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Background. The dichotomy between glioblastoma cell migration and proliferation is regulated by various parameters including oxygen tension. In glioblastoma stem-like cells, hypoxia induces downregulation of pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) enzymes and a flux shift towards glycolysis. We investigated whether the 2 parallel glucose metabolic pathways are intrinsically linked with cell function and whether these pathways are mechanistically involved in regulating functional programs. Methods. Enzyme expression, migration, and proliferation under hypoxia were studied in multiple cell types. Rapidly and slowly dividing or migrating glioblastoma cells were separated, and enzyme profiles were compared. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) and Aldolase C (ALDOC), the most strongly inversely regulated PPP and glycolysis enzymes, were knocked down by short hairpin RNA. Results. Hypoxia caused downregulation of PPP enzymes and upregulation of glycolysis enzymes in a broad spectrum of cancer and nonneoplastic cells and consistently stimulated migration while reducing proliferation. PPP enzyme expression was increased in rapidly dividing glioblastoma cells, whereas glycolysis enzymes were decreased. Conversely, glycolysis enzymes were elevated in migrating cells, whereas PPP enzymes were diminished. Knockdown of G6PD reduced glioblastoma cell proliferation, whereas ALDOC knockdown decreased migration. Enzyme inhibitors had similar effects. G6PD knockdown in a highly proliferative but non-invasive glioblastoma cell line resulted in prolonged survival of mice with intracerebral xenografts, whereas ALDOC knockdown shortened survival. In a highly invasive glioblastoma xenograft model, tumor burden was unchanged by either knockdown. Conclusions. Cell function and metabolic state are coupled independently of hypoxia, and glucose metabolic pathways are causatively involved in regulating "go or grow" cellular programs.

Background Aerobic glycolysis confers several advantages to tumor cells, including shunting of metabolites into anabolic pathways. In glioblastoma cells, hypoxia induces a flux shift from the pentose phosphate pathway toward glycolysis and a switch from proliferation to migration. The mechanistic link between glycolysis and migration is poorly understood. Since glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI) is identical to the secreted cytokine autocrine motility factor (AMF), we investigated whether GPI/AMF regulates glioblastoma cell invasion. Methods The expression and hypoxic regulation of GPI/AMF and its receptor AMFR were analyzed in glioblastoma tissue and cell lines. Functional effects were studied in vitro and in xenograft models. Results High GPI/AMF expression in glioblastomas was found to be associated with a worse patient prognosis, and levels were highest in hypoxic pseudopalisades. Hypoxia upregulated both GPI/AMF and AMFR expression as well as GPI/AMF secretion in vitro. GPI/AMF stimulated cell migration in an autocrine fashion, and GPI/AMF expression was upregulated in migratory cells but reduced in rapidly proliferating cells. Knockdown or inhibition of GPI/AMF reduced glioblastoma cell migration but in part stimulated proliferation. In a highly invasive orthotopic glioblastoma model, GPI/AMF knockdown reduced tumor cell invasion but did not prolong survival. In a highly proliferative model, knockdown tumors were even larger and more proliferative than controls; however, perivascular invasion, provoked by simultaneous bevacizumab treatment, was reduced. Conclusions GPI/AMF is a potent motogen for glioblastoma cells, explaining in part the association between glycolysis and migration. Targeting GPI/AMF is, however, problematic, since beneficial anti-invasive effects may be outweighed by unintended mitogenic effects. Key points 1.Increased glycolysis is linked with increased cell migration and invasion in glioblastoma cells. 2.The glycolysis enzyme GPI/AMF may serve as a target for antimetabolic and anti-invasive therapy. 3.Despite reducing tumor invasion, GPI/AMF targeting may have unwanted growth stimulatory effects.