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Educational administration, like many other social sciences, has traditionally followed the rubrics of classical science with its emphasis on prediction and control and attempts to understand the whole by understanding in ever finer detail how the parts fit together. However, the "new" science (especially quantum mechanics, complexity, and chaos theory) has challenged the view that to understand the parts is to understand the whole. Scientists now take into account such phenomena as holism and emergence, self-reference, self-renewal, self-organization, and autonomy. In recent times social scientists have incorporated these understandings from the new science into the social sciences. This paper presents some of the theories of one such social scientist, Niklas Luhmann. The first part applies Luhmann's theory to the field of school administration. The next two parts consider the usefulness of the theory of schools as self-referential systems, first as a framework for research, and second, as a basis for understanding the social reality in which administrators operate. (Contains 45 references.) (LMI)

This paper examines and discusses two professional support and development programs for principals in Australia. Peer-Assisted Leadership (PAL) is a program implemented in Australia in the independent school sector. In 1993, a group of 14 principals from these schools participated in a modified version of PAL, PAL(A). Since then a number of other principals have also participated in this program. Part 1 of the paper offers background information on educational trends in Australia, PAL, PAL(A), and communication and support among participants through a newsletter. Part 2 describes the immediate and longer-term benefits of the program as reported by the first two groups of participants. Discussion of immediate benefits covers observing and being observed, reflexive leadership, and encouragement. A discussion of longer-term benefits covers results of a survey sent to 28 participants and returned by 24. These results are discussed with respect to administrative action, leadership roles, collegial support, and reflections on newsletters and meetings. Part 3 examines other peer-assistance programs being developed in Australia and how they compare with PAL(A), and it looks at current research in this area. An appendix contains study questionnaires. Contains 10 references. (JB)

This paper explores possibilities within a paradigm that is an alternative to the reductionist, mechanistic paradigm of school-based management. The use of a "sporting team" concept (from a dynamic, holistic paradigm) rather than a "ship's crew" model (from a reductionist approach) is advocated. Using research on the governance of independent Australian schools, a prima facie case is developed to show that schools do not become self-managing, autonomous entities merely by the appointment of school councils. When viewed from a dynamic systems paradigm, schools are seen to be by nature self-managing and autonomous. The appointment of a school council enables a school to become self-managing at a qualitatively different, second-order level of functioning. The self-referential processes of a school, such as the stabilizing structures of expectations, are explored to help administrators and decision makers participate in those processes with understanding. (Contains 24 references.) (LMI)

This paper presents a holistic conceptualization of the school as an autonomous system. Two major scientific paradigms, reductionism and holism, are outlined and their impacts on educational administration are discussed. Findings of a study that investigated the participation of the governing bodies of independent schools in the schools' self-renewing processes are presented to illustrate the holistic approach to educational administration. The sample included five independent schools in the Anglican Diocese of Sydney. Results indicate that the governing body participates reflexively as well as directly--an adaptation that allows the school's self-renewing processes to function. However, to place the two paradigms of reductionism and holism in opposition is to create a false dichotomy. Administrators must recognize when it is appropriate to operate within one paradigm or the other. Differences exist in how school heads view their schools--as machines to be maintained or as something with lives of their own. (Contains 16 references.) (LMI)