onset of BK viremia, and BK viral load were compared between case and control subjects to identify risks for HC. Symptomatic HC occurred in 8/96 (8.3%) of patients at a median of 34 days after transplantation. BK viremia either before or during symptoms was detected in all 8 (100%) HC patients and in 20/88 (22.7%) of control subjects. BK viremia was detected at a median of 8 days before HC clinical symptoms. The log of first positive viral load was not a statistically significant predictor (P = .17) of symptomatic BK. Median BK viral load peak was significantly higher for 8 patients with HC versus 20 viremic patients without HC (6.66 vs 5.06; P .052). Further study is required to evaluate the predictive value of the BK viral load for HC.

Clostridium difficile is the most common cause of nosocomial diarrhea, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality in hospitalized patients. Oncology patients are particularly at risk of this infection secondary to frequent exposure to known risk factors. In a population in which diarrhea is a common adverse effect of chemotherapeutic regimens, diagnosis can be challenging secondary to current limitations in testing to differentiate between colonization and active infection. Although several currently available antimicrobial therapies achieve resolution of symptoms in this population, further research is needed to determine which agent least affects the host intestinal microbiota, especially in times of neutropenia and mucosal barrier injury. The purpose of this article is to review the current literature on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and management of C difficile–associated diarrhea in the oncology population.

BACKGROUND Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients are not uniformly considered as "high risk" enough to receive fluoroquinolone (FQ) prophylaxis. The risks versus benefits of FQ prophylaxis in autologous HSCT require further investigation. METHODS A retrospective chart review of patients > 19 years old who received an autologous HSCT at Nebraska Medicine analyzed two time periods (period 1: no prophylaxis [2013-2015] versus period 2: levofloxacin prophylaxis [2015-2016]) to characterize the clinical impact of levofloxacin prophylaxis on autologous HSCT recipients. RESULTS A total of 224 autologous HSCT were screened with 214 included. Febrile neutropenia (FN) developed in 101/113 (89%) versus 60/101 (59%) patients in the no prophylaxis (NPx) versus prophylaxis (Px) group (P

Influenza infection causes increased morbidity and higher mortality in patients receiving treatment of underlying cancer, particularly in those with hematological malignancy or patients who have undergone hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. The illness is characterized by seasonality and nonspecific clinical manifestations of upper respiratory infection at a time when other respiratory illnesses are common in the community, making the diagnosis challenging. However, accurate and timely diagnosis by new molecular techniques is crucial in the management of immunocompromised patients, because delays in initiating appropriate therapy can have devastating consequences. Emergence of viral resistance to currently used antiviral agents is of concern, particularly in immunocompromised hosts, and warrants continued monitoring and surveillance. Early and effective treatment improves outcomes, but optimal therapeutic strategies in patients with cancer are not well defined. Health care and research efforts should focus on defining treatment guidelines in patients with cancer and attempt to improve on current vaccination strategies.

Infections caused by Candida species range from local mucous membrane involvement to widely disseminated disease. In patients who have received a hematopoietic cell or solid organ transplant, candidiasis is one of the most common infections that is seen and is often life threatening. Candida species are part of the normal human microbiota and, as such, rarely cause infection in healthy hosts. Infections arise when the organisms are able to proliferate locally and gain access to the bloodstream from their normal mucosal or cutaneous colonization niche. Candidemia and invasive candidiasis are directly attributable to a breakdown of normal barriers, such as that which occurs with candidemia related to a central venous catheter, or to impairment of host defenses, which is especially prominent with neutropenia. The most common species to cause infection is Candida albicans, but increasingly, Candida glabrata is reported, especially among patients who have hematological malignancies or have received a transplant. Treatment has improved in the last several decades with the availability of multiple azole and echinocandin agents, all of which are less toxic than amphotericin B. However, crude mortality rates for patients with candidemia remain high, reflecting in part the very ill patients who develop this infection. Increasing evidence shows that the sooner antifungal treatment is initiated, the better the outcome; thus, in patients at high risk for invasive candidiasis, empirical treatment is appropriate while awaiting diagnostic test results. Prophylaxis, generally with an azole agent, is given routinely to recipients of a hematopoietic cell transplant and to certain high-risk solid organ transplant recipients.

Infectious diseases are important causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with cancer. The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) for Prevention and Treatment of Cancer-Related Infections characterize the major pathogens to which patients with cancer are susceptible, with a focus on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of major common and opportunistic infections. This portion of the guidelines highlights the sections on antifungal and antiviral prophylaxis. Antifungal and antiviral prophylaxis recommendations have expanded over the past few years. New agents for the treatment of fungal infections and incorporation of therapeutic drug monitoring are presented. Antiviral prophylaxis for hepatitis B and management considerations for hepatitis C and HIV have been further developed.

BACKGROUND Recent antimicrobial resistance data are lacking from inpatient oncology settings to guide infection prophylaxis and treatment recommendations. We describe central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) pathogens and antimicrobial resistance patterns reported from oncology locations to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN). METHODS CLABSI data reported to NHSN from 2009 to 2012 from adult inpatient oncology locations were compared to data from nononcology adult locations within the same hospitals. Pathogen profile, antimicrobial resistance rates, and CLABSI incidence rates per 1000 central line-days were calculated. CLABSI incidence rates were compared using Poisson regression. RESULTS During 2009-2012, 4654 CLABSIs were reported to NHSN from 299 adult oncology units. The most common organisms causing CLABSI in oncology locations were coagulase-negative staphylococci (16.9%), Escherichia coli (11.8%), and Enterococcus faecium (11.4%). Fluoroquinolone resistance was more common among E. coli CLABSI in oncology than nononcology locations (56.5% vs 41.5% of isolates tested; P < .0001) and increased significantly from 2009-2010 to 2011-2012 (49.5% vs 60.4%; P = .01). Furthermore, rates of CLABSI were significantly higher in oncology compared to nononcology locations for fluoroquinolone-resistant E. coli (rate ratio, 7.37; 95% confidence interval [CI], 6.20-8.76) and vancomycin-resistant E. faecium (rate ratio, 2.27, 95% CI, 2.03-2.53). However, resistance rates for some organisms, such as Klebsiella species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, were lower in oncology than in nononcology locations. CONCLUSIONS Antimicrobial-resistant E. coli and E. faecium have become significant pathogens in oncology. Practices for antimicrobial prophylaxis and empiric antimicrobial therapy should be regularly assessed in conjunction with contemporary antimicrobial resistance data.

A case of disseminated nocardiosis caused by Nocardia arthritidis in an immunocompromised patient with a history of chronic lymphocytic leukemia and rheumatoid arthritis is presented. This report highlights the use for multilocus sequence typing (MLST) in addition to single gene molecular sequencing to identify rare Nocardia species.

Background Febrile neutropenia (FN) is a common and serious complication in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT). Typically, broad-spectrum antibiotics (BSA) are promptly initiated with controversy on timing of de-escalation. ECIL 2013 guidelines suggest de-escalation after 72 hours if the patient is infection free and afebrile for at least 48 hours. Conversely, the 2011 IDSA recommends continuing BSA in patients who defervesce until absolute neutrophil count (ANC) recovery. In 2014, our center’s practice changed to early de-escalation and we sought to compare outcomes between the two practices. Methods We retrospectively analyzed patients who underwent a HSCT in 2013 and 2017 with an episode of FN and negative infectious work up. The standard care group (SCG) were continued on BSA until ANC recovery. The early de-escalation group (EDG) de-escalated to fluoroquinolone prophylaxis at least 24 hours prior to ANC recovery after the patient was fever free for 48 hours. The primary end-point was duration of BSA. Secondary endpoints included 30-day mortality, re-hospitalization and length of stay (LOS) from FN. Median values were compared with the Mann–Whitney test. Results Among 229 HSCT patients, 155 (68%) developed FN post-transplant and of those 97 (63%) were without infection (13 EDG and 84 SCG). Initial FN duration of BSA was less in the EDG (3.09 days vs. 4.69 days, P = 0.069). Total antibiotic free days to 30 day follow-up were similar (EDG 24.08 vs SCG 25.19, P = 0.81). Duration of neutropenia was less in the SCG with 7.99 days compared with 11.69 days in the EDG (P = 0.007), but duration of initial fever was less in the EDG (2.55 days vs. 3.33 days, P = 0.023). 30 day mortality was 0% in both groups. Rates of re-hospitalization within 30 days were approximately the same (7.1% vs. 7.6%). LOS from FN was not significantly different with 6.68 days in SCG and 7.75 days in EDG (P = 0.140). More new bacterial infections were identified within 30 days of FN in the SCG than the EDG (10.7% vs. 7.6%). Conclusion Early BSA de-escalation resulted in no significant difference in LOS from FN and fewer days of BSA with 30-day mortality and re-hospitalization rates similar. This data suggest de-escalating BSA prior to ANC recovery is likely safe and leads to less BSA exposure, but more multi-center data are needed. Disclosures All authors: No reported disclosures.

Background The point prevalence of Clostridium difficile stool shedding in hospitalized infants from two neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) was examined utilizing standard clinical testing compared with duplex PCR to identify toxigenic and non-toxigenic C. difficile strains. Methods All infants from the two NICUs affiliated with a single academic medical center were eligible for inclusion. Stool collection was blinded to patient characteristics and occurred during a one week period at each NICU and repeated with a second weeklong collection 6 months later to increase sample size. Stools were tested for C. difficile using EIA (GDH/toxin A/B) with samples testing +/+ or +/− subsequently evaluated by Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) and by duplex PCR amplification of tcdB and tpi (housekeeping) genes. Cytotoxicity assays were performed on all samples positive for C. difficile by any modality. Results Eighty-four stools were collected from unique infants for evaluation. EIA results showed 6+/+ [7.1%], 7 +/− [8.3%], and 71 −/− [84.5%] samples. All 6 EIA +/+ were confirmed as toxigenic C. difficile by LAMP; 6/7 EIA +/− were negative by LAMP with one identified as invalid. Duplex PCR concurred with LAMP in all 6 stools positive for toxigenic C. difficile. PCR identified 2 EIA −/− stools positive for tpi, indicating shedding of non-toxigenic C. difficile. Cytotoxicity assay was positive in 4/6 duplex PCR positive samples and negative for all stools that were EIA +/− but negative by molecular testing. Conclusions C. difficile blinded point prevalence in infants from two NICUs was 7.1% by molecular methods; and lower than expected based on historical incidence estimates. In house duplex PCR had excellent concordance with clinically available LAMP and EIA tests, and added detection of non-toxigenic C. difficile strain shedding. Evolving NICU care practices may be influencing the composition of infant gut microbiota and reducing the point prevalence of C. difficile shedding in NICU patient stools.

Background Blood stream infection (BSI) during neutropenia is associated with high risk for morbidity and mortality in patients with hematologic malignancies receiving chemotherapy or undergoing hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT). We sought to identify factors associated with increased risk for critical illness (CI) morbidities within 7 days of BSI with index FN following chemotherapy. Methods A prospective ongoing survey among 14 high-volume US cancer centers submitting clinical and microbiologic data from consecutive HM patients with blood stream infection (BSI) during first FN after cytotoxic chemotherapy or HCT. We evaluated factors influencing poor outcomes defined as critical illness (need for pressor support, mechanical ventilation, new pneumonia or new BSI) within 7 days of BSI with index FN. Concordance between antibiotic and BSI isolate was determined by investigator (AZ, AF) interpretation of susceptibility reports provided by each center compared with the initial antimicrobial regimen (IAR) used, for single organism bacteremias only. Results Among 294 FN bacteremic episodes (93 HCT) were 336 bacterial pathogens (48.5% Gram-negative [GN], 46.5% Gram-positive [GP], and 6% anaerobes). Death occurred in 11/294 (4%) and 41/294 (14%) had CI by day 8. At FN presentation, mean MASCC score of those with CI vs. those without was 16.9 vs. 18.6 (P = 0.03) and there was a trend toward higher mean PITT scores for patients with CI by day 8 vs. those without (1.54 vs. 0.82 (P = 0.08)). Among GN bacteremias, 15% developed CI vs. 14.5% in nonviridans group Streptococci (VGS) GP bacteremias, and 10.9% in VGS bacteremias (NS). Among patients with single organism bacteremias (88% of all BSI), mismatch of IAR coverage with isolate susceptibilities occurred in 16.7% (38/227). Among patients whom IAR was active vs. inactive against BSI isolate, 16% vs 14.3%, respectively, developed CI (P = 0.81). Conclusion These data indicate that the MASCC score applied to high-risk inpatients may be a predictor for CI in the first week after bacteremia FN. The PITT shows less correlation with poor outcomes. There was no association between isolate type (GN, GP, or VGS) and CI. Notably there was no association between mismatched BSI susceptibility and antimicrobial spectrum of the IAR and early CI. Disclosures A. G. Freifeld, Merck: Investigator, Research grant. A. Zimmer, Merck: Investigator, Research grant. S. Pergam, Merck: Consultant, Consulting fee. Chimerix: Consultant, Consulting fee. K. V. Rolston, Merck: Investigator, Research grant. JMI Laboratories: Investigator, Research grant. Shionogi (Japan): Investigator, Research grant. S. Shoham, Merck: Investigator and Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee and Grant recipient. Astellas: Investigator, Grant recipient. Shionogi (Japan): Investigator, Grant recipient. Gilead: Investigator, Grant recipient. Shire: Investigator, Grant recipient. T. J. Walsh, Merck: Grant Investigator, Research grant. Atellas: Consultant, Grant Investigator and Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee and Research grant. Gilead: Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee. Allergan: Grant Investigator and Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee and Research grant. Scynexis: Grant Investigator, Research grant. Amplyx: Grant Investigator, Research grant. Shionogi: Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee. J. A. Young, GSK: Investigator, The University of Minnesota is reimbursed for contract costs associated with conducting clinical trials of vaccine. I receive no personal financial benefit. Y. Zhang, Merck: Investigator, Research grant. J. Meza, Merck: Investigator, Research grant.

Background. Histoplasmosis may complicate tumor necrosis factor (TNF)–α blocker therapy. Published case series provide limited guidance on disease management. We sought to determine the need for long-term antifungal therapy and the safety of resuming TNF-α blocker therapy after successful treatment of histoplasmosis. Methods. We conducted a multicenter retrospective review of 98 patients diagnosed with histoplasmosis between January 2000 and June 2011. Multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate risk factors for severe disease. Results. The most commonly used biologic agent was infliximab (67.3%). Concomitant corticosteroid use (odds ratio [OR], 3.94 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.06–14.60]) and higher urine Histoplasma antigen levels (OR, 1.14 [95% CI, 1.03–1.25]) were found to be independent predictors of severe disease. Forty-six (47.4%) patients were initially treated with an amphotericin B formulation for a median duration of 2 weeks. Azole treatment was given for a median of 12 months. TNF-α blocker therapy was initially discontinued in 95 of 98 (96.9%) patients and later resumed in 25 of 74 (33.8%) patients at a median of 12 months (range, 1–69 months). The recurrence rate was 3.2% at a median follow-up period of 32 months. Of the 3 patients with recurrence, 2 had restarted TNF-α blocker therapy, 1 of whom died. Mortality rate was 3.2%. Conclusions. In this study, disease outcomes were generally favorable. Discontinuation of antifungal treatment after clinical response and an appropriate duration of therapy, probably at least 12 months, appears safe if pharmacologic immunosuppression has been held. Resumption of TNF-α blocker therapy also appears safe, assuming that the initial antifungal therapy was administered for 12 months.

β-Lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors (BLBLIs) were compared to carbapenems in two cohorts of hematological neutropenic patients with extended-spectrum-β-lactamase (ESBL) bloodstream infection (BSI): the empirical therapy cohort (174 patients) and the definitive therapy cohort (251 patients). The 30-day case fatality rates and other secondary outcomes were similar in the two therapy groups of the two cohorts and also in the propensity-matched cohorts. BLBLIs might be carbapenem-sparing alternatives for the treatment of BSI due to ESBLs in these patients., We thank the ESGBIS and the ESGICH study groups for supporting the study. This study was supported by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Instituto de Salud Carlos III—cofinanced by European Development Regional Fund “A way to achieve Europe” EDRF, Spanish Network for the Research in Infectious Diseases (REIPI RD12/0015).

Background Invasive fungal infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality among solid organ transplant (SOT) and hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT) recipients, but few data have been reported on the epidemiology of endemic fungal infections in these populations. Methods Fifteen institutions belonging to the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network prospectively enrolled SOT and HCT recipients with histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, or coccidioidomycosis occurring between March 2001 and March 2006. Results A total of 70 patients (64 SOT recipients and 6 HCT recipients) had infection with an endemic mycosis, including 52 with histoplasmosis, 9 with blastomycosis, and 9 with coccidioidomycosis. The 12-month cumulative incidence rate among SOT recipients for histoplasmosis was 0.102%. Occurrence of infection was bimodal; 28 (40%) infections occurred in the first 6 months post transplantation, and 24 (34%) occurred between 2 and 11 years post transplantation. Three patients were documented to have acquired infection from the donor organ. Seven SOT recipients with histoplasmosis and 3 with coccidioidomycosis died (16%); no HCT recipient died. Conclusions This 5-year multicenter prospective surveillance study found that endemic mycoses occur uncommonly in SOT and HCT recipients, and that the period at risk extends for years after transplantation.

Background Invasive candidiasis is the third most common bloodstream infection in the intensive care unit (ICU) and is associated with morbidity and mortality. Prophylaxis and preemptive therapy are attractive strategies for this setting. Methods We conducted a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of caspofungin as antifungal prophylaxis in 222 adults who were in the ICU for at least 3 days, were ventilated, received antibiotics, had a central line, and had 1 additional risk factor (parenteral nutrition, dialysis, surgery, pancreatitis, systemic steroids, or other immunosuppressants). Subjects' (1,3)-β-d-glucan levels were monitored twice weekly. The primary endpoint was the incidence of proven or probable invasive candidiasis by EORTC/MSG criteria in patients who did not have disease at baseline. Patients who had invasive candidiasis were allowed to break the blind and receive preemptive therapy with caspofungin. The preemptive approach analysis included patients all patients who received study drug, including those positive at baseline. Results The incidence of proven/probable invasive candidiasis in the placebo and caspofungin arms was 16.7% (14/84) and 9.8% (10/102), respectively, for prophylaxis (P = .14), and 30.4% (31/102) and 18.8% (22/117), respectively, for the preemptive approach (P = .04); however, this analysis included patients with baseline disease. There were no significant differences in the secondary endpoints of mortality, antifungal use, or length of stay. There were no safety differences. Conclusions Caspofungin was safe and tended to reduce the incidence of invasive candidiasis when used for prophylaxis, but the difference was not statistically significant. A preemptive therapy approach deserves further study. Clinical trials registration NCT00520234.

Background The empiric initial antibiotic regimen (IAR) for treatment of febrile neutropenia (FN) relies on a knowledge of epidemiology and susceptibility patterns of bacterial bloodstream infections (BSI), especially in high-risk patient populations, i.e., those receiving chemotherapy for hematologic malignancies (HM) or undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HCT). As the last US national survey of BSI epidemiology in cancer patients was published in 2003, we sought to update these data focusing exclusively on high-risk patients with attention to IARs used and their concordance with susceptibilities of isolated bloodstream pathogens. Methods A prospective ongoing survey among 14 high-volume US cancer centers submitting clinical and microbiologic data from consecutive HM patients with BSI during first FN after cytotoxic chemotherapy or HCT. Concordance between antibiotic and BSI was determined by investigator (AZ, AF) interpretation of susceptibility reports provided by each center compared with IAR used, for single organism bacteremias only. Results Among 294 FN bacteremic episodes (93 HCT), there were 336 bacterial pathogens (48.5% Gram negative [GN] 46.5% Gram positive [GP] and 6% anaerobes), with 88% monomicrobial episodes. E. coli and viridans group Streptococci (VGS) were the most commonly isolated GN and GP, respectively, each accounting for nearly 25% of total organisms identified. IARs included cefepime 61%, piperacillin–tazobactam 24%, and meropenem 8%. Isolates were nonsusceptible to the IAR in 38/227 (17%) of FN episodes. Antibiotic mismatch was more likely to occur with a non-VGS GP (37%) vs. GN (13%) or VGS (2%) P < 0.001. Conclusion This is the first US national survey of high-risk BSI in FN. Although mismatch between BSI and IAR occurs in 17% of FN bacteremia episodes, this is driven primarily by non-VGS GP isolates such as CoNS and MRSA. Currently used IARs, comprised primarily of cefepime and piperacillin–tazobactam, generally provide reliable coverage for GN isolates across the United States (87%) but careful tracking of this rate is essential to identify further erosion of coverage in the current era of antimicrobial resistance. Disclosures A. Zimmer, Merck: Investigator, Research grant. A. G. Freifeld, Merck: Investigator, Research grant. S. Pergam, Merck: Consultant, Consulting fee; Chimerix: Consultant, Consulting fee. K. V. Rolston, Merck: Investigator, Research grant; JMI Laboratories: Investigator, Research grant; Shionogi (Japan): Investigator, Research grant. S. Shoham, Merck: Investigator and Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee and Grant recipient; Astellas: Investigator, Grant recipient; Shionogi (Japan): Investigator, Grant recipient; Gilead: Investigator, Grant recipient; Shire: Investigator, Grant recipient. T. J. Walsh, Merck: Grant Investigator, Research grant; Atellas: Consultant, Grant Investigator and Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee and Research grant; Gilead: Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee; Allergan: Grant Investigator and Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee and Research grant; Scynexis: Grant Investigator, Research grant; Amplyx: Grant Investigator, Research grant; Shionogi: Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee. J. A. Young, GSK: Investigator, The University of Minnesota is reimbursed for contract costs associated with conducting clinical trials of vaccine. I receive no personal financial benefit.. J. Meza, Merck: Investigator, Research grant. Y. Zhang, Merck: Investigator, Research grant.

Patients with cancer are at increased risk for developing infectious complications during the course of their disease and treatment. The following sections of the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) for Prevention and Treatment of Cancer-Related Infections provide an overview of the risk factors for infectious complications, recommendations for infectious risk categorization, and strategies for prevention of infections in high-risk patient populations with cancer. Individualized risk evaluation for infections and incorporation of preventative measures are essential components of the overall spectrum of cancer care, and may contribute to optimizing treatment outcomes for patients.

These case studies illustrate infections encountered in hospitals among patients with compromised immune systems. As a result of immunocompromise, the patients are vulnerable to common and uncommon infections. These cases are carefully chosen to reflect the most frequently encountered infections in the patient population, with an emphasis on illustrations and lucid presentations to explain state-of-the-art approaches in diagnosis and treatment. Common and uncommon presentations of infections are presented while the rare ones are not emphasized. The cases are written and edited by clinicians and experts in the field. Each of these cases highlights the immune dysfunction that uniquely predisposed the patient to the specific infection, and the cases deal with infections in the cancer patient, infections in the solid organ transplant recipient, infections in the stem cell recipient, infections in patients receiving immunosuppressive drugs, and infections in patients with immunocompromise that is caused by miscellaneous conditions.

This chapter focuses on solid tumors and how they can be treated. Solid tumors, lymphomas, and leukemias represent a widely diverse array of cancers. Until recently, the general approach to treating all of them was to administer cytotoxic anticancer drugs that damage proliferating cells by interfering with mitosis and other essential steps in cellular replication. Localized solid tumors are largely treated by surgical resection and radiotherapy, with cytotoxic chemotherapy being commonly used adjunctively or in cases of metastatic disease. A major drawback of this approach has been the lack of specificity in that cytotoxic drugs will destroy actively dividing normal cells as well as malignant cells. The “shotgun approach” of using intensive cytotoxic chemotherapies has been the mainstay of cancer treatment for at least 6 decades. The chapter concludes that in addition to the tissue damage and immunomodulating effects of anticancer drugs, it should be remembered that cancers themselves may increase the chances for infection.

We describe a new method for the rapid diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection, with stool sample preparation and DNA extraction by heat and physical disruption in a single-use lysis microreactor (LMR), followed by a rapid PCR amplification step. All steps can be accomplished in

Recent reports describe increasing incidence of non-Aspergillus mold infections in hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT) and solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients. To investigate the epidemiology of infections with Mucorales, Fusarium spp., and Scedosporium spp. molds, we analyzed data from the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network, 23 transplant centers that conducted prospective surveillance for invasive fungal infections during 2001–2006. We identified 169 infections (105 Mucorales, 37 Fusarium spp., and 27 Scedosporium spp.) in 169 patients; 124 (73.4%) were in HCT recipients, and 45 (26.6%) were in SOT recipients. The crude 90-day mortality rate was 56.6%. The 12-month mucormycosis cumulative incidence was 0.29% for HCT and 0.07% for SOT. Mucormycosis incidence among HCT recipients varied widely, from 0.08% to 0.69%, with higher incidence in cohorts receiving transplants during 2003 and 2004. Non-Aspergillus mold infections continue to be associated with high mortality rates. The incidence of mucormycosis in HCT recipients increased substantially during the surveillance period.

Post-transplantation histoplasmosis may be acquired via inhalation, may result from endogenous reactivation, or may be derived from the allograft. The Histoplasma and Aspergillus enzyme-linked immunoassays are increasingly being relied upon for rapid diagnosis of fungal infections, especially in immunocompromised patients. We describe 4 cases of solid organ transplant recipients who had histoplasmosis and a falsely positive Aspergillus galactomannan (GM) obtained from the serum or bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. We also report our experience, testing for Histoplasma antigen (Ag) in specimens positive for Aspergillus GM. From January 2007 through December 2010, of 2432 unique patients who had positive Aspergillus GM tests, 514 (21%) were tested for Histoplasma Ag, and 27 were found to be positive. Most specimens that tested positive for both Aspergillus and Histoplasma were obtained by BAL. False-positive tests for Aspergillus GM can occur in immunosuppressed patients who have histoplasmosis, and may obscure the correct diagnosis.

This document updates and expands the initial Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) Fever and Neutropenia Guideline that was published in 1997 and first updated in 2002. It is intended as a guide for the use of antimicrobial agents in managing patients with cancer who experience chemotherapy-induced fever and neutropenia. Recent advances in antimicrobial drug development and technology, clinical trial results, and extensive clinical experience have informed the approaches and recommendations herein. Because the previous iteration of this guideline in 2002, we have a developed a clearer definition of which populations of patients with cancer may benefit most from antibiotic, antifungal, and antiviral prophylaxis. Furthermore, categorizing neutropenic patients as being at high risk or low risk for infection according to presenting signs and symptoms, underlying cancer, type of therapy, and medical comorbidities has become essential to the treatment algorithm. Risk stratification is a recommended starting point for managing patients with fever and neutropenia. In addition, earlier detection of invasive fungal infections has led to debate regarding optimal use of empirical or preemptive antifungal therapy, although algorithms are still evolving. What has not changed is the indication for immediate empirical antibiotic therapy. It remains true that all patients who present with fever and neutropenia should be treated swiftly and broadly with antibiotics to treat both gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens. Finally, we note that all Panel members are from institutions in the United States or Canada; thus, these guidelines were developed in the context of North American practices. Some recommendations may not be as applicable outside of North America, in areas where differences in available antibiotics, in the predominant pathogens, and/or in health care–associated economic conditions exist. Regardless of venue, clinical vigilance and immediate treatment are the universal keys to managing neutropenic patients with fever and/or infection.

Piperacillin-tazobactam (PTZ) is known to cause false-positive results in the Platelia Aspergillus enzyme-linked immunoassay (EIA), due to contamination with galactomannan (GM). We tested 32 lots of PTZ and 27 serum specimens from patients receiving PTZ. GM was not detected in the lots of PTZ; one serum specimen (3.7%) was positive. PTZ formulations commonly used in the United States today appear to be a rare cause for false-positive GM results.

Endemic fungi are geographically restricted to certain areas of the United States where they are typically found in soil. They often cause asymptomatic or self-limited flu-like infections in humans. Occasionally, they cause serious human disease including acute or chronic pneumonias, or bone, skin, or central nervous system disease. Amphotericin B and first-generation triazoles are standard therapy for serious endemic fungal infections. Adverse effects, drug intolerance, and rare refractory infections may limit their use; therefore, experience is increasing using newer triazoles (voriconazole and posaconazole) to potentially circumvent these problems. This article reviews the basic scientific information and clinical experience using triazoles for treating endemic fungal infections.

West Nile virus (WNV), a single-stranded RNA flavivirus, has spread across the United States since arriving in 1999. While asymptomatic or self-limited in a majority of patients, WNV can cause a severe neuroinvasive disease, which occurs more often in transplant recipients with chronic immunosuppression. Diagnosis of acute WNV infection usually relies on serologic identification of immunoglobulin M (IgM) specific for the virus. We report a fatal case of naturally acquired WNV encephalitis in a renal and pancreas transplant recipient who was seronegative for WNV-specific IgM but had detectable WNV RNA by nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) several weeks after the onset of symptoms. This case demonstrates the importance of using both serologic assays and NAAT for WNV in transplant recipients with the clinical suspicion of encephalitis.

Background The incidence and epidemiology of invasive fungal infections (IFIs), a leading cause of death among hematopoeitic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients, are derived mainly from single-institution retrospective studies. Methods The Transplant Associated Infections Surveillance Network, a network of 23 US transplant centers, prospectively enrolled HSCT recipients with proven and probable IFIs occurring between March 2001 and March 2006. We collected denominator data on all HSCTs preformed at each site and clinical, diagnostic, and outcome information for each IFI case. To estimate trends in IFI, we calculated the 12-month cumulative incidence among 9 sequential subcohorts. Results We identified 983 IFIs among 875 HSCT recipients. The median age of the patients was 49 years; 60% were male. Invasive aspergillosis (43%), invasive candidiasis (28%), and zygomycosis (8%) were the most common IFIs. Fifty-nine percent and 61% of IFIs were recognized within 60 days of neutropenia and graft-versus-host disease, respectively. Median onset of candidiasis and aspergillosis after HSCT was 61 days and 99 days, respectively. Within a cohort of 16,200 HSCT recipients who received their first transplants between March 2001 and September 2005 and were followed up through March 2006, we identified 718 IFIs in 639 persons. Twelve-month cumulative incidences, based on the first IFI, were 7.7 cases per 100 transplants for matched unrelated allogeneic, 8.1 cases per 100 transplants for mismatched-related allogeneic, 5.8 cases per 100 transplants for matched-related allogeneic, and 1.2 cases per 100 transplants for autologous HSCT. Conclusions In this national prospective surveillance study of IFIs in HSCT recipients, the cumulative incidence was highest for aspergillosis, followed by candidiasis. Understanding the epidemiologic trends and burden of IFIs may lead to improved management strategies and study design.

The model herein aims to explore the dynamics of the spread of tuberculosis (TB) in an informal settlement or township. The population is divided into households of various sizes and also based on commuting status. The model dynamics distinguishes between three distinct social patterns: the exposure of commuters during travel, random diurnal interaction and familial exposure at night. Following the general SLIR models, the population is further segmented into susceptible (S), exposed/latently infected (L), active/infectious (I), and recovered (R) individuals. During the daytime, commuters travel on public transport, while non-commuters randomly interact in the community to mimic chance encounters with infectious persons. At night, each family interacts and sleeps together in the home. The risk of exposure to TB is based on the proximity, duration, and frequency of encounters with infectious persons. The model is applied to a hypothetical population to explore the effects of different intervention strategies including vaccination, wearing of masks or scarves during the commute, prophylactic treatment of latent infections and more effective case-finding and treatment. The most important findings of the model are: (1) members of larger families are responsible for more disease transmissions than those from smaller families, (2) daily commutes on public transport provide ideal conditions for transmission of the disease, (3) improved diagnosis and treatment has the greatest impact on the spread of the disease, and (4) detecting TB at the first clinic visit, when patients are still smear negative, is key.

A.G. Freifeld, J. Meza, B. Schweitzer, L. Shafer, A.C. Kalil. A.R. Sambol. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus infection in solid organ transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2010: 12: 120–126. All rights reserved Background. Of people infected with mosquito-borne West Nile virus (WNV)

To present current knowledge about the epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of histoplasmosis in solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients.Histoplasmosis is rare in SOT patients, and most cases have been reported from large transplant centers in the Midwestern USA, where the fungus is endemic. Urine antigen testing and the chest computed tomography scan are emerging as especially useful diagnostic tools in the SOT population. Standard treatments include liposomal amphotericin b followed by itraconazole, but newer azoles (voriconazole and posaconazole) have good in-vitro activity and have been successfully used in some SOT cases.Clinical suspicion is essential to early recognition of histoplasmosis in SOT patients who often present with fever of unknown cause and pulmonary symptoms. Diagnosis is usually made by a combinatorial approach, including antigen tests, radiology and appropriate biopsies for culture and histology. Treatment with available antifungals is associated with more than 95% success.

This report describes the first case of cerebral aspergillosis in a heart transplantation patient caused by Aspergillus ustus and reviews 15 previously reported cases of invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised hosts caused by this mold. The utility of molecular analysis for the identification of unusual fungal pathogens is also described. The refractory nature of A. ustus to treatment is similar to other Aspergillus species and treatment options are reviewed.

Differentiating staphylococci in blood cultures is a critical issue, particularly when only one of two cultures is positive by Gram staining for staphylococci. New tests for the identification of Staphylococcus aureus allow faster results and definitive treatment compared to the tube coagulase test interpreted at 24 h (TCT24). These newer tests, peptide nucleic acid fluorescence in situ hybridization (PNA-FISH) and real-time PCR (RT-PCR), offer improved sensitivity at higher cost. Data suggest that the tube coagulase test may be interpreted at 4 h (TCT4) with little loss of sensitivity. The impact of variability in turnaround time, sensitivity, specificity, and cost on comparative cost-effectiveness is unknown. Our aim was to establish the cost-effectiveness of TCT24, PNA-FISH, RT-PCR, and TCT4 for direct identification of staphylococci in blood cultures. Decision analysis comparing these strategies was done from the institutional perspective. Besides test variables, other variables included patient risk factors, empirical treatment, and follow-up cultures. Probability and cost estimates came from the literature and institutional data. Base case estimates were derived from institutional rates of 73% contamination when coagulase-negative staphylococci were identified, 67.6% prevalence of risk factors, and 12.4% prevalence of S. aureus when one of two cultures yielded staphylococci. Sensitivity analysis was done across a range of probabilities and costs. In the base case, TCT4 and TCT24 were more cost-effective than RT-PCR and PNA-FISH ($78 versus $120 versus $165 per patient, respectively). The advantage of TCT4 and TCT24 remained robust upon sensitivity analysis. TCT4 should be further evaluated as a rapid, cost-effective means for identification of S. aureus in blood cultures.

Serious infections are a major obstacle limiting the usefulness of unrelated donor marrow transplantation. Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and its therapy are associated with a high risk of opportunistic infection. In this study, patients were randomized to receive 1 of 2 GVHD prophylaxis strategies, marrow T cell depletion, and cyclosporine (TCD) or methotrexate/cyclosporine (M/C) after transplantation. The patients underwent transplantation between March 1995 and October 2000 as part of a multicenter randomized trial. As a secondary analysis, we analyzed infections in this study cohort. Among the 404 patients who underwent transplantation, a total of 1598 infections were reported. The rates of serious and fatal infections did not differ between the TCD and M/C groups. Bacterial infections accounted for 1/3 of serious infections in each treatment arm. A significantly higher incidence of severe cytomegalovirus (CMV) and life-threatening or fatal aspergillus infections was observed in the patients receiving TCD (CMV, 28% vs 17% [P = .02]; aspergillosis, 16% vs 7% [P < .01]). The only independent risk factor for serious infection was the development of grade III-IV acute GVHD (aGVHD; hazard ratio = 1.41; 95% confidence interval = 1.03-1.91). Strategies to speed immune recovery, even in the absence of GVHD, are needed to overcome the risk of infection after unrelated donor transplantation.

Consistent data for using CMV quantitative PCR (QnPCR) on initial presentation to predict outcomes after solid organ transplantation (SOT) are lacking. Recipients with measurable CMV QnPCR and either CMV-V (asymptomatic viremia) or CMV-D (symptomatic CMV infection) were analyzed over 24 months. Risk factors and outcomes were evaluated in relation to initial QnPCR by regression analysis and time-to-event curves. Twenty-eight recipients were identified: five CMV-V, 23 CMV-D. Patients with CMV-D had a higher median initial QnPCR (230 000 copies/mL) compared with CMV-V (2500 copies/mL; p 10 000 copies/mL compared with 83% of the CMV-D (p = 0.004). The initial QnPCR was higher (250 000 copies/mL) in patients who did not clear CMV PCR than those who cleared (8000 copies/mL) after 14 d of treatment (p = 0.03). Risk factors and indirect CMV effects were not associated with initial QnPCR. Our results highlight the importance of the initial CMV QnPCR in relation to the development of symptomatic CMV and a slower response to therapy. Alternatively, late asymptomatic viremia and recurrent CMV are associated with lower PCR levels and a low likelihood to progress and result in clinical disease.