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Agroecological conditions are crucial for food production and the foundation for food security in Ethiopian subsistence farming. This study examines the food security status and determinants in Hamassa watershed agroecological zones (AEZs). The study collected primary and secondary data from 328 randomly selected household heads and used various analytical tools including the Food Balance Model, t-test, chi-square test, Foster–Greer–Thorbecke Index and binary logit model. The result showed that 54.27% of households were food insecure, with the midland having the highest food insecurity at 68%, followed by lowland and highland at about 57% and 40%, respectively. About 27.7% of households had energy deficiency, and 15.5% were classified as severely food insecure (severity level). Specifically, the midland agroecology showed the highest food insecurity depth and severity due to small land size and population pressure. Results showed that water availability, climate change perception, land size, development agent, sex, education, Tropical livestock units and oxen were positive and significant factors in food security. On the other hand, age, household size, income from crop sales, total land size and social capital negatively and significantly affected food security. The food insecurity status and severity are different for different agroecologies, requiring tailored technical, institutional and policy interventions.

The management of solid waste is crucial for urban areas to prevent the spread of diseases, reduce pollution, enhance cleanliness, promote resource recovery, and create employment opportunities. This study aims to examine the practices and factors related to the management of solid waste among urban households in Addis Ababa City, Ethiopia. A survey was conducted with 200 participants from four districts in two sub-cities. The survey utilized an interview questionnaire. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the multinomial logit regression model. The results indicate that various factors such as gender, age, education, employment status, income, family size, and attitude significantly influence the selection of solid waste disposal methods by households. Gender significantly influences the preference for nearby containers over open spaces when it comes to waste disposal. Females are 7.55 times more inclined than males to choose nearby containers instead of open spaces. Age also plays a substantial role, with respondents aged 46-64 being 604 times more likely to utilize nearby containers. Respondents aged 65 and above are 69 times more likely, while respondents aged 31-45 are three times more likely to use nearby containers. Education level is also a significant factor, as individuals holding college diploma or higher degree are more likely to opt for nearby containers and door-to-door pickers rather than open spaces. Retired individuals are less likely to utilize door-to-door pickers compared to government employees. The decision between nearby containers and open spaces for waste disposal is influenced also by family size. The likelihood of choosing nearby containers decreases by 45% with each unit increase in family size. Attitude also plays a role in the preference for door-to-door pickers over open spaces. The likelihood of using door-to-door pickers increases by 64% for each unit increase in attitude. Individuals with higher incomes are unexpectedly inclined towards using open spaces as a method of waste disposal, possibly due to their increased consumption levels, resulting in higher generation of solid waste in their households. To promote a clean, healthy, and sustainable urban environment, the government needs to formulate and implement solid waste management strategies that effectively consider the specific demographic and socio-economic characteristics of households.

IntroductionThe objective of this study was to analyze how innovations in Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) contribute to improving the food and nutrition security of smallholder households, thereby promoting sustainable food systems.MethodsA cross-sectional household survey was conducted among a multi-stage sample of 424 smallholder farmers drawn from five different agroecosystems. To examine households’ food and nutrition security, we used food consumption score (FCS) and modified household dietary diversity score (HDDS) in propensity score matching (PSM) and endogenous switching regression (ESR) estimation models.ResultsPSM results showed that crop residue management, compost, and agroforestry have a significant effect on improving households’ food and nutrition security by 21.3, 13.6, and 16.6%, respectively, whereas Soil and water conservation (SWC) has reduced adopters’ food security by 12.9%. However, the conditional average treatment effect, or ESR result, reveals that households’ food and nutrition security has improved as a result of the adoption of crop residue management, compost, SWC, and agroforestry.DiscussionAlthough the impact of crop residue management, compost, and agroforestry is positive, the effect of SWC on household food security has been inconclusive. Hence, it is important to upscale the adoption of multiple CSA innovations to improve smallholder household’s food security in the face of climate change.

Abstract Integrated Sustainable Land Management (ISLM) is progressively viewed as a key strategy to boost food security in Ethiopia and feed its growing population. By understanding this logical ground, this paper examines the effect of ISLM technologies adoption on household food security. The study relies on cross-sectional household-level data collected from 414 randomly selected household heads across three districts to analyze this issue. An Endogenous Switching Regression (ESR) model coupled with the Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) technique was applied to analyze the required data. The finding shows that the adoption of ISLM technologies has significantly increased food security. It specifically increases food consumption expenditure in households by ETB (national currency in Ethiopia; as of August 2021, 1 ETB is equal to approximately USD $0.02) 38.3 (27%) when compared to households that do not adopt groups. Similarly, it increases the adopter households’ dietary diversity by 14.5%. Furthermore, it plays a significant role in reducing the food gap period by one and a half months per year and the food insecurity access scale by 46% points in the north Gojjam sub-basin for those who adopted versus those who did not adopt. The policy implication is that the adoption of ISLM technologies can improve rural household food security and may be used as a means of reducing rural poverty. As a result, the adoption of ISLM technologies should have been promoted in the study area and elsewhere by inspiring land users by accessing external agricultural inputs at the right time and place to increase small-scale land productivity.

Abstract Failure in Environmental flow in quantity, timing, and quality leads to failure to support ecosystems, human livelihoods, and well-being. Irrigation water use is one of the main actors in impacting the water flow of rivers in quantity and time but was not well investigated in many ungauged catchments under smallholder irrigation systems. This study examined the impact of irrigation water use on environmental flow in Arata's small ungauged catchment. The study estimated the flow in sub-catchment using the area ratio method, the crop irrigation water requirement using F.A.O. cropwat 8.0, and the water balance in the Water Evaluation and Planning System tool and the environmental flow in Tennants, Q95, asnd local area thumb rule. The result showed that the minimum environmental flow of the Arata catchment is 290, 310, and 60 li/sec in the Tennant, Q95, and the local thumb rule. Irrigation consumes only 9% of the water resources of the catchment while 91% is contributed to downstream lake Ziway via Ketar river. January and February have unmet water demand and zero environmental flow. In December Tennant's 10% and Q95 recommended environmental flow had 19% and 24% deficit while the thumb rule environmental flow is 291% more than the minimum requirement. The rest of the months are by far more than the minimum environmental flow requirement. Given the result, meeting the environmental flow of the system throughout the year needs the installation of a water storage facility from upstream to downstream, the introduction of different water-saving irrigation technologies, farmers' capacity building in irrigation water management, and a standardized environmental flow estimation mechanism.

Economic sustainability is particularly important in agriculture. It is related to the basic economic goal of farmers and the reason for their economic activities. Household-level adaptation and mitigation measures reflect the relative importance of economic goals for sustainability. Researchers collected data via a questionnaire designed to include household demographics, farm-specific variables, inputs, and outputs. The empirical model uses stochastic frontier and technical inefficiency models to analyze economic sustainability. Bered and Teleta were the two most economically sustainable and unsustainable regions. Differences in levels of economic sustainability have been attributed to characteristics that are expected to vary from household to household and from region to region. Output-oriented and input-oriented measures of inefficiency loss show that agriculture can be more economically sustainable as long as it is less efficient. Farmers could expand production with existing inputs, or they could reduce their inputs without lowering production levels. In addition, the return to scale was compared with the growth potential in each region. The political decision makers, therefore, seem to emphasize efforts to improve efficiency instead of investing in new technologies and inputs for the greater economic sustainability of the Koga Irrigation and Watershed Project.

Local farmers' expertise in soil quality and management strategies is essential for preserving the fertility of farmlands and for the collaborative development of strategies to sustain farm productivity. This study aims to investigate farmers' and scientific-based assessment of soil quality in the Choke agroecosystems, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. One hundred twenty-three households were selected purposively from the five agroecosystems (lowland and valley fragmented (AES 1), midland plain dominated by Vertisols (AES 2), midland plain dominated by Nitosols (AES 3), sloppy midland (AES 4), and hilly and mountainous highlands (AES 5)) of the Choke watershed. A total of 20 composited soil samples were taken from 0 to 20 cm soil depth from plots of surveyed farmers. Farmers' perceptions of soil quality are based on visible crop performance, soil-related and biological indicators, and the area's slope. There is some inconsistency in the classification of soil quality across different AES due to variations in soil and crop management practices, as demonstrated by the difference between the perceived high soil quality by farmers in the midland part and the higher nutrient content found in the sloppy and mountainous highlands. The current study disagrees with the result from scientists, where higher content of OM is found in areas where farmers perceive light/ yellowish soil color (AES 4 & 5) and low OM is recorded in the black color of soil (AES 2). Thus, the result suggested that local soil knowledge should be constructed for the site-specific agroecosystem to sustain soil and crop production.

Background: Africa faces diverse and complex population/human health challenges due to climate change. Understanding the health impacts of climate change in Africa in all its complexity is essential for implementing effective strategies and policies to mitigate risks and protect vulnerable populations. This study aimed to outline the major climate change-related health impacts in Africa in the context of economic resilience and to seek solutions and provide strategies to prevent or reduce adverse effects of climate change on human health and well-being in Africa. Methods: For this narrative review, a literature search was conducted in the Web of Science, Scopus, CAB Abstracts, MEDLINE and EMBASE electronic databases. We also searched the reference lists of retrieved articles for additional records as well as reports. We followed a conceptual framework to ensure all aspects of climate change and health impacts in Africa were identified. Results: The average temperatures in all six eco-regions of Africa have risen since the early twentieth century, and heat exposure, extreme events, and sea level rise are projected to disproportionately affect Africa, resulting in a larger burden of health impacts than other continents. Given that climate change already poses substantial challenges to African health and well-being, this will necessitate significant effort, financial investment, and dedication to climate change mitigation and adaptation. This review offers African leaders and decision-makers data-driven and action-oriented strategies that will ensure a more resilient healthcare system and safe, healthy populations—in ways that contribute to economic resiliency. Conclusions: The urgency of climate-health action integrated with sustainable development in Africa cannot be overstated, given the multiple economic gains from reducing current impacts and projected risks of climate change on the continent’s population health and well-being. Climate action must be integrated into Africa’s development plan to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, protect vulnerable populations from the detrimental effects of climate change, and promote economic development.

Purpose – This study aims to examine smallholder farmers’ perceptions toward the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in smallholder farmers in the Upper Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia. Available research focused on profitability and economic constraints alone, disregarding the farmers’ perception of the adoption of CSA innovations. There is relatively little empirical work on farmers’ perceptions of innovations. Hence, a critical research gap that will strengthen CSA innovation research and practice includes understanding farmers’ perceptions about CSA innovations and how these perceptions interact with their adoption. Design/methodology/approach – A cross-sectional household survey was conducted among 424 smallholder farmers selected from five agro-ecosystems. A structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data and a review of literature and documents was used to collect secondary data. The study used a multivariate probit model to examine perception factors affecting the likelihood of adopting multiple CSA innovations. The dependent variables were eight CSA innovations, while the independent variables were crafted from the three pillars of CSA. Findings – Major CSA innovations adopted by farmers include improved variety, crop residue management, crop rotation, compost, row planting, soil and water conservation, intercropping and agroforestry. Farmers’ perception toward CSA innovations includes: CSA innovations sustainably increase productivity and income; enhance soil fertility; diversify livestock feed and energy sources; reduce soil erosion, weed infestation and crop failure; enhance soil organic matter, reduce chemical fertilizer use and rehabilitate land. Farmers’ positive perceptions of the benefits of CSA innovations for increasing crop productivity, reducing agricultural vulnerability to climate change and lowering farm greenhouse gas emissions have boosted adoption. Practical implications – Farmers’ perceptions toward CSA innovations must be enhanced to increase the adoption of CSA innovations in the smallholder agriculture system. The CSA innovation scale-up strategies should focus on farmers’ perception of CSA innovation benefits toward food security, climate change adaption and mitigation outcomes. Awareness of CSA needs the close collaboration of public extension as well as local institutions such as farmers’ training centers. Originality/value – The study adopts a multivariate probit model that models farmers’ simultaneous CSA innovation choices. Hence, this study contributes to the literature in four significant areas. First, it argues for differential treatment of the perception of smallholder farmers about innovations is needed. Second, it recognizes the interdependence of the adoption of innovations. Third, it directly assesses the farmers’ perception, while others use proxies to measure it. Finally, there are limited or no studies that address the perception of innovations within the lens of adopter perception theory.

Adoption of appropriate climate smart innovations is the major step towards enhancing food security, building climate resilience capacity as well as reducing or removing GHG emissions from smallholder farms to sustainably maintain agricultural livelihoods. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the rate, intensity, and determinants of multiple adoptions of climate-smart agriculture innovations among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia's Upper Blue Nile Highlands. All Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) innovations have a synergistic effect on the adoption of other innovations, with the exception of Soil and Water Conservation (SWC). The economic constraint model demonstrated that farm size, number of plots, and access to financial services influence crop residue management, crop rotation, and agroforestry adoption. Hence, a larger number of plots, a larger total farm size, and access to rural savings and credit increase the probability of adoption. The diffusion innovation model, on the other hand, asserted that frequent extension visits, market access, access to information communication, social networks, and strong tenure security have no less of an impact on the adoption of CSA innovations such as improved variety, crop residue management, crop rotation, compost, SWC, and agroforestry. Furthermore, farmers' perceived technology-specific characteristics of CSA innovations increase the likelihood of adoption. Hence, formal education, more awareness about climate change and CSA, and the ability of CSA innovations to reduce the impact of climate change risks such as rising temperatures, increased hailstorms, and increased erratic rainfall have significantly increased the likelihood of adoption. The integrated technology adoption model explains the determinants of adopting multiple CSA innovations simultaneously. Livelihood asset building programs, strong public extension systems via mobile phone, voice messaging, and radio enhance adoption. Policy to identify and scale up a portfolio of farm-level specific CSA innovations is required.

Irrigation water contaminated with industrial waste could pollute the soil and vegetables with heavy metals. The objective of this study was to analyze the concentration of heavy metals in soil and vegetables after irrigation practices with wastewater emanating from industrial parks. 24 samples were collected from 8 sampling stations for vegetable, soil and water samples separately, following APHA procedures. Samples were collected using a composite sampling method in May and June 2021. Water samples were collected using clean polyethylene plastic bottles while soil and vegetables were sampled using clean plastic bags. Analysis was done for heavy metal concentrations such as Pb, Cr, Cd, and Zn for each sample using descriptive statistics of changes in concentrations, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Principal Component Analysis and Pearson Correlation Coefficient. The mean concentration of heavy metals in soil, vegetables, and water samples was analyzed. Unlike the rest of the heavy metal concentrations, the result showed the highest levels for Zn, i.e., 7.82 mg/kg and 5.12 mg/kg for vegetables and soil samples, respectively. The maximum value of the bioconcentration factor (BCF), the highest value of Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), and the maximum Target Cancer Risk (TCR) value recorded were 19.39, 0.001, and 8.09 × 10−5 for Cd, Zn, and Cr, respectively. But, Hazard Index (HI) indicated no potential health effects. On the other hand, the concentration of heavy metals in the soil sample showed that Cr and Cd were strongly positively correlated with the concentration of Pb in vegetables during May. Cd concentration in the water sample was also strongly positively correlated with the concentration of Pb during May. The application of proper management for the reduction of contaminants, and suitable irrigation methods with treated wastewater is essential. The study can provide a basis for the City Administration of Addis Ababa to properly protect the water quality of rivers and provide a reference for river management around the industry parks across the country.

This study examines the impact of two hydropower dam reservoirs, Amerti and Neshe, on the adjacent rural household food insecurity in the Abay Chome district, northwestern Ethiopia. A cross-sectional method was employed to collect data from 485 households (268 affected and 217 non-affected households) following a probability proportional to the size sampling procedure. Households’ food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) and households’ dietary diversity score (HDDS) were used to examine households’ food insecurity status in the study area. The Endogenous Switching Regression model was employed to identify the impact of the dam construction on household food insecurity. The results revealed that the average HDDS and HFIAS in the study area were 5.1 and 10.29, respectively. The study also demonstrated that the affected household’s average HDDS and HFIAS were 4.48 and 10.98, respectively. The study results further revealed that the construction of dams has significantly increased the HFIAS of displaced households by 14.6% while reducing HDDS by 24%. This study found a negative relationship between dam construction and food security, although dam construction is supposed to increase food security by increasing access to water. Thus, we recommend that hydropower reservoirs be effectively designed to reduce the impacts on adjacent communities.

Land degradation, food and tenure insecurity are significant problems in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, particularly in the region known as the country’s famine corridor. Addressing these twine issues in the region has become a focal point for both local and international organizations, underscoring the significance of preventive measures. Since 2000, the Government of Ethiopia (GoE) has been implementing sustainable land management and certification programs. This study aims on households involved in these programs, specifically in Dessie Zuria and Kutaber Woredas, South Wello Zone (SWZ). The primary objectives of the research were to assess households’ current food security status, identify factors influencing their food security, and classify coping and survival strategies employed by households during food shortages. Primary and secondary sources have been used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative data were collected from surveyed households and analyzed USING SPSS software version 26, whereas qualitative data were transcribed, grouped, and interpreted in line with the aim of the research. Three food security models, namely the Household Food Balance Model, Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning, and Household Dietary Diversity Score, were employed to evaluate food security. Consequently, a significant percentage of the surveyed households, amounting to 88.3%, 35.6%, and 93.8%, were found to experience food insecurity according to the respective models. Rainfall shortages and variability, crop pests and diseases, shrinking farm plots, and land degradation are among the identified food security determinants. During dearth periods, households deploy a variety of coping and survival strategies. To mitigate food insecurity stemming from both natural and socio-economic factors, the research suggests several recommendations. These include advocating for tenure policy reforms by the GoE, and the local governments should promote the adoption of efficient land management practices, instituting a land certification system based on cadasters, encouraging family planning, boosting investments in education and literacy, raising awareness and providing training in climate-smart agriculture techniques, educating communities on optimal grain utilization, saving, trade, and storage methods, facilitating opportunities for income generation through off-farm and non-farm activities, and offering support for crop and livestock diversification.

Land is a precious resource in the Ethiopian highlands, where the entire agricultural system depends on rain-fed system. The resource faces multiple interconnected environmental and socioeconomic challenges. Among these, the absence of tenure security has significantly affected farmers’ willingness to adopt soil and water conservation practices (SWCPs), leading to a decline in land productivity, hindering household food security, and contributing to an increase in land-related disputes. Bearing this in mind, the government of Ethiopia (GoE) has undertaken two rounds of land certification programs in selected regions, one of which was Amhara National Regional State (ANRS). This study examined how land certification strengthens tenure security, lowers land-related disputes, motivates farmers to employ SWCPs, and raises the productivity of farm plots in Dessie Zuria and Kutaber Woredas. The research followed an exploratory survey method which utilized both qualitative and quantitative data. The survey involved purposefully selected 401 household heads. Additionally, cross sectional data were collected from various sources, including Woreda and zonal agriculture, court, land, and Natural Resource Management (NRM) offices. Quantitative data were analyzed using frequency tables, percentages, graphs, figures, cross-tabulation, and descriptive statistical methods. Meanwhile, qualitative data were transcribed, grouped, and interpreted in line with the research’s objectives. SPSS software version 26 was used for data analysis. The findings denoted a positive relationship between land certification and tenure security. Furthermore, enhanced tenure security has played a positive role in reducing land-related disputes, initiating farmers to invest in SWC practices and improving the productivity of farm plots. The research suggests the adoption of a cadastral land registration system, the encouragement of community involvement, and the enforcement of laws and bylaws. The research recommend implementation of cadastral land registration system, promote community participation, and enforcement of laws and bylaws. The work has implications for development practitioners, academia and policymakers working on land tenure, SWC practices, and food security.

Understanding the variability of soil quality indicators across topographic positions and agroecosystems (AES) is critical for improving soil fertility, productivity, and environmental sustainability. This study evaluates the variability of soil quality indicators along with the different landscape positions (upper, middle, and lower slopes) among the five AES of the Choke Mountain watershed in the upper Blue Nile Basin. A total of forty soil samples were gathered from Choke Mountain's five AES, upper, middle, and lower landscape positions. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to determine the minimum datasets (MDS) from fourteen soil quality indicators. Using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), the variability of soil quality indices among AES of the Choke, as well as variation with landscape positions, was investigated. The interaction effect of AES and topo-sequence (AES∗topo-sequence) has a substantial effect on three soil quality indicators, including soil silt content, soil pH, and available phosphorus. The highest mean value of silt content was found in the upper position of the hilly and mountainous highlands (AES 5), while the lowest was found in the lower part of the midland plain with black soil (AES 2). The highest mean pH of the soil was found in the lower part of the lowland and valley fragments (AES 1), and the lowest was in the lower position of the midland plain with brown soil (AES 3). The highest record of available P was found in AES 1's middle position and the lowest in AES 3's upper positions. AES had a significant impact on cation exchange capacity (CEC), and both AES and topography had a significant and distinct impact on organic matter (OM). Thus, the study suggests site-specific solutions to improve agricultural productivity and ease the constraints associated with each soil in each topo-sequence and AES.

Over a century, farmers in the Iyanda watershed, have globally recognized and successful Indigenous land management practices (ILMP). However, due to various factors, the sustainable application of these practices has been declined over the last four decades. Despite the description of the problem, the basic factors are not yet utterly analyzed. This study, therefore, aimed to examine the determinants of farmers' multiple-choice, and sustainable use of ILMP, and its impact on crop production in the Iyanda watershed, Southern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. The surveyed data were collected from 411 farmers who were selected via multistage sampling technique. The Multivariate probit, Binary logit and Propensity Score Matching were applied for data analysis. The analysis reveals that farmers' decision to multiple-choice and sustainable use of ILMP is significantly determined by different socio-economic, institutional and farmland-related factors. Similarly, access to information, materials, and government supports had a significant impact on the simultaneous-sustainable use of the management practices. Moreover, the analysis shows that the crop production of sustained users was higher than non-sustained users of ILMP. Finally, it can be concluded that despite its long-lasting and potential advantages, the uses of ILMP had been declined. Thus, the land use managers and decision-makers should give adequate emphasis to ILMP and take into consideration the farmers' socio-economic conditions and plots' characteristics while they [re]design land management and agricultural development programs to sustain ILMP with scaling up its advantages in the study area.

Ethiopian climate-sensitive economy is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate-related extreme events. Thus, examining extreme daily precipitation and temperature in the context of climate change is a critical factor in advocating climate change adaptation at the local scales. Spatial changes of climate indices for extreme precipitation and temperatures were conducted for the period 1986–2016 in three different agroecologies of the Gurage zone, Southern Ethiopia. The study used the Mann–Kendall (MK) test and Sen’s slope estimator to estimate the trend and magnitude of changes in precipitation and temperature. The analysis from the observation indicates that there had been a consistent warming trend and inconsistent changes in precipitation extremes in the study agroecologies. A statistically significant increase in the numbers of warm days and nights and a statistically significant reduction in the numbers of cold days and nights were observed in most of the agroecologies. The duration of extreme trend showed inconsistency; however, a drier condition is observed in lowland agroecology. Therefore, based on the findings of this study, appropriate climate adaptation efforts are needed at the local scale.

Abstract Background Ethiopia is frequently cited as a country that is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. The country’s high vulnerability arises mostly from climate-sensitive agricultural sector that suffers a lot from risks associated with rainfall variability. The vulnerability factors (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of the agricultural livelihoods to climate variability and change differ across agro-ecological systems (AESs). Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze AES-specific vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change in the Fincha’a sub-basin. We surveyed 380 respondents from 4 AESs (highland, midland, wetland, and lowland) randomly selected. Furthermore, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were also performed to supplement and substantiate the quantitative data. Livelihood vulnerability index was employed to analyze the levels of smallholders’ agriculture vulnerability to climate variability and change. Data on socioeconomic and biophysical attribute were collected and combined into the indices and vulnerability score was calculated for each agro-ecological system. Results Considerable variation was observed across the agro-ecological systems in profile, indicator, and the three livelihood vulnerability indices-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change dimensions (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of vulnerability. The lowland AES exhibited higher exposure, low adaptive capacity, and high vulnerability, while the midland AES demonstrated lower exposure, higher adaptive capacity, and lower vulnerability. The wetland and highland AESs scored intermediate results. Conclusion Our results suggest that resilience-building adaptation strategies are vital to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder farmers. The measures taken should consider site-specific agro-ecological system requirements to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder mixed crop-livestock agriculture system. Since the approach based on the long-term realization of the community, any strategy designed based on such assessments is applicable to local condition.

Climate change and variability adversely affect smallholder farmers in developing countries, including Ethiopia. In response, farmers are adopting various adaptation strategies. However, there is a paucity of studies examining whether or not these responses benefit farmers in increasing crop productivity. Cognizant of this fact and its policy importance, this study empirically analyzes the impact of adaptation strategies on crop productivity in northwest Ethiopia. We collected data through household survey questionnaire, focus group discussion and key informant interview. We also analyzed time-series climate data to see how crop yield responds to climate variability. The empirical model employs the endogenous switching regression. Climate information and distance to market are validated as instrumental variables. The model revealed that farmers who adopted adaptation strategies would have gained lower yield if they had not adopted them; and those who did not adopt a strategy would have gained higher yield than if they had. Improved seed, contact with development agents (DAs), urea, compost and rainfall are significantly associated with the likelihood of increasing yield. The results also show systematic difference where age is inversely related with adapters and vice versa for non-adapters. Hence, adaptation interventions should consider these heterogeneities.

Addis Ababa is one of the eleven cities in Africa that have been taking bold action in meeting the objectives of the Paris Agreement. At the present time, the city is working toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enabling the city to be resilient to the impacts of climate change. To make the city carbon neutral and resilient to climate change, the coordination of different sectors and actors is crucial. To this end, the planning and implementation of mitigation and adaptation measures needs effective climate change governance. Thus, this study was intended to explore the effectiveness of climate change governance in Addis Ababa City, Ethiopia. The study followed both quantitative and qualitative research approaches and relied on both primary and secondary data sources. A survey of 232 respondents, who were environment experts at different levels, was conducted using questionnaires. In addition, interviews and observations were conducted to gather relevant data. Secondary data were collected from different sources. The quantitative data were analysed using relative importance index (RII) analysis. The study found that existing environmental policies, strategies, regulations, proclamations, laws, and implementations in the city were facing major challenges in terms of weak accountability, the poor enforcement of regulation, and the failure to involve key actors, especially NGOs, communities, and private sectors; these failures were characterized by weak institutional setup and a lack of formal systems allowing actors (private sectors, communities, and NGOs) to interact to respond to climate change. Hence, climate change governance was ineffective in terms of accountability, participation, law enforcement, equity, institutions, the role of actors, and partnership. Thus, the Addis Ababa City Environmental Protection and Green Development Commission should give more emphasis to the coordination of other actors (NGOs, communities, private sectors, and research institutions) to respond to climate change in the city. In addition, the commission should provide training to the lower layers of experts and mobilise the community for climate change response, particularly in the undertaking of adaptation measures. Furthermore, Addis Ababa City administrators should give due attention to climate change response through an established strong accountability system to enforce regulation, rules, proclamations, laws, policies, and strategies in different sectors.

Abstract Externalities, such as air pollution and increased occupational hazards, resulting from global trends in climate change, rapid industrialization, and rapidly increasing populations are raising global concerns about the associated health risks. The Global Environmental and Occupational Health Hub for Eastern Africa was established to address some of these problems at national and regional levels through focused training and applied research that would yield evidence supporting policies and investments to mitigate risks of increasing environmental threats throughout the Eastern African region. Emphasis has been placed on air pollution, a leading risk factor for global mortality, accounting for over 7 million premature deaths or 8.7% of the 2017 global mortality burden. Despite the enormous disease burden that air pollution causes, global investment in air pollution monitoring and research capacity building in low‐middle and middle‐income countries have been inadequate. This study outlines the activities the Hub has undertaken in planning for and carrying out its initial capacity building and building its primary research programs and identifies central lessons that can inform other large global research partnerships.

Background: Due to its climate-sensitive agricultural system and low adaptive capacity of the subsistence farmers, Ethiopia is cited among the countries experiencing frequent drought and highly vulnerable to climate change associated impacts. Micro level vulnerability assessment, in the context of a changing climate, has a paramount significance in designing policies addressing climate change induced effects. Assessing vulnerability to climate change is important for defining the risks posed by the change and it provides a starting point for the determination of effective means of promoting remedial actions to minimize impacts by supporting coping strategies and facilitating adaptation options targeted at specific context. Methods: We employed cross-sectional survey research design has to examine the extent of livelihood vulnerability of 384 randomly selected smallholder farmers from three agroecologies which was supplemented by interviews. Livelihood vulnerability index, using integrated indicator approaches and principal component analysis, has been used. Chi-square test, F-test and t-test were used to examine association and mean differences among three agroecologies and between cropping types in terms of different attributes. Findings: Overall, smallholder farmers living in kolla agroecology were found to be the most vulnerable to climate change induced hazards followed by dega. In terms of type of cropping season, belg dominated areas were relatively more vulnerable than those residing in meher dominated areas. Different biophysical and socio-economic attributes contributed their own role both for exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity differences among smallholder farmers farming in different agroecologies and different types of cropping seasons. Conclusion: We recommend that interventions undertaken to lessen the impact of climate change should be targeted to the factors which contribute to high extent of sensitivity and for those which could enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers. Specifically, we suggest that resilience-building adaptation interventions like expansion of small-scale irrigation, accessing of microfinance service, early warning and timely information, extension support, non-farm sources of income, training and skill development, expansion of infrastructure have to be promoted thereby increase the adaptive capacity of subsistence rainfed-dependent farmers to withstand the vagaries of the climate variability risk. Moreover, disparities in the same agroecology have to be addressed properly in livelihood vulnerability discourse.

Rain-fed dependent farmers in Ethiopia are highly affected by changing climate situations. Thus, this study examines farmers’ perception of climatic change, related risks, and adaptation practices that farmers have adopted to address the adverse pressures on livelihoods and resources in different agro-ecological communities of Gurage zone, Southern Ethiopia. A research approach involving both quantitative and qualitative methods was used. 357 household surveys were conducted with representative households. Statistical differences in selecting adaptation strategies between the agro-ecological communities were measured by employing a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). A Post-Hoc analysis was also performed to identify the location of the variance. The study revealed, the majority of the respondents interviewed in different agro-ecological communities had perceived declining precipitation and increased temperature. Similarly, respondents reported that the frequency of extreme events like drought, flood, frost, and storm had increased. A significant difference was found between agro-ecological communities in farm management practices. A Tukey post hoc test revealed that farm management practices were mostly practiced by the lowland and highland (p

Agricultural land is an indispensable resource for agrarian communities worldwide. There is a growing awareness that the world’s arable land supplies are limited and finite. For the last five decades, the Government of Ethiopia (GoE) and other development organisations have carried out land preservation uptakes intended to curb the effects of land degradation and improve agricultural productivity through various soil and water conservation practices (SWCPs). The study assessed the sustainability, drivers, and constraints of SWCPs in Dessie Zuria and Kutaber Woredas of South Wollo. We used the exploratory case study approach, involving qualitative and quantitative methods. Catastrophic weather conditions, the presence of the soil and water conservation program, and declining soil fertility were the top drivers influencing the program’s implementation. Based on the identified farm-level indicators and views of the respondents, physical measures were more sustainable than biological and mixed methods. The prominent factors hurdling the intervention were lack of tenure security, risk of rodent infestation, and losing a sense of ownership. Training community members on the importance of land preservation, amending the existing rigid land tenure policy, incorporating indigenous SWCPs, broadening the scale and extent of community participation, and enforcing laws and bylaws are recommended for the upcoming interventions. The finding has implications for land preservation and food security actors working to scale up evidence-based sustainable land management practices to the broader area.

Analysis of climate variability and trends frequently takes place at large scale. For agricultural applications, however, highly localized climate conditions can be critically important. This certainly applies to tropical highland regions, where dissected topography and convectively dominated precipitation processes can lead to strong variability in both mean climate conditions and year-to-year climate variability. This study examines recent climate variability and trends (1981–2016) on Choke Mountain, located in the western Ethiopian Highlands. Through analysis of precipitation and temperature records at monitored locations, we explore observed variability in climate patterns and trends across sites and seasons. The lens for our spatial analysis is the agroecosystem (AES), defined on the basis of prevailing climate and cropping systems, which currently serve as the foundation for climate adaptation planning in the region. We find that interannual temperature variability is greatest in the hottest, driest AES, and is most pronounced in the dry season. All AES warmed significantly in all seasons over the analysis period, but the magnitude of trend was greatest in high elevation AES. Precipitation variability was also large across AES, with largest interannual variability found in the dry season. This season is frequently excluded in climate analyses, but it is a critical harvest time and irrigation period. Trends in rainfall anomaly and precipitation concentration index are less clear, but there is a tendency towards drying and increasing irregularity of rainfall. Interestingly, we find little association between the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and temperature or precipitation variability at our study sites. This suggests that even though ENSO is a widely recognized driver of large-scale rainfall variability in the region, its impacts are highly spatially variable. This has implications for applying ENSO-based precipitation outlooks to agricultural management decisions. Farmer interviews reveal that local perceptions of climate variability and trends are generally consistent with the objective observations.

In response to global food price volatility and trends toward increased global food demand, Ethiopian policy makers were forced to adopt strategies such as restricting food exports in order to protect domestic food security. However, these policies can have a disproportionate regional impact on domestic markets and can result in lost revenue from exports. For this reason, they have been criticized as inefficient from the perspective of economic development. Here, we examine the sub-national dynamics of a ban on food exports. We do this for the case of Ethiopia's ban on exports of teff, a staple grain in the country that has increasing global demand. We assess the impact of the ban and of proposed policies to relax the ban, across regions within the country and for various market actors along the teff value chain. Using a partial-equilibrium model developed with a detailed modeling of the agro-economic features of the country, we analyze the direct impacts on export revenue, producers' profits, transport patterns, and consumption across the disaggregated regions in Ethiopia due to changes to its teff export policy. In particular, we show that the immediate benefit due to significant increase in international revenue due to large teff export would be enjoyed primarily by food distributors and storage operators while the crop producers' profits increase only negligibly. Simulations also indicate that lifting the export ban would be expected to have significant impacts on domestic transportation of teff between regions (for example from Mekelle to Werder), and to reduce consumption of teff significantly in some regions (for example, Semera, Jijiga), an effect due to the lack of competition in the transportation sector. The granularity of the model helps us capture the possibility of such lopsided benefits which were not captured in earlier studies.

Abstract Background Crop productivity in the highlands of Ethiopia is critically challenged by land degradation and climate change and variability. Massive plantations and several kilometers of soil and water conservation technologies have been practiced in response to those challenges. Yet land degradation and the level of sustainability of the technologies have continued to be critical challenges. Thus, the objective of this research was to examine the sustainability, challenges and future prospect of climate smart community-based soil and water conservation practices. Data were collected using household survey, key informant interview and focus group discussion. Analytic hierarchy process for multi-criteria decision making was used to analyze the sustainability of community-based climate smart practices. Results The finding revealed that the overall score of the sustainability dimensions was about 67.5%, which lies in the zone of “sustained but at risk.” The institutional arrangement has limitations in that farmers were involved in implementation phase while there is little room in planning, monitoring and evaluation phases. The major challenges of the soil and water conservation practices were: destruction of the communal forests and structures for personal benefits, overlapping work calendar with irrigation and off-farm works and structures wasted farmland. Conclusions The success of the structures from the perspective of officials is expressed in terms of the numbers of kilometers constructed and community participation. However, it overlooks how it reduces the problem of land degradation and challenge of climate change and variability. Thus, in order to sustain the structures, direct participation of farmers at all stages of the work is encouraged. The sustainability of structures can also be partly ensured if it generates benefit to the local community.

Examining the spatiotemporal dynamics of meteorological variables in the context of changing climate, particularly in countries where rainfed agriculture is predominant, is vital to assess climate-induced changes and suggest feasible adaptation strategies. To that end, trend analysis has been employed to inspect the change of rainfall and temperature in northcentral Ethiopia using gridded monthly precipitation data obtained from Global Precipitation and Climate Centre (GPCC V7) and temperature data from Climate Research Unit (CRU TS 3.23) with 0.5° by 0.5° resolution from 1901 to 2014. Data have been analyzed using coefficient of variation, anomaly index, precipitation concentration index and Palmer drought severity index. Furthermore, Mann-Kendall test was used to detect the time series trend. The result revealed intra- and inter-annual variability of rainfall while Palmer drought severity index value proved the increasing trend of the number of drought years. Annual, belg and kiremt rainfall have decreased with a rate of 15.03, 1.93 and 13.12 mm per decade respectively. The declining trend for annual and kiremt rainfall was found to be statistically significant while that of belg was not significant. The rate of change of temperature was found to be 0.046, 0.067 and 0.026 °C per decade for mean, minimum and maximum respectively. The Mann-Kendall trend analysis test result revealed increasing trend for mean and minimum average temperatures through time significantly while the trend for maximum temperature exhibited a non-significant increasing trend. We recommend strategies designed in the agricultural sector have to take the declining and erratic nature of rainfall and increasing trend of temperature into consideration. Keywords: Trend analysis, Mann-Kendall test, Climate variability, Rainfall, Temperature, Ethiopia

Abstract Introduction The purpose of this study is to evaluate the associated impact of adoption of adaptation options to climate change and variability on household food security in the Muger sub-basin of the upper Blue-Nile of Ethiopia using a comprehensive data of 442 sampled households from four representative districts’ in the sub-basin. The study used a propensity score matching approach to evaluate the impact of adaptation options on household food security. Results Results show that the decision to adopt adaptation options is found to be positively influenced by male household heads, family size, access to extension service, the size of landholding, and frequency of drought and floods over the past many years. The results further reveal that farmers adopting any of the adaptation options had higher food calorie intake per day per adult equivalent than those who did not. Conclusions A policy that promotes the adoption of soil and water conservation measures, small-scale irrigation, agronomic practices, and livelihood diversification strategies should be central to food security strategy in the study area.

Abstract Introduction This study is aimed at analyzing farmers’ perception and adaptation to climate change in the Dabus watershed. It is based on analysis of data collected from 734 randomly selected farm householdheads substantiated with Focus Group Discussions and field observations. Methods The study employed descriptive methods to assess farmers’ perception of climate change, localindicators of climate change and types of adaptation measures exercised to cop up with the risk of the change in climate. The study also employed the Heckman sample selection model to analyze the two-stepprocess of adaptation to climate change which initially requires farmers’ perception that climate is changingprior to responding to the changes through adaptation measures. Results Based on the model result educational attainment, the age of the head of the household, thenumber of crop failures in the past, changes in temperature and precipitation significantly influencedfarmers’ perception of climate change in wet lowland parts of the study area. In dry lowland condition,farming experience, climate information, duration of food shortage, and the number of crop failuresexperienced determined farmers’ perception of climate change. Farmers’ adaptation decision in both the wet and dry lowland conditions is influenced by household size, the gender of household head, cultivatedland size, education, farm experience, non-farm income, income from livestock, climate information, extension advice, farm-home distance and number of parcels. However, the direction of influence and significance level of most of the explanatory variables vary between the two parts of the study area. Conclusions In line with the results, any intervention that promotes the use of adaptation measures toclimate change may account for location-specific factors that determine farmers' perception of climate change and adaptive responses thereof.

Northern Ethiopia is characterised by fragile mountain eco-systems that are highly susceptible to land degradation, impacting food security and livelihoods. This study appraises Land Use Land Cover Changes (LULCC) and their determinants from 2000 to 2020 in Dessie Zuria and Kutaber Woredas. It explores the LULCC and the key anthropogenic drivers of the change over the past 20 years through a mix of satellite imagery and a survey of local understandings. Six land use types (agriculture, forest, area closure, grazing, settlement and bare land) were mapped from satellite imagery that was acquired from Landsat 7 for the years 2000, 2005, and 2010, and Landsat 8 and OLI multispectral imageries for the years 2015 and 2020 with a spectral resolution of 30-m obtained from USGS. The results showed that agricultural land increased from 29.68% in 2000 to 35.77% in 2020.Furthermore, settlement and grazing lands enlarged from 5.95% and 6.04%, respectively, to 8.31% and 6.35% during the same period, while bare land increased from 9.89% to 10.92% in 2020. On the contrary, forest and area closure decreased from 18.45% and 29.99% to 17.8% and 17.38%, respectively. Meanwhile, population growth, unrestricted grazing, losing a sense of ownership of protected area closures and forests, lack of cooperation, using the free labour mobilisation schemes for government-induced agendas, weak enforcement of laws and bylaws, and engaging farmers for extended days on the campaign were prominent determinants of the changes. This research has implications for development actors across land management and food security towards implementing sustainable land management in the area and beyond.

Abstract Smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt adaptation options in response to climate change and variability are influenced by socioeconomic, institutional, and environmental factors, indicating that decision patterns can be very specific to a given locality. The prime objective of this research is to identify factors affecting smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt adaptation options to climate change and variability in the Muger River sub-basin of the Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, focused group discussions, and key informant interviews from 442 sampled households. Frequency, mean, Chi-square test, and one-way ANOVA were used for analysis. Furthermore, a multinomial logit model was employed to analyze the data. Results signified that small-scale irrigation, agronomic practices, livelihood diversification, and soil and water conservation measures are the dominant adaptation options that smallholder farmers used to limit the negative impact of climate change and variability in the study area. The results further revealed that adoption of small-scale irrigation as an adaptation to climate change and variability is significantly and positively influenced by access to credit, social capital, and the educational status of household heads. Greater distance to marketplace and size of farmland negatively affected the use of agronomic practices, whereas crop failure experience and access to early warning systems have a positive influence. The results also point out that adoption of soil and water conservation measures are positively affected by exposure to early warning systems, greater distance to the marketplace, and larger size of cultivated land. It is also noted that livelihood diversification is negatively influenced by socioeconomic factors such as education, the gender of the household head, and livestock ownership. Overall, the results suggested that improved policies aimed at increasing the adoption of adaptation options to offset the impact of climate change and variability should focus on: creating effective microfinance institutions and effective early warning systems, increasing farmer awareness, improving infrastructure, and encouraging farmers’ membership to many social groups. The results further suggested that agroecological and gender-based research should be promoted and increased for a more holistic understanding of farmer adaptation options.

Abstract Smallholder farmers can adapt to climate variability and change through sustainable land management (SLM) practices that help to offset the negative impacts at farm level. However, use of these practices as adaptation strategy remains low in Ethiopia in general and the study sites in particular. This study aimed at examining the factors that determine farmers’ decision to use SLM measures and to quantify the impact of the practices on crop productivity at household and plot level. The study was based on household- and plot-level primary data and employed nearest-neighbor matching technique to quantify the impact of using the practices on value of production at household level and plot level. The results revealed that households that implemented SLM practices within the period (2004–2009) experienced a 24.1% higher value of production over non-users in 2016. Similarly, plots that received SLM measures within the period (2004–2009) experienced a 28.6% increase in value of production in 2016. The study also made further analysis at plot level using continuous treatment effects in order to take into account the number of years a plot has been under the practice. The result showed plots with SLM structure that are maintained for at least 6 years have a positive increase in value of production at the end of the 6th year, while those that received the practices recently or those that lacked continuous maintenance did not experience a statistically significant increase in value of production. The result also showed marginal benefit of sustaining the SLM practices increases over time at an increasing rate. The implication is that use of SLM measures and maintenance of the structures are crucial to reap significant benefits from the practices. Although value of production increases given the SLM practices, implementation is labor intensive and there is trade-off with other agricultural activities. Therefore, policy measures are required to incentivize implementation and maintenance of the SLM structures.

Agriculture must raise productivity while addressing climate change in order to ensure the food security of a growing population. Adding fossil fuel energy to the agricultural system can increase productivity through the use of manufactured fertilizer but creates greenhouse gas emissions. This study quantifies an alternative in which energy is added to the agricultural system through a substitution of solar energy for fossil fuel energy by the tree species Faidherbia albida. This substitution can be quantified as an avoided emission of greenhouse gas, a climate benefit. F. albida trees have unusual phenology, leafing out during the dry season and shedding leaves in the rainy season. In agroforestry systems, F. albida adds nutrients and organic matter to the soil through leaf drop, and these are beneficial to the crop growing under the tree canopy. Dormant during the cropping season, they do not compete for light, water or nutrients, and contribute nitrogen to the soil under their canopy. This nitrogen benefit is analyzed in relation to an equivalent quantity of urea fertilizer. This is a substitution of solar energy that the trees use to obtain nitrogen from the atmosphere, for the fossil fuels used in the manufacture and transport of urea fertilizer. This energy contribution by the tree, within the food energy and water system, enhances the food production, and resilience of the system, as soil organic matter increases available water for the plants. This energy contribution to the Ethiopian farming system is estimated as 3.48 GJ ha−1 year−1, based on the nitrogen contribution. Greenhouse gas emissions are avoided by the substitution of solar energy for fossil fuel energy, a climate change mitigation benefit estimated as 0.116 tons CO2 ha−1 year−1. This mitigation is fundamentally different from sequestration of carbon in biomass or soil organic matter. It is a permanently avoided emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, associated with a particular cropping year, and is not reversible, unlike carbon stored in biomass or soil organic matter that could return to the atmosphere. The potential extent of F. albida agroforestry is substantial and its potential climate change mitigation benefits are great.

Introduction: Climate change and related extreme events are negatively affecting agricultural production where millions of smallholder farmers depend up on it. Ethiopian rain-fed agriculture system is becoming more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Identification of difference in the level of vulnerability of a system is important in selecting appropriate and effective adaption options to climate change. Thus, this study examined the vulnerability of farm household's livelihood to climate variability and change in different agroecological zones of Gurage Zone using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and Livelihood Vulnerability Index–Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (LVI–IPCC) methods. Data were collected from a representative of 357 sample households across three agroecological zones using a mixture of participatory methods. Results: Results suggested that although there was difference in components relative value across agroecological zones, the overall LVI indicate that Sodo woreda (District) which is found in the lowland agroecological zone was more vulnerable to climate variability and change. This study found that vulnerability differences were attributable to variations in household characteristics, lack of access to infrastructure, low level of livelihood diversification, and lack of available technologies. Conclusions: Therefore, this study calls for stakeholders to prepare context-specific intervention to reduce smallholder farmer's vulnerability to climate variability and change and strengthen the adaptive capacity of farm households. Keywords: Vulnerability Index, Agroecological zones, Gurage Zone

Agro-ecosystems are ecological systems modified by human beings to produce food, fiber or other agricultural products. It is an intersection of a set of agriculturally relevant climatic factors; soils and physiographic variables relevant to crop production; and a prevailing set of cropping practices. The biophysical diversity and associated socioeconomic condition of the community necessitate multiple strategies for augmented the resilience and adaptation to climate change. The objective here is to support site-specific and climate resilient development activities in a changing environment. Hence, the pattern, productivity, and sustainability analysis of the agro-ecosystems found within the sub-basin analyzed. Primarily, agro-ecosystem analysis conducted in collaboration with experts, development agents, and local communities; and four distinct agro-ecosystems (Highland, Midland, Wetland, and Lowland) identified. Then, the identified agro-ecosystems examined in light of their potential for agricultural production and the challenge presented by climate change. The diverse agro-ecosystem offers the potential for the production of equally varied diversified agricultural products with a notable demarcation in terms of production orientation and socioeconomic uniqueness of the community among the agro-ecosystems. This feature provides an opportunity in addressing the adaptive capacity and resilient development options to climate variability and change based on specific requirement of each agro-ecosystem.

Surface incoming shortwave (solar) radiation data are an important component of many scientific analyses, but direct measurements are not commonly available. Estimates can be obtained from gridded meteorological analysis or reanalysis systems, such as the Global Data Assimilation Systems (GDAS) and Modern Era Retrospective Reanalysis System (MERRA-2), or calculated using empirical models dependent on meteorological variables such as air temperature. The purpose of this analysis was to compare multiple methods for estimating daily shortwave radiation in a tropical highland environment in Ethiopia. Direct solar radiation outputs of GDAS and MERRA-2, topographically corrected outputs of the two analysis systems, and empirically estimated solar radiation values calculated with the systems' air temperature data were compared to see which produced the most reliable radiation values. GDAS appeared to underestimate the seasonal variability, resulting in low correlation (R2) with in situ data and large mean bias error (MBE). In comparison, MERRA-2 did not underestimate variability, but produced larger bias than the empirical model estimates. There was an improvement in correlation and reduction in MBE when using the GDAS air temperature predictions in the empirical model, but the opposite was true for MERRA-2. The empirical model using station air temperature data (stationT) produced the highest correlation across all four stations, with best performance at the lower elevation sites. The direct shortwave radiation outputs of MERRA-2 produced comparable correlation values, with larger R2 at stations at higher elevation. Topography possibly influenced these results, as MERRA-2 performed comparably to stationT at the stations in moderate terrain, but not in steeper terrain. This work can serve as a starting point for analyses in other tropical highland regions, where continuous in situ solar radiation data are rarely available.

This study examined smallholder farmers’ perception about climate change and variability compared with the observed metrological data and their adaptation strategies in response to the perceived impacts of climate change. The multistage sampling method was employed to select 358 rural farmers in Hawzen and Irob districts located in semiarid highlands of Eastern Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Moreover, areal gridded surface monthly rainfall and temperature data between 1983 and 2015 were collected from National Meteorology Agency of Ethiopia. The results revealed that about 98.56 and 92 percent of farmers perceived a decrease in annual rainfall. In addition, 87 and 90 percent of farmers noticed that temperature was increased in Hawzen and Irob districts, respectively. Harmoniously, the modified Mann–Kendall trend test confirmed that annual rainfall was decreased by 32.38 mm and 121.33 mm during the period of analysis. Furthermore, mean annual temperature increased statistically significant (p

Index-based livestock insurance has been introduced in Borena zone of southern Ethiopia by the International Livestock Research Institute working in partnership with Oromia Insurance Company and humanitarian agencies since 2012 as an instrument to help protect pastoralists’ herders against drought related mortality of livestock. Despite the some positive success to the concerted efforts, the continued adoption of index-based livestock insurance by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists has been limited. The current study highlighted the status, and determinants of index-based livestock insurance to managing risks resulted from the changing climate in the study area. The study used household surveys from 359 sampled households, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions to collect the data. Descriptive statistics (i.e. frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation), inferential tests (Chi-square test and t-test), and binary logit model were used to analyze the collected data. The results of the current study evidenced that the adoption of indexed insurance is below expectation. The results further indicated that several factors appeared to affect demand for index-based livestock insurance. Those households in a farming system with moisture stress, those who perceived climate risks, those who aware the insurance, who are better educated, who have access to credit and off-farm activity are more likely to adopt the index-based livestock insurance. Furthermore, households who have a membership to a large number of social organizations are more likely to purchase the insurance. However, households who are far from the weather station and old aged households are less likely to purchase index-based livestock insurance. Adaptation pathways to support the uptake of index-based livestock insurance must take in to account these critical factors influencing household’s decision to adopt the insurance scheme. It is also imperative to integrate the insurance into indigenous institutions and link it with the local development process.

The Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia are a densely populated, predominantly rural region dominated by smallholder crop-livestock mixed farming systems. Population growth, coupled with low productivity, have long posed a threat to natural forest ecosystems in the region, as trees have been removed for fuelwood and to clear area for grazing or crop production. In recent years, however, there has been a trend to replace cropland with eucalyptus plantations. This change has major implications for the hydrology, soils, and agricultural economy of the region. This study examines changes in tree cover for a highland area at the center of the Blue Nile Highlands. Landsat imagery from 1986 to 2017 is applied to characterize changing tree cover patterns over space and time. We find that total tree cover in this highland region has shifted dramatically over the past 30 years. Between 1987 and 1999 there was dramatic loss of tree cover, particularly in areas of natural vegetation at high and low elevation. This period coincided with the fall of the Derg government and the transition to the current political system. In the period since 1999 there has been an increase in tree cover, with rapid gains in recent years. This increase has taken two distinct forms: regrowth in previously forested areas, due in part to active conservation measures, and the establishment of eucalyptus plantations in mid-elevation zones. The ecological and economic implications of these two types of tree cover—protected forest vs. woodlot plantations—are quite distinct, with plantation forestry providing biomass energy at a cost to food production and water resources. Mapping cropland conversion to eucalyptus in recent years makes it possible to quantify the net impacts that this trend has had on local production of energy and food, and to estimate implications for water consumption. Effective monitoring of these changes is important for the ongoing development and implementation of effective land use policy in the region.

The study aims to analyze climate variability and farmers’ perception in Southern Ethiopia. Gridded annual temperature and precipitation data were obtained from the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) of Ethiopia for the period between 1983 and 2014. Using a multistage sampling technique, 403 farm households were surveyed to substantiate farmers’ perceptions about climate variability and change. The study applied a nonparametric Sen’s slope estimator and Mann–Kendall’s trend tests to detect the magnitude and statistical significance of climate variability and binary logit regression model to find factors influencing farm households’ perceptions about climate variability over three agroecological zones (AEZs). The trend analysis reveals that positive trends were observed in the annual maximum temperature, 0.02°C/year (p

The headwaters of the Blue Nile River in Ethiopia contain fragile mountain ecosystems and are highly susceptible to land degradation that impacts water quality and flow dynamics in a major transboundary river system. This study evaluates the status of land use/cover (LULC) change and key drivers of change over the past 31 years through a combination of satellite remote sensing and surveying of the local understanding of LULC patterns and drivers. Seven major LULC types (forest land, plantation forest, grazing land, agriculture land, bush and shrub land, bare land, and water bodies) from Landsat images of 1986, 1994, 2007, and 2017 were mapped. Agriculture and plantation forest land use/cover types increased by 21.4% and 368.8%, respectively, while other land use/cover types showed a decreasing trend: water body by 50.0%, bare land by 7.9%, grassland by 41.7%, forest by 28.9%, and bush and shrubland by 38.4%. Overall, 34.6% of the landscape experienced at least one LULC transition over the past 31 years, with 15.3% representing the net change and 19.3% representing the swap change. The percentage change in plantation forest land increased with an increasing altitude and slope gradient during the study period. The mapped LULC changes are consistent with the pressures reported by local residents. They are also consistent with root causes that include population growth, land tenure and common property rights, persistent poverty, weak enforcement of rules and low levels of extension services, a lack of public awareness, and poor infrastructure. Hence, the drivers for LULC should be controlled, and sustainable resources use is required; otherwise, these resources will soon be lost and will no longer be able to play their role in socioeconomic development and environmental sustainability.

The impacts of climate change and climate variability on human life have led the scientific community to monitor the behavior of weather and climate variables at different spatial and temporal scales. This paper explores seasonal and annual trends of rainfall in the Lake Tana basin (LTB) and their teleconnections with global sea surface temperatures (SSTs) over the period between 1979 and 2015. The nonparametric Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimate are applied to the rainfall data collected from the National Meteorology Agency (NMA) of Ethiopia for detecting and estimating rainfall trends. Additionally, Pearson’s correlation coefficient method is used to determine the effect of SST variations on rainfall. The assessment of rainfall trends indicates that the amount of annual rainfall in the Lake Tana basin is increasing, but the rate of increase is not statistically significant. Seasonal analysis reveals that the smallest amount of rainfall occurs in the Bega season, and this season is getting drier with time. However, the analysis indicates that the other two seasons (Belg and Kiremt) are becoming wetter. The rainfall in Kiremt is increasing significantly (significant at the p=0.05 level) in Debre Tabor station with a rate of 10.20 mm/year. Besides, 78.1% of the total annual rainfall in the basin occurs during this rainy (Kiremt) season, whereas Bega and Belg contribute some 9.4% and 12.5%, respectively. Furthermore, the correlation analysis of rainfall and SSTs indicates that rainfall of the LTB is highly affected by the variations of SSTs.

The study aims to assess trends in extremes of surface temperature and precipitation through the application of the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) on datasets representing three agroecological zones in Southern Ethiopia. The indices are applied to daily temperature and precipitation data. Nonparametric Sen’s slope estimator and Mann–Kendall’s trend tests are used to detect the magnitude and statistical significance of changes in extreme climate, respectively. All agroecological zones (AEZs) have experienced both positive and negative trends of change in temperature extremes. Over three decades, warmest days, warmest nights, and coldest nights have shown significantly increasing trends except in the midland AEZ where warmest days decreased by 0.017°C/year (p

Generating land capability class guidelines at a watershed scale has become a priority in sustainable agricultural land use. This study analyzed the area of cultivated land use situated on the non-arable land-capability class in the Jema watershed in the Upper Blue Nile River Basin. Soil surveys, meteorological ground observations, a digital elevation model (DEM) at 30 m, Meteosat at 10 km × 10 km and Landsat at 30 m were used to generate the sample soil texture class, average annual total rainfall (ATRF in mm), terrain, slope (%), elevation (m a.s.l) and land-use land cover (%). The land capability class was analyzed by considering raster layers of terrain, the average ATRF and soil texture. Geo-statistics was employed to fit a surface of soil texture and average ATRF estimates. An overlay technique was used to compute the proportion of cultivated land placed on non-arable land. As per the results of the terrain analysis, the elevation (m a.s.l) of the watershed is in the range of 1895 to 3518 m. The slope was found to be in the range of 0 to 45%. The amount of estimated rainfall ranged from 1640 to 131 mm with value declined from the lower to the higher elevation. Clay loam, clay and heavy clay were found to be the major soil texture classes. Four land capability classes, i.e., II, III, IV (arable) and V (non-arable), were identified with proportions of 28.56%, 45.74%, 22.16% and 3.54%, respectively. Seven land-use land covers were identified, i.e., annual crop land, grazing land, bush land, bare land, settlement land, forestland and water bodies, with proportions of 42.1, 35.9, 8.90, 8.3, 2.6, 2.1, and 0.2, respectively. Around 1707.7 ha of land in the watershed is categorized under non-arable land that cannot be used for annual crop cultivation at any level of intensity. Around 437 ha (3.5%) of land was cultivated on non-arable land. To conclude, the observed unsustainable crop land use could maximize soil loss in upstream regions and siltation and flooding downstream. The annual crop land use that was observed on non-arable land needs to be replaced with perennial crops, pasture and/or forest land uses.

Background The intensity and frequency of climate extremes are exacerbating agricultural droughts, particularly impacting smallholder farming. This study assessing daily precipitation and temperature extremes in the context of climate change is crucial for local-scale climate change adaptation. Spatial changes of climate indices from 1981 to 2018 in three different agroecologies in the Hamassa watershed, Ethiopia, were examined based on the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI). Methods We obtained Daily temperature and precipitation data from the Ethiopia National Meteorological Agency (NMA). Additionally, I used data from focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) to corroborate the findings. We conducted the Mann- Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimation to assess the significance and magnitude of rainfall and extreme temperature changes in the watershed between 1981 and 2018. Furthermore, I examined the correlation between crop and standardized precipitation-evapotranspiration index (SPEI). Results The temperature data indicated that the warming condition is increasing overall agroecologies. However, the extreme indices from rainfall data indicate insignificant positive and negative trends in all agroecological zones (AEZs). The warmest day (Txx) is significantly increasing overall AEZs having magnitude values close to each other, 0.0420c, 0.03960c, and 0.03850c in the highland, midland, and lowland, respectively. The coldest day (Txn) also showed an increasing insignificant and significant trend in the highland, midland, and lowland, respectively. Results of cool days (TX10p) indicate a significant decreasing trend over all three AEZs. The magnitude of the decreasing trend is about -0.040c, -0.0450c, and -0.0360c in highland, midland, and lowland, respectively. Furthermore, the correlation result indicated a strong and significant relationship between crop production and climate variables (SPEI-), which varied degrees across Conclusions Results differ in different agroecologies demanding technical, institutional, and policy responses respective of Agroecologies.

The association between elevation (agro-climatic zones, ACZs) and the mean annual total rainfall (MATRF) is not straightforward in different parts of the world. This study sought to estimate the amount of MATRF across four elevation zones of Jema watershed, which is situated in the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia, by employing an appropriate interpolation method. The elevation of the watershed ranges from 1895 to 3518 m a.s.l. For the sake of this study, 34 sample MATRF data were extracted from satellite and nearby gauge stations that were recorded from 1983 to 2010. These data sources were reconstructed by International Research Institute for Climate and Society at Columbia University, USA, at a scale of 10 km by 10 km. An elevation data set generated from a digital elevation model with 30-m resolution (DEM 30 m) was considered as a covariable to estimate the MATRF. To identify the optimal interpolation model, mean errors were computed using cross-validation statistics. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) analysis showed that ordinary cokriging (OCK) was the most accurate model with a predictive power of 87.3%. The root-mean-square standardized (RMSSE) analysis showed that the best precision value (0.72) occurred in OCK. Stable and Gaussian trend lines together with local polynomial types of trend removal, and an elliptical neighborhood search function could perform best to maximize the accuracy and the precision of estimating MATRF. Elevation, as a covariable, enhanced the degree of accuracy and precision of estimation. The value of the trend line function (least square) between the MATRF and elevation was very weak (R2 = 0.07), whereas the value of trend line function (least square) between the MATRF and the longitude coordinates (east–west direction) was medium (R2 = 0.34). The estimated MATRF for the entire watershed under study ranged from 1228 to 1640 mm. To conclude, elevation could contribute to the estimation of the MATRF. The value of the MATRF showed a declining pattern from the lower to higher elevation areas of the watershed.

Ethiopia is a largely agrarian country with nearly 85% of its employment coming from agriculture. Nevertheless, it is not known how much land is under cultivation. Mapping land cover at finer resolution and global scales has been particularly difficult in Ethiopia. The study area falls in a region of high mapping complexity with environmental challenges which require higher quality maps. Here, remote sensing is used to classify a large area of the central and northwestern highlands into eight broad land cover classes that comprise agriculture, grassland, woodland/shrub, forest, bare ground, urban/impervious surfaces, water, and seasonal water/marsh areas. We use data from Landsat spectral bands from 2000 to 2011, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and its temporal mean and variance, together with a digital elevation model, all at 30-m spatial resolution, as inputs to a supervised classifier. A Support Vector Machines algorithm (SVM) was chosen to deal with the size, variability and non-parametric nature of these data stacks. In post-processing, an image segmentation algorithm with a minimum mapping unit of about 0.5 hectares was used to convert per pixel classification results into an object based final map. Although the reliability of the map is modest, its overall accuracy is 55%—encouraging results for the accuracy of agricultural uses at 85% suggest that these methods do offer great utility. Confusion among grassland, woodland and barren categories reflects the difficulty of classifying savannah landscapes, especially in east central Africa with monsoonal-driven rainfall patterns where the ground is obstructed by clouds for significant periods of time. Our analysis also points out the need for high quality reference data. Further, topographic analysis of the agriculture class suggests there is a significant amount of sloping land under cultivation. These results are important for future research and environmental monitoring in agricultural land use, soil erosion, and crop modeling of the Abay basin.