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States' ability to impose liability for extraterritorial torts is often structured to avoid an illegitimate assertion of authority by one state over another. However, the resulting liability regimes are inconsistent and difficult to justify. In this article, I argue that limitations of liability in this context have been based on misconceptions about abuse of power. I employ instrumental and rights-based approaches to states' authority to demarcate a coherent framework for states' liability for extraterritorial torts. I show that courts can impose liability on their own state and officials for extraterritorial torts as authority is not exerted over a foreign state. Liability can also be imposed on foreign states for their extraterritorial torts through consent, a sufficient jurisdictional connection to the tort, or the establishment of universal jurisdiction by a breach of jus cogens norms. Lastly, I assert that punitive damages are generally an illegitimate form of exerting authority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

States' ability to impose liability for extraterritorial torts is often structured to avoid an illegitimate assertion of authority by one state over another. However, the resulting liability regimes are inconsistent and difficult to justify. In this article, I argue that limitations of liability in this context have been based on misconceptions about abuse of power. I employ instrumental and rights-based approaches to states' authority to demarcate a coherent framework for states' liability for extraterritorial torts. I show that courts can impose liability on their own state and officials for extraterritorial torts as authority is not exerted over a foreign state. Liability can also be imposed on foreign states for their extraterritorial torts through consent, a sufficient jurisdictional connection to the tort, or the establishment of universal jurisdiction by a breach of jus cogens norms. Lastly, I assert that punitive damages are generally an illegitimate form of exerting authority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corporate interests have contaminated the world and our bodies with chemical pollutants in pursuit of profit. In this Article, I argue that this contamination of our bodies with chemicals constitutes an offensive battery, a violation of our right to be free from nonconsensual contacts. I describe how our bodies are contaminated via factory discharges, train derailments and chemical spills, our use of consumer goods, and the workplace. I argue that traditional toxic tort and statutory environmental law do nothing to prevent this and in fact encourage polluting behaviors by limiting the polluters' right to pollute only when the pollution can be scientifically shown to cause us physical harm. I discuss how pollution in the absence of physical harm still violates our interest in bodily integrity and autonomy and treats us as less than, as mere means for corporate interests to realize their profits. I analyze the prima facie case for treating pollution as an offensive battery, focusing on the elements of voluntary act, intent, and offense. I evaluate consent and necessity as possible defenses and conclude that they do not hold in most cases of chemical pollution. I discuss the remedies available for pollution victims, including compensatory damages for those who need medical monitoring, punitive damages to punish the polluters who wantonly disregard our rights for their own profits, and injunctive relief to stop ongoing polluting behaviors and inform the public about the chemicals to which they are exposed through consumer goods. In sum, this Article is an attempt at a first step to putting up meaningful boundaries on the cavalier polluting behaviors that have gotten us to this point. There is an urgent need to curtail the discharge of novel substances, in particular, and toxic offensive battery is a theory of liability that could be employed to hold polluters accountable. It is also a theory of liability that reflects a different way of thinking about our relationship to pollution, something we desperately need after more than fifty years of ineffective policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) plays a very important role in the lives of individuals by promoting human rights in the countries of the Americas. It is also known as the Pact of San José, Costa Rica. Its main contributions include the protection of human rights, the interpretation of human rights, the development of international standards, monitoring compliance, education, and raising awareness. These contributions highlight the violation of rights, such as job stability and permanence, the right to due process, the right to work, political rights, and the principle of legality, which led to an arbitrary dismissal that contravenes international standards. The importance of fair procedural guarantees in the dismissal of public officials is emphasized. Furthermore, it was noted that an adequate procedure was lacking, as the case was repeatedly ignored and not validated by the relevant authorities, which had a negative impact on the individual’s professional reputation, making reentry into the workforce challenging. Consequently, the Inter-American Court intervened and established measures for reparation in this case, which included the official publication of the case in the State’s official gazette to ensure national circulation and on the websites of the Constitutional Court. Additionally, compensatory damages were awarded for both material and non-material harm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes whether the Daubert standard govern admissibility of expert witness testimony in civil and criminal proceedings under the Florida Administrative Procedure Act. Topics discussed include applicability of the rule of sequestration in Fla. Indus. Power Users Grp. v. Graham, reliability of expert testimony in the SDI Quarry case against a mining company for compensatory damages to a man-made lake, and discretion of administrative law judges to apply Daubert in several cases.

Copyright of Revista de Derecho Comunitario Europeo is the property of Centro de Estudios Politicos y Constitucionales and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Neurons, exhibiting unique polarized structures, rely primarily on the mitochondrial production of ATP to maintain their hypermetabolic energy requirements. To maintain a normal energy supply, mitochondria are transported to the distal end of the axon. When mitochondria within the axon are critically damaged beyond their compensatory capacity, they are cleared via autophagosomal phagocytosis, and the degradation products are recycled to replenish energy. When the mitochondria are dysfunctional or their transport processes are blocked, axons become susceptible to degeneration triggered by energy depletion, resulting in neurodegenerative diseases. As the final checkpoint for mitochondrial quality control, axonal mitophagy is vital for neuronal growth, development, injury, and regeneration. Furthermore, abnormal axonal mitophagy is crucial in the pathogenesis of optic nerve-related diseases such as glaucoma. We review recent studies on axonal mitophagy and summarize the progress of research on axonal mitophagy in optic nerve-related diseases to provide insights into diseases associated with axonal damage in optic ganglion cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the Equal Pay Act ("EPA") stands today, a pay discrimination victim may only recover back pay--the difference between what the employee was paid and the amount the employee should have been paid. While at first glance, back pay may seem like an adequate remedy, only providing back pay to pay discrimination victims ignores the emotional toll pay discrimination has on an affected employee. The Paycheck Fairness Act seeks to change the current statutory scheme by making compensatory damages, including compensatory damages for emotional harm, available to pay discrimination victims. Should the Paycheck Fairness Act become law, this Note suggests a course of action for practitioners, arbitrators, and juries to recognize the unique emotional harms pay discrimination causes, including reputational harm, public shame, and humiliation; quantify emotional harm for pay discrimination victims; and award compensatory damages that truly make pay discrimination victims "whole" again. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document explores the topic of punitive damages in franchise disputes, focusing on the evolution of these damages over the past thirty years. It discusses the Supreme Court's role in establishing guidelines for when punitive damages may be allowed and the limitations on their size. The importance of reprehensibility and proportionality in determining the scope of punitive awards is emphasized. The document also provides examples of Supreme Court cases and state court cases that have influenced the understanding and application of punitive damages in franchise-related lawsuits. Additionally, strategies for franchisors to avoid punitive damages claims are offered, including comprehensive agreements, maintaining a collaborative relationship with franchisees, and ensuring consistency in treatment. [Extracted from the article]

"Damages in lieu of performance" is one of the three types of damages for breach of contract provided by the German Civil Code. The main objective of this research is to examine this remedy in German law. Specifically, this study addresses the question of how, in a legal system that upholds the principle of contractual necessity and considers specific performance as the primary remedy for a breach of contract, damages can substitute for the actual fulfillment of the obligation. While the term "damages in lieu of performance" is not explicitly used in Iranian laws, certain instances of this type of damage have been explored in legal literature. By comparing these two concepts within the German and Iranian legal systems, it becomes evident that the German Civil Code provides precise and effective rules governing damages in lieu of performance, thereby offering a solid foundation for the comparative adaptation of such rules in Iranian law.

The article reviews a book on unjust enrichment and restitution in common law and Cypriot law, providing insights into the legal principles and cases related to unjust enrichment. The book explores the application of unjust enrichment in various legal contexts, including contracts, torts, and property rights. It discusses the criteria for unjust enrichment, the relationship between contract law and unjust enrichment, and the available defenses to claims of unjust enrichment. The author also addresses specific cases of unjust enrichment, such as mistaken payments, voidable contracts, and unsolicited provision of services, highlighting the importance of restitution as the primary remedy for unjust enrichment. [Extracted from the article]

The loss-of-chance doctrine paradigmatically applies to wrongful-death cases in which a physician commits malpractice and seeks to avoid liability on the causal ground that the patient probably would have died anyway from the preexisting medical condition, even if it had been treated properly. By rejecting this argument and permitting recovery in these cases, courts purportedly have either relaxed the plaintiff's ordinary burden of proving causation or otherwise redefined the compensable harm as the patient's lost chance of survival rather than the wrongful death. Either modification of ordinary tort principles could have profound effects that extend well beyond the context of medical malpractice. The loss-of-chance doctrine has divided courts across the country, with about half of the states rejecting, deferring, or not yet addressing it. This halting development suggests that it might be useful to consider whether the doctrine can be justified by "old categories " of tort law based on established principles. In other contexts, courts have adopted special rules to preserve the tort duty. Courts can rely on this "old category" to justify the loss-of-chance doctrine. For preexisting conditions that probably cannot be cured, a negligent physician could always avoid liability by invoking this exculpatory causal evidence, which in turn would negate the duty for the entire category of cases the duty governs. To preserve the duty, courts must preclude malpractice defendants from using such a preexisting condition to defeat liability. Once this exculpatory causal evidence is excluded from the liability phase of the case, the plaintiff can show with the remaining evidence that the physician's malpractice, more likely than not, caused the wrongful death. The extent to which the patient's preexisting condition had already reduced her life expectancy instead factors into the damages award, because the ordinary measure of compensatory damages for wrongful death (or any permanent injury) depends on the patient's life expectancy at the time of the malpractice. The negligent physician accordingly incurs liability only for the extent to which the malpractice caused the patient to lose the remaining chance of surviving to a normal life expectancy-- the same measure of damages courts have adopted in the loss-of-chance cases. Instead of profoundly modifying tort law, loss of chance can be justified by established principles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conventional story about compensatory damages is that they aim to make plaintiffs whole, but not better off. This make-whole ideal implies that courts should subtract material gains from compensatory awards because otherwise plaintiffs would be unjustly enriched. This Article undermines this conventional wisdom in three ways. First, it highlights an oft-overlooked point: that sometimes courts may, as a doctrinal matter, award compensatory damages that render plaintiffs materially better off than before. Second, and more surprisingly, the Article shows that awarding material "betterments" is sometimes (and paradoxically) required by the make-whole ideal itself, not merely as a limited exception to it (as some authorities suggest). Third, the Article argues that plaintiffs have compelling but currently unrecognized interests in rebuilding aspects of their lives--including property--better than before the wrongdoings they suffer. Accommodating such "resilience interests" in the law of tort remedies is not only justified but would also systematically require courts to allow plaintiffs to keep material betterments, at least more often than legal practice generally allows. In short, plaintiffs often have compelling reasons to "build back better." Courts can and should allow them to do so without necessarily abandoning the aim of making them whole. Indeed, failing to recognize these reasons means that plaintiffs are routinely undercompensated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plastic is indispensable in today's everyday life, but it is one of the biggest problems humanity is facing in the twenty-first century. Global plastic production reached 4.9 billion tons in 2015 and by 2025, 11 billion tons of plastics are expected to end up in the environment. Microplastic particles (MPs) were originally defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, originating from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources of MPs are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) particles in cosmetic and medical products. Secondary sources of MPs come from physical, chemical, and biological processes that lead to the fragmentation of plastic waste. More studies have focused on the effects and risks of MPs, and less attention has been paid to removal methods. Plastic takes 100 years to completely decompose. Scientific studies have shown that some types of worms can absorb and decompose MPs in just a few weeks. Researchers believe that this discovery can be an important tool in the human war against plastics; Substances whose presence in nature has serious risks for humans and compensatory damages Inevitability affects the environment. This review summarizes current chemical removal technologies of MPs.Then most of the current literature on the potential of earthworms to reduce MPs was collected. The advantages and disadvantages of various methods are summarized, and they are also compared, which can help more researchers choose the appropriate research method. The results of this research can open new doors to the global fight against plastic pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Damages in lieu of performance" is one of the three types of damages for breach of contract provided by the German Civil Code. The main objective of this research is to examine this remedy in German law. Specifically, this study addresses the question of how, in a legal system that upholds the principle of contractual necessity and considers specific performance as the primary remedy for a breach of contract, damages can substitute for the actual fulfillment of the obligation. While the term "damages in lieu of performance" is not explicitly used in Iranian laws, certain instances of this type of damage have been explored in legal literature. By comparing these two concepts within the German and Iranian legal systems, it becomes evident that the German Civil Code provides precise and effective rules governing damages in lieu of performance, thereby offering a solid foundation for the comparative adaptation of such rules in Iranian law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The disposition of the return of the forced execution by the court, following the abolition of the enforcement title or the forced execution itself, leads to the creation of a new paradigm, in which the creditor of the forced execution, whose patrimony has increased, becomes the debtor of the obligation of restitution, to the debtor of the forced execution, and which in turn becomes the creditor of the restitution obligation. The natural consequence of the solution of admitting the return of enforced execution requires the restoration of the previous situation, which will be done in the register of the general provisions provided for in art. 1635-1649 of the Civil Code. The effective method of restoring the previous situation converges on the analysis of different civil law principles, with similar valences but different effects, especially the principle of restitutio in integrum and the principle of full repair of the damage, in the perimeter of good faith and bad faith of the debtor of the restitution obligation. In the context of the civil circuit, situations may arise, in which the main method of restitution of benefits, in kind, is no longer possible, so new practical difficulties arise in restoring the previous situation, in this framework, the incidence will be analyzed for interest - moratory damages and compensatory damages.

This Note argues that the international community should pursue a mass claims commission with both claims processing and investigative junctions as a companion process to other judicial proceedings relating to the Beirut port explosion. After discussing Lebanon's political and economic situation. this Note explores the strategic and moral case for international involvement. It then discusses the possible bases of legal authority for international involvement and types of jurisdiction, drawing on lessons from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon and the United Nations Claims Commission, and makes three suggestions on key questions that would, need to be answered to establish a commission. These suggestions cover, first, eligibility for submitting claims; second, the source of funds for compensation; and third. evidentiary standards. A mass claims commission would give the people impacted by the explosion some measure of compensatory justice by Providing additional funds for the rebuilding and recovery process and establish the truth about the events leading to the Beirut port explosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every jurisdiction in the United States gives criminal defendants “credit” against their sentence for the time they spend detained pretrial. In a world of mass incarceration and overcriminalization that disproportionately impacts people of color, this practice appears to be a welcome mechanism for mercy and justice. In fact, however, crediting detainees for time served is perverse. It harms the innocent. A defendant who is found not guilty, or whose case is dismissed, gets nothing. Crediting time served also allows the state to avoid internalizing the full costs of pretrial detention, thereby making overinclusive detention standards less expensive. Finally, crediting time served links prevention with punishment, retroactively justifying punitive, substandard conditions. The bottom line is this: Time served is not a panacea. To the contrary, it contributes to criminal justice pathologies. This Article systematically details the rationales for pretrial detention and then analyzes when, given those rationales, credit for time served is warranted. The analysis reveals that crediting time served is a destructive practice on egalitarian, economic, expressive, and retributive grounds. Time served should be abandoned. This Article then begins the discussion of what should replace time served, suggesting the possibility that detainees should be financially compensated instead. Given that many detentions are premised upon a theory similar to a Fifth Amendment taking, compensation is warranted for all defendants—both the innocent and the guilty—and can lead to positive reforms. Only by abandoning credit for time served can the link between prevention and punishment be severed, such that detention will be more limited and more humane. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peripheral sensory organ damage leads to compensatory cortical plasticity that is associated with a remarkable recovery of cortical responses to sound. The precise mechanisms that explain how this plasticity is implemented and distributed over a diverse collection of excitatory and inhibitory cortical neurons remain unknown. After noise trauma and persistent peripheral deficits, we found recovered sound-evoked activity in mouse A1 excitatory principal neurons (PNs), parvalbumin- and vasoactive intestinal peptide-expressing neurons (PVs and VIPs), but reduced activity in somatostatin-expressing neurons (SOMs). This cell-type-specific recovery was also associated with cell-type-specific intrinsic plasticity. These findings, along with our computational modelling results, are consistent with the notion that PV plasticity contributes to PN stability, SOM plasticity allows for increased PN and PV activity, and VIP plasticity enables PN and PV recovery by inhibiting SOMs. Peripheral sensory organ damage leads to compensatory cortical plasticity. Here, the authors show that after noise trauma, auditory cortical neurons display cell-type-specific plasticity in their sound-evoked and intrinsic properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What is the value of life? Courts and commentators have long debated the question of the inherent value of life in relation to the awarding of compensatory damages. The New Mexico Supreme Court's recent decision affirming a record $165 million civil award in Morga v. FedEx again brings this debate into public view. The decision effectively shuts the door to the prospect of higher State courts overturning a jury's noneconomic compensatory damages award based on an excessive verdict claim. The case highlights the district court's power and discretion in awarding monetary damages for nonmonetary injuries and the implications of defense trial strategies and tactics in wrongful death cases. The case raises important questions about the outer limits of a jury's discretion to award hedonic damages, deference given to decisions of the district court and a successor judge, and the use of mathematical formulas and comparison cases as guidance in establishing the value of life. The New Mexico Supreme Court follows long-standing practice and precedent in affirming the Court of Appeals. In doing so, the Morga decision is likely to usher in higher wrongful death case settlements as defendants seek to avoid potentially significant compensatory damage awards in New Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently in the New Civil Code, which has incorporated provisions from the old Civil Code and the old Commercial Code, Article 1536 states that in the case of obligations other than those for the payment of a sum of money, late performance always entitles the debtor to damages equal to statutory interest, calculated from the date on which the debtor is in default on the money equivalent of the obligation, unless a penalty clause has been stipulated or the creditor can prove greater damage caused by the delay in performance. Therefore, according to common law, for late performance of the contract or for non-performance of contractual obligations, if penalties for late performance have been stipulated in the contract, it means that liability for that breach has been definitively settled and damages can no longer be claimed, since it is considered that the penalty clause stipulated in the contract has determined in advance the damages that the debtor will pay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author discusses the quest on who is accountable for the tragic events of the Tulsa Race Massacre that happened from May 31-June 1, 1921. Topics include the number of people killed and homes and businesses destroyed by the massacre, the recommendations of the report released by the 1921 Race Riot Commission to compensate the survivors, and why those recommendations were not implemented.

The disposition of the return of the forced execution by the court, following the abolition of the enforcement title or the forced execution itself, leads to the creation of a new paradigm, in which the creditor of the forced execution, whose patrimony has increased, becomes the debtor of the obligation of restitution, to the debtor of the forced execution, and which in turn becomes the creditor of the restitution obligation. The natural consequence of the solution of admitting the return of enforced execution requires the restoration of the previous situation, which will be done in the register of the general provisions provided for in art. 1635-1649 of the Civil Code. The effective method of restoring the previous situation converges on the analysis of different civil law principles, with similar valences but different effects, especially the principle of restitutio in integrum and the principle of full repair of the damage, in the perimeter of good faith and bad faith of the debtor of the restitution obligation. In the context of the civil circuit, situations may arise, in which the main method of restitution of benefits, in kind, is no longer possible, so new practical difficulties arise in restoring the previous situation, in this framework, the incidence will be analyzed for interest - moratory damages and compensatory damages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Directive 2001/23 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the safeguarding of the employees' rights in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of undertakings or businesses leaves to the discretion of the Member States the task of regulating the procedural means and the legal sanctions able to ensure the full and effective exercise of the right to the information and consultation of the employees affected by the transfer. In the Romanian law, the Law No 67/2006 on safeguarding of the employees' rights in the event of transfer of undertaking, establishments or parts thereof, which transposed Directive 2001/23, does not provide for a separate sanctioning regime for the violation of the obligation to inform and to consult the employees affected by the transfer, but establishes, generically, for the violation of any obligation provided in its content, the contraventional liability of the transferor or transferee and the right of the employees, respectively of the representatives of the employees affected by the transfer, to address the courts of labour jurisdiction competent to resolve individual and collective labour conflicts. The present study emphasizes, by applying the requirements of the principle of the effective transposition of the directive and by carrying out a comparative law analysis, the fact that the mixed system of sanctions in the Romanian law, made of the contraventional fine and compensatory damages, fails to ensure the deterrent effect for employers and does not confer to the employees affected by the transfer any effective procedural remedies for respecting the right to information and consultation. De lege ferenda, several measures are proposed that can be adopted in order to ensure the effective nature of the right to information and consultation of the employees affected by the transfer, respectively: the clarification of the conditions for exercising the application for summons that seeks to repair the damage caused by the violation of the right to information and to consultation of the employees affected by the transfer; the express legislative establishment of the joint liability of the transferor and of the transferee for the damages resulting from non-compliance with the right to information and to consultation of the transferred employees; the increase of the limits of the contraventional fine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Article introduces a novel concept, higher education redress statutes ("HERS"), to illustrate efforts that acknowledge and amend past wrongs towards African Americans. More proximally, the Article shines a probing light on the escalation of HERS in southeastern states that serve as a site for state regulation and monitoring. The Author exposes how higher education redress statutes, designed to provide relief or remedy to Black people for states' higher education's harm, categorically ignore groups of Black people who rightfully should also be members of the statutorily protected class. This Article queries whether legislators can expand the scope of such statutes and reveals the myriad ways in which higher education redress statutes now serve as tools for aiding in the erasure of the higher education industry's culpability and complicity in slavery, degradation, and discrimination toward Black people. As such, this Article shows the growing hostility toward Black people's contribution to the higher education industry and states' unwillingness to offer redress efforts inclusively, broadly, and robustly. This Article serves as a platform for recognizing Black people's harm and hurt and the degree to which that recognition has been undermined by the states' disparate treatment of their humanity. Lastly, this Article proffers recommendations to activists, legislators, and other relevant stakeholders regarding the enforcement and promulgation of more comprehensive and inclusive higher education redress statutes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of class action litigation in Canada and Australia is well known. Both jurisdictions have statutory-based regimes that facilitate efficient procedures with certainty to address collective harms. These procedures, however, are inefficient when it comes to addressing the collective harms of Indigenous groups. In light of New Zealand's forthcoming class action legislation and the shared experiences of Indigenous groups in British colonies, this article seeks to consider the possibility and prosperity of potential Maori class actions. It uses the experiences of Canadian and Australian Aborigine claimants to conclude that class actions used for compensatory relief are incapable of providing adequate redress to Indigenous groups. This is due to the overarching construct of the contemporary Western legal system and its failure to meet the requirements of Indigenous justice. While Indigenous class actions in Canada and Australia have yielded benefits such as increased public awareness, this article explains that such benefits are not good enough to prompt Māori to follow the same litigation path as their Indigenous counterparts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the legal issues about sexual harassment and sexual assault injury in the workplace and how plaintiffs can recover damages outside of workers' compensation. Other topics include the statutory systems of workers' compensation, the exclusivity of workplace injury claims, and some laws by U.S. states like the Michigan Workers' Disability Compensation Act and Pennsylvania's Workers' Compensation Act.

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Copyright of Pandectele Române is the property of Wolters Kluwer Romania and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Ayer: Revista de Historia Contemporánea is the property of Asociacion de Historia Contemporanea and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)