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CHINA Huang Bin, a 30-year-old engineer, is surveying the scene at one of China's showcase energy projects: a retrofit that will make the Gaobeidian coal-fired power plant in Beijing burn [...]

A prominent American geographer and specialist on energy and environmental policies in developing countries assesses the challenge to sustainable development posed by Asia's rapid economic growth and the concurrent need to reduce the environmental impacts of energy production and use. A particular focus is on China and India, as rapidly growing energy consumers and greenhouse gas emitters, and on Russia as a potentially important supplier of natural gas and liquid alternatives to coal use. The author suggests some elements of a strategy to resolve the dilemma of reducing global environmental impacts without penalizing Asia's economic development, although a significant energy transition over the next several decades appears quite difficult. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: O13, O53, Q30, Q40. 3 figures, 5 tables, 26 references. Key words: Asia, China, India, Russia, sustainable development, energy and development, climate change, greenhouse gas emissions, international cooperation, intellectual property rights, WTO, oil, natural gas, coal.

China becoming the third-largest oil importing nation is concerned about oil security. Thus, it is planning the construction of a state-flagged and domestically constructed fleet of oil tankers to secure its oil supply.

The world's largest coal producer and consumer, China ranks second in CO2 emissions. The evolution of energy-related CO2 emissions in China for the period 1985 to 1999 is examined. The proposed three-level 'perfect decomposition' method and the provincially aggregated data show that the decline in energy intensity, the slowdown of average labor productivity growth of industrial sectors, the worsening of public enterprises, ownership changes that caused industrial restructuring, closure of small-scale power plants, implementation of policies to enhance energy efficiency are driving forces behind 'sudden stagnancy' of energy consumption, supply and energy-related CO2 emissions in China from 1996 to 1999.

This paper assesses the present and future market for household photovoltaic (PV) systems in rural Northwest China, especially from the PV commerce at Xining, Qinghai Province. This unsubsidised free market is now met by the emerging PV industry in China, which includes cell and module manufacturers, and PV system distributors and assemblers. For widespread deployment of such a renewable energy technology, the development of a local free market seems more successful than donor- or `government subsidy'-driven programmes. Presently, there is a thriving infant PV industry in Northwest China, mostly centred in Xining. Xining-based PV sales companies have extensive networks for selling, marketing and servicing household PV systems for rural farmers and nomads. Small systems are now ordinary items on sale in local shops. Based on interviews and fieldwork observations with seven major PV sales companies in Xining, the household PV market is assessed from the present business operations of these companies. Detail of primary sources is given with the aim of archiving seminal progress in the history of photovoltaic power. The results suggest that although the household PV market will continue to grow, current government and international sponsored PV programmes can create both opportunities and barriers for the infant PV market and industry in China.

Based on experiences with an operating solar cooling system in south China, a low temperature driven solar cooling system has been proposed, and a new model of two-stage lithium bromide absorption chiller has been developed. Test results have proved that the two-stage chiller could be driven by low temperature hot water ranging from 60 to 75 [degrees] C, which can be easily provided by conventional solar hot water systems. Relying on the successes of the above system, an integrated solar cooling and heating system with two-stage absorption chiller was constructed (cooling capacity = 100 kW). Preliminary operating data of the system has indicated that this type of system could be efficient and cost effective. Compared to the conventional cooling system (with single-stage chiller), the proposed system with a two-stage chiller could achieve roughly the same total COP as of the conventional system with a cost reduction of about 50%.

An overview of Japan's LNG market is presented, focusing on its environmental and economic benefits. Energy transition in Hong Kong and China is discussed, using Japan's experiences of the introduction of LNG.

As the world's second largest carbon emitter, China has long been criticized as a 'free-rider' benefiting from other countries' efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions but not taking responsibility for its own emissions. China has been singled out as one of the major targets at the subsequent negotiations after the Kyoto meeting. By analyzing the historical contributions of interfuel switching, energy conservation, economic growth and population expansion to China's CO(sub 2) emissions during 1980-97, this article clearly demonstrates that the above criticism is unjustified. Moreover, given the fact that the role of China is an issue of perennial concern at the international climate change negotiations, the article envisions some efforts and commitments that could be expected from China until its per capita income catches up with the level of middle-developed countries. By emphasizing the win-win strategies, these efforts and commitments are unlikely to jeopardize China's economic development and, at the same time, would give the country more leverage at the international climate change negotiations subsequent to the Buenos Aires meeting.

The negative environmental implications of using coal for new power generation stations in the UK has resulted in the shift to pulverized fuel combustion. However, the process produces a fine ash dust which has yet to be filtered out of the flue gases. Huge energy requirements in China and India have resulted in the development of fluidized-bed combustion technology which simultaneously solves the major pollution problems.

Severe local air pollution, aggravation of the global warming condition and the inaccessibility of coal reserves in China have fueled interest into alternative sources of electricity, such as wind power. Wind power has been in use in China for over 3,000 years. Studies showed that it can provide the same amount of electricity in distant electricity demand centers by combining oversized wind farms, utilizing long-distance transmission lines and large-scale electrical storage. However, problems in funding and the legal structure of the scheme must be addressed.

'Global Electrification: The Next Decade' was the theme of the international forum organized by the Electric Power and Research Institute held on Mar, 1997. It was viewed that global electrification is a strategy that contributes to global stability by substantially raising the quality of life at the lower end of economic spectrum. Access to electricity can reduce infant mortality, improve sanitation, extend life expectancy, and foster educational opportunities.

A network-based investment-planning model of the Chinese coal and electricity delivery system was developed based on the coal transport study (CTS) of the World Bank (1995) and the Chinese State Planning Commission (SPC). The prior study was prompted by a power crises in the 1980s due to inefficient transportation capacity. Analysis of energy needs by the year 2000 reveals that demands can be addressed more efficiently and in a more environment-friendly manner than supply-side-only results. Proper implementation of energy-saving methods could result in the conservation of some 120 million tons of coal.

A study that measured the household 'non-commercial' energy consumption in rural China in 1990 was made by using the method of household expenditure analysis and the function of energy demand. Findings show that real rural household energy consumption of China in 1990 wa 137 Mtce in a negative estimation and 293 Mtce in a positive estimation. The study also suggests that the Chinese government must more fully concentrate on managing rural energy consumption and improving energy efficiency in rural areas.

Nuclear power will play a crucial role in China's attempts to meet the rising demand for energy. The country is likely to benefit from nuclear programs since it will help to meet greater demands for energy on the economically advancing eastern coast. Unlike other countries, China enjoys the widespread support of its people for nuclear projects. This unusual support for nuclear power is due to the Chinese view of technology as an instrument to master nature, the lack of knowledge of dangers of atomic power, and their environmentalists' support for atomic power.

INTRODUCTION China has engaged in economic reform since 1979, the general aim of which is to quadruple its 1980's national income by the year 2000. Experience shows that one of [...]

China is committed to energy conservation because power supply shortages hinder its economic growth. The country admits that it has been incurring shortages in coal, petroleum and electricity, leading to the underutilization of its manufacturing capacity by 25%-30%. However, China's economic conservation program has not been so effective in increasing power supply. China's energy policies as well as its aid and loan practices should be reformed so that the country can save on energy expenditures.

The World Bank and the Chinese State Planning Commission developed a decision support system to help solve China's coal and electricity problems. China's annual coal output amounts to 1.1 billion, but the country will have to increase its production to cope with a forecasted increase in demand amounting to 1.6 billion tons by the year 2000. The model considers various facets of coal and energy production. A minimum of $240 billion is required to finance new investments in the country.

China's gross domestic product will likely increase at an annual rate of 8% by the end of the 20th century and an average yearly rate of 4% by the year 2050. The average energy elasticity is also expected to be controlled at 0.5 by that time. China's CO2 emissions were predicted at 1918 Mt C pa, but energy measures could reduce this figure to 1467 Mt C pa. Energy conservation is essential in lowering the country's overall energy requirements and decreasing CO2 emissions.

To accomplish the dispatching automation of the Hunan Power Pool (HPP), a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition and Automatic Generation Control/Economic Dispatch (SCADA + AGC/ED) system supplied by Systems Control in the U.S.A. was imported by the Hunan Power Dispatch Control Center. In December 1990 the practical implementation acceptance test for the new system was completed. The new system is the first system completed the closed loop control of AGC in pools of China. This paper reviews the background of developing the new system, and describes emphatically implementation schemes and operation tests of AGC. At the same time, Constant Net Interchange (CNI) mode of AGC in the HPP is also discussed in detail, and finally the economic benefits and the improved operation quality after AGC is in operation are described.

An analysis of energy intensity trends in China's industrial sector was done using three data sets, methodologies and levels of disaggregation in decomposing macroeconomic intensity change. Sectoral shift was substantial in the 1980s although intensity changes in energy intensive sectors such as chemicals, machinery, metals and building materials had the largest contribution.

INTRODUCTION Long-term forecasting of energy consumption is usually based on the relationship between energy consumption and economic activities. Previous studies of energy consumption and economic growth in developed countries indicated [...]

Wind offers an important alternative to coal as a source of energy for generation of electricity in China with the potential for substantial savings in carbon dioxide emissions. Wind fields derived from assimilated meteorological data are used to assess the potential for wind-generated electricity in China subject to the existing government-approved bidding process for new wind farms. Assuming a guaranteed price of 0.516 RMB (7.6 U.S. cents) per kilowatt-hour for delivery of electricity to the grid over an agreed initial average period of 10 years, it is concluded that wind could accommodate all of the demand for electricity projected for 2030, about twice current consumption. Electricity available at a concession price as low as 0.4 RMB per kilowatt-hour would be sufficient to displace 23% of electricity generated from coal

Byline: Fushuan Wen, Dong Hua, Qin Wang, S.N Singh With the rapid economic development and huge amount of population, China is becoming one of the largest energy consumption countries in the world. This results in a heavy pressure on electricity supply in China. The potential wind energy storage is very large in China due to its large territory and nature conditions. Considering the energy-saving and environment factors, wind power, with its clean and renewable characteristic, has become a high priority of energy development in Chinese central government. Although China's wind power industry has achieved great achievements in the past 20 years, both opportunities and challenges coexist for the future development. Currently, the Chinese government is actively making relevant policies to guide wind power development moving toward a beneficial business and to promote the localisation of wind turbine generator manufacturing so as to reduce costs. Wind power is a new investment business around the globe as an alternative of traditional energy; China has also actively taken part in this worldwide trend. It is anticipated that by grasping the chance and speeding up the development, the future of wind energy in China is promising.

Byline: Zhang Xiliang, Chen Rong, He Jiankun China is the largest developing country and the second largest energy-consuming and CO2-emitting country in the world. China has already regarded renewable energy development and utilisation as a critical element of their sustainable energy strategy. In this context, China's renewable energy development and utilisation will have important implications for the world energy market development and global environmental protection over the long term. This paper gives an overview of the context of China's renewable energy development and utilisation in terms of driving forces, current development and utilisation status, future targets, barriers and public policy.

Byline: Chen Guifeng, Yu Zhufeng, Wu Lixin Coal consumption accounts for about two thirds of the primary energy consumption in China. High economic growth has brought about a rapid increase of coal consumption. Low-efficiency combustion of a large amount of coal caused coal-smoke related air pollution. The Chinese government put forward plans to develop clean coal technology in the early 1990s, and has listed it as one of the emphases for development of future energy technologies. This paper analyses China's progress in the development of clean coal technology, conducts technical and economic evaluation on each technology, and describes the tendencies and prospects of each technology. It is forecasted that advanced power generation technology will account for a greater proportion, coal liquefaction will put into operation and flue gas desulphurisation and denitrogenation will find wide application and dissemination in 2020.

Byline: Ryoichi Komiyama, Li Zhidong, Kokichi Ito This paper presents a consistent international energy projection developed by an integrated econometric model for the purpose of analysing China's energy impacts on the energy markets in the world and Northeast Asia to 2020. Vigorous economic growth, soaring electricity demand and progressive motorisation are going to expand the primary energy demand in China, which accounts for a large part of the world primary energy increase, eventually positioning China as an important player in the world energy market and in terms of CO2 emissions. Focusing on Northeast Asia, considerable oil demand growth in China, which has only a limited oil production, would increase the regional reliance on Middle Eastern oil, thereby underlining a serious energy security problem of oil importing countries in this region. It is becoming increasingly important for the energy issue to be addressed as one where all Northeast Asian countries have a common stake and can commit themselves.

The implications of the Chinese boom in energy demand from the perspective of sustainable growth are explored. The market mechanism is not functioning smoothly to adjust macroeconomic imbalances in China and the long-term presence of hot and cold spots in the Chinese economics is seriously undermining governance.