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Nutrient sensing and signaling are essential for adjusting growth and development to available resources. Deprivation of the essential mineral phosphorus (P) inhibits root growth.1 The molecular processes that sense P limitation to trigger early root growth inhibition are not known yet. Target of rapamycin (TOR) kinase is a central regulatory hub in eukaryotes to adapt growth to internal and external nutritional cues.2,3 How nutritional signals are transduced to TOR to control plant growth remains unclear. Here, we identify Arabidopsis-root-specific kinase 1 (ARSK1), which attenuates initial root growth inhibition in response to P limitation. We demonstrate that ARSK1 phosphorylates and stabilizes the regulatory-associated protein of TOR 1B (RAPTOR1B), a component of the TOR complex 1, to adjust root growth to P availability. These findings uncover signaling components acting upstream of TOR to balance growth to P availability.

Mineral nutrition is one of the key environmental factors determining plant development and growth. Nitrate is the major form of macronutrient nitrogen that plants take up from the soil. Fluctuating availability or deficiency of this element severely limits plant growth and negatively affects crop production in the agricultural system. To cope with the heterogeneity of nitrate distribution in soil, plants evolved a complex regulatory mechanism that allows rapid adjustment of physiological and developmental processes to the status of this nutrient. The root, as a major exploitation organ that controls the uptake of nitrate to the plant body, acts as a regulatory hub that, according to nitrate availability, coordinates the growth and development of other plant organs. Here, we identified a regulatory framework, where cytokinin response factors (CRFs) play a central role as a molecular readout of the nitrate status in roots to guide shoot adaptive developmental response. We show that nitrate-driven activation of NLP7, a master regulator of nitrate response in plants, fine tunes biosynthesis of cytokinin in roots and its translocation to shoots where it enhances expression of CRFs . CRFs, through direct transcriptional regulation of PIN auxin transporters, promote the flow of auxin and thereby stimulate the development of shoot organs.

Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) Tax oncoprotein is required for viral gene expression. Tax transactivates the viral promoter by recruiting specific transcription factors but also by interfering with general transcription factors involved in the preinitiation step, such as TFIIA and TFIID. However, data are lacking regarding Tax interplay with TFIIH, which intervenes during the last step of preinitiation. We previously reported that XPB, the TFIIH subunit responsible for promoter opening and promoter escape, is required for Tat-induced human-immunodeficiency virus promoter transactivation. Here, we investigated whether XPB may also play a role in HTLV-1 transcription. We report that Tax and XPB directly interact in vitro and that endogenous XPB produced by HTLV-1-infected T cells binds to Tax and is recruited on proviral LTRs. In contrast, XPB recruitment at the LTR is not detected in Tax-negative HTLV-1-infected T cells and is strongly reduced when Tax-induced HTLV-1 LTR transactivation is blocked. XPB overexpression does not affect basal HTLV-1 promoter activation but enhances Tax-mediated transactivation in T cells. Conversely, downregulating XPB strongly reduces Tax-mediated transactivation. Importantly, spironolactone (SP)-mediated inhibition of LTR activation can be rescued by overexpressing XPB but not XPD, another TFIIH subunit. Furthermore, an XPB mutant defective for the ATPase activity responsible for promoter opening does not show rescue of the effect of SP. Finally, XPB downregulation reduces viability of Tax-positive but not Tax-negative HTLV-1-transformed T cell lines. These findings reveal that XPB is a novel cellular cofactor hijacked by Tax to facilitate HTLV-1 transcription., IMPORTANCE HTLV-1 is considered the most potent human oncovirus and is also responsible for severe inflammatory disorders. HTLV-1 transcription is undertaken by RNA polymerase II and is controlled by the viral oncoprotein Tax. Tax transactivates the viral promoter first via the recruitment of CREB and its cofactors to the long terminal repeat (LTR). However, how Tax controls subsequent steps of the transcription process remains unclear. In this study, we explore the link between Tax and the XPB subunit of TFIIH that governs, via its ATPase activity, the promoter-opening step of transcription. We demonstrate that XPB is a novel physical and functional partner of Tax, recruited on HTLV-1 LTR, and required for viral transcription. These findings extend the mechanism of Tax transactivation to the recruitment of TFIIH and reinforce the link between XPB and transactivator-induced viral transcription.

Table S2. NPF amino acid sequences in FASTA format. (DOCX 45 kb)

Table S3. Measures for average cell size determination from epidermis layers of wild type and ljnpf2.9â 1 superior and inferior lamina. (DOCX 17 kb)

Figure S1. Phylogenetic tree obtained with the maximum parsimony method and based on the alignment of the 53 A. thaliana and 86â L. japonicus amino acid NPF sequences. (PDF 429 kb)

Figure S2. a amino acid sequence of LjNPF2.9. The ExxER/K motif is indicated in bold; b TMHMM (transmembrane helices based on a hidden Markov model) prediction of LjNPF2.9. (PDF 60 kb)

After uptake from soil into the root tissue, distribution and allocation of nitrate throughout the whole plant body, is a critical step of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and for modulation of plant growth in response to various environmental conditions. In legume plants nitrate distribution is also important for the regulation of the nodulation process that allows to fix atmospheric N (N2) through the symbiotic interaction with rhizobia (symbiotic nitrogen fixation, SNF).

Figure S4. a Representative images of wild type and ljnpf2.9â 1 leaves. The red squares indicate the area photographed in panel b. b representative area photographed for epidermis cell size and counting analyses. The cells are numbered in red. (PDF 8967 kb)

Mineral nutrient homeostasis is essential for plant growth and development. Recent research has demonstrated that the occurrence of interactions among the mechanisms regulating the homeostasis of different nutrients in plants is a general rule rather than an exception. Therefore, it is important to understand how plants regulate the homeostasis of these elements and how multiple mineral nutrient signals are wired to influence plant growth. Silicon (Si) is not directly involved in plant metabolism but it is an essential element for a high and sustainable production of crops, especially rice, because of its high content in the total shoot dry weight. Although some mechanisms underlying the role of Si in plants responses to both abiotic and biotic stresses have been proposed, the involvement of Si in regulating plant growth in conditions where the availability of essential macro- and micronutrients changes remains poorly investigated. In this study, the existence of an interaction between Si, phosphate (Pi), and iron (Fe) availability was examined in lowland (Suphanburi 1, SPR1) and upland (Kum Hom Chiang Mai University, KH CMU) rice varieties. The effect of Si and/or Fe deficiency on plant growth, Pi accumulation, Pi transporter expression (OsPHO1;2), and Pi root-to-shoot translocation in these two rice varieties grown under individual or combinatorial nutrient stress conditions were determined. The phenotypic, physiological, and molecular data of this study revealed an interesting tripartite Pi-Fe-Si homeostasis interaction that influences plant growth in contrasting manners in the two rice varieties. These results not only reveal the involvement of Si in modulating rice growth through an interaction with essential micro- and macronutrients, but, more importantly, they opens new research avenues to uncover the molecular basis of Pi-Fe-Si signaling crosstalk in plants.

PopA is released by type III secretion from the bacterial plant pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum and triggers the hypersensitive response (HR) in tobacco. The function of PopA remains obscure, mainly because mutants lacking this protein are not altered in their ability to interact with plants. In an attempt to identify the site of PopA activity in plant cells, we generated transgenic tobacco plants expressing the popA gene under the control of an inducible promoter. Immunocytologic analysis revealed that the HR phenotype of these plants correlated with the presence of PopA at the plant plasma membrane. Membrane localization was observed irrespective of whether the protein was designed to accumulate in the cytoplasm or to be secreted by the plant cell, suggesting a general lipid-binding ability. We found that the protein had a high affinity for sterols and sphingolipids in vitro and that it required Ca2+ for both lipid binding and oligomerization. In addition, the protein was integrated into liposomes and membranes from Xenopus laevis oocytes where it formed ion-conducting pores. These characteristics suggest that PopA is part of a system that aims to attach the host cell plasma membrane and to allow molecules cross this barrier.

Figure S3. Representative images of wild type and ljnpf2.9–1 leaves of different corresponding trifolia. Black bar = 2.5 mm. (PDF 800 kb)

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Figure S3. Representative images of wild type and ljnpf2.9–1 leaves of different corresponding trifolia. Black bar = 2.5 mm. (PDF 800 kb)

Plants take up the nitrogen necessary for their growth mainly in the form of nitrate. To cope with spatiotemporal fluctuations in NO3 - availability in soils, these organisms have developed adaptation mechanisms specific to each situation. Plant N response involves several signaling pathways that depend on the N variation scenarios of the medium. Two major signaling pathways are studied in this thesis. The Primary Nitrate Response (or PNR) which corresponds to the rapid (within minutes) and nitrate-specific responses of the plant when provided with Nitrate. The Nitrogen Starvation response (or NSR) which corresponds to the slower response (within days) which makes it possible to overcome the lack of N in the medium. Although some molecular actors are known in each of the pathways (PNR and NSR); i) the NSR is significantly less well documented than the PNR, ii) nothing is known about the coordination of the 2 signaling pathways. During my thesis I was able to demonstrate that a subgroup of the GARP transcription factor family induced during PNR is directly involved in the regulation of NSR (repression of transport genes with a very high nitrate affinity). This provides both new NSR regulators and a coordination mechanism between the 2 signaling pathways. The phenotypes recorded for plants altered in this transcription factors family open up perspectives for crop biotechnological improvements because they have nitrate transport capacities far superior to wild plants. Results regarding the subcellular dual localization of HRS1 and the role of HRS1 in controlling the redox status of plants are presented and discussed in the context of the previously proposed PNR-NSR interaction model.; Les plantes prélèvent l’azote nécessaire à leur croissance essentiellement sous forme de nitrate. Pour faire face aux fluctuations spatio-temporelles de la disponibilité de cet ion dans les sols, ces organismes ont développé des mécanismes d’adaptation spécifiques à chaque situation. La réponse de la plante à l’azote met en jeu plusieurs voies de signalisations qui dépendent des scénarios de variations en azote du milieu. Deux grandes voies de signalisation sont étudiées en particulier dans cette thèse. La Primary Nitrate Response (ou PNR) qui correspond aux réponses rapides (minutes) et nitrate-spécifiques de la plante lors de la fourniture de Nitrate. La Nitrogen Starvation response (ou NSR) qui correspond à la réponse plus lente (jours) qui permet de pallier au manque d’azote dans le milieu. Bien que certains acteur moléculaires soient connus dans chacune des voies (PNR et NSR); i) la NSR est largement moins bien documentée que la PNR, ii) rien n’est connu concernant la coordination des 2 voies de signalisations. Au cours de ma thèse j’ai pu démontrer qu’un sous groupe de la famille GARP induit lors de la PNR est directement impliqué dans la régulation de la NSR (répression des gènes de transport à haute affinité de nitrate). Ceci fournit à la fois des nouveaux régulateurs de la NSR et un mécanisme de coordination entre les 2 voies de signalisation. Les phénotypes des plantes altérées dans l’expression des gènes de cette famille de facteurs de transcription ouvrent des perspectives d’ameliorations biotechnologiques des plantes car ces dernières présentent des capacités de transport du nitrate bien supérieures aux plantes sauvages. Des résultats quant à la double localisation sub-cellulaire d’HRS1 et du rôle d’HRS1 dans le contrôle du statut redox des plantes sont présentés et discutés dans le contexte du modèle d’interaction entre PNR et NSR proposé précédemment.

Plants are sessile organisms growing in a heterogeneous and fluctuating environment. Thus, foraging for nutrients is an important trait for plant growth and development. Nitrogen (N), especially as nitrate (NO3-) form, is one limiting element for plant growth but is also highly mobile in the soil leading to frequent heterogeneity distribution. Plants are managing this constraint through the regulation of root development and NO3- uptake in the different parts of the root system according to the spatial NO3- availability and the N needs of the whole plant. This adaptation relies on a dual signaling pathway involving i) a local signaling related to external NO3- supply and ii) a root-shoot-root long-distance (systemic) signaling related to the plant N needs.. However, the molecular basis of the long-distance signaling as well as the regulatory mechanisms associated with, are not fully understood. They rely on the integration at the shoot level of signals originating from both NO3--supplied and N-deprived root parts. Therefore, the shoots have a key role for an efficient adaptation to heterogeneous NO3- environment through the adjustment of root physiology and development. Previously, cytokinin biosynthesis has been shown to be essential for both molecular and morphological root responses to NO3- heterogeneous environment. Moreover, it is known that upon NO3- supply, de novo biosynthesis of this hormone in the roots is increased along with its accumulation in the shoots. In this context, we hypothesized that cytokinins could correspond to an important root to shoot signal involved in NO3--dependent systemic signaling. The main objective of my PhD project was to decipher and understand how the shoots control root NO3- acquisition in response to spatial NO3- heterogeneity. To do so, we used the 'split-root' system, in which physically isolated roots of a same plant are challenged with different NO3- environments. In this framework, we characterized physiological, metabolic and molecular responses of Arabidopsis wild-type plants that we compared to responses of mutants impaired in cytokinin biosynthesis, acropetal transport or perception. The combination of these different approaches allowed me to demonstrate that cytokinins, and especially trans-zeatin species are indeed a root to shoot messenger that is crucial for root responses to spatial NO3- heterogeneity. Moreover, I have shown that NO3- heterogeneous supply compared to homogeneous supply triggers a substantial reprogramming of gene expression in aerial part, which largely depends on this trans-zeatin transport toward the shoots. Finally, the integration of these transcriptomic modifications into gene networks led to the identification of interesting candidate genes to characterize the shoot-to-root signaling.; Les plantes sont des organismes sessiles se développant dans un environnement hétérogène et fluctuant. La capacité d'acquisition des nutriments par le système racinaire est donc un caractère important pour leur croissance et leur développement. L'azote (N), notamment sous forme nitrate (NO3-), fait partie de ces éléments qui sont limitant pour la croissance des plantes mais aussi très mobiles dans le sol donc fréquemment distribués de façon hétérogène. Les plantes s'adaptent à cette contrainte en modulant le développement racinaire ainsi que la capacité de transport de ce nutriment dans les différentes parties du système racinaire en fonction de la disponibilité en NO3- et du besoin en azote (N) de la plante entière. Cette adaptation repose donc sur la combinaison de deux voies de signalisation, i) une signalisation locale dépendante de la disponibilité en NO3- dans le milieu extérieur ii) une signalisation longue distance (ou systémique) racines-feuilles-racines relative au besoin en N de la plante entière. Toutefois, les bases moléculaires de la signalisation longue distance comme les mécanismes de régulation qui y sont associés ne sont pas totalement connus. Ils reposent sur l'intégration au niveau des parties aériennes de signaux d'origine racinaire, provenant des racines exposées au NO3- mais aussi de celles qui en sont privées. Les parties aériennes jouent alors un rôle majeur dans la modulation de la physiologie et du développement racinaire en condition de disponibilité hétérogène en NO3-. Des études précédentes ont montré que la biosynthèse de cytokinines est essentielle pour la mise en place de cette réponse adaptative. De plus, il est connu qu'après un apport de NO3-, la biosynthèse de cette hormone dans les racines puis son accumulation dans les parties aériennes est augmentée. Dans ce contexte, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que les cytokinines pourraient correspondre à un messager racines/feuilles important pour la signalisation systémique NO3--dépendante. L'objectif de mon projet de thèse consistait à comprendre comment les parties aériennes contrôlent l'acquisition racinaire du NO3- en condition de disponibilité hétérogène en NO3-. Pour reproduire cette condition en laboratoire, le système de 'split-root', permettant de séparer le système racinaire en deux parties isolées pouvant être traitées différemment, a été utilisé pour exposer les plantes à différentes conditions de disponibilité en NO3-. Dans ces différentes conditions, les réponses moléculaires, métaboliques et physiologiques ont été caractérisées chez des plantes sauvages d'Arabidopsis et comparées à celles de mutants affectés dans la biosynthèse, le transport acropetal ou encore dans la perception des cytokinines. La combinaison de ces différentes approches m'a ainsi permis de démontrer que les cytokinines, et plus précisément les trans-zéatines, sont effectivement un messager racines-feuilles crucial pour la mise en place des réponses de la racine à une disponibilité hétérogène en NO3-. De plus, j'ai montré que l'apport hétérogène en NO3- comparé à l'apport homogène entraîne une importante reprogrammation de l'expression génique dans les parties aériennes qui est largement dépendante de ce transport de trans-zéatines vers les feuilles. Enfin, l'intégration de ces données transcriptomiques au sein de réseaux géniques a permis d'identifier des gènes candidats intéressants comme acteurs possibles de la signalisation feuilles-racines