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We report laser cladding of pure titanium on a CoCrMo alloy using directed energy deposition. Using electron microscopy, the microstructural evolution upon varying the process parameters, especially laser power and powder feed rate, was investigated in relation with crack formation. Cladding layers showing dilution rates of more than 5% contained cracks due to the formation of the brittle Co2Ti intermetallic phase. The observed cracks could be ascribed to a mismatch in thermal expansion and a resulting stress of more than 440 MPa acting on the Co2Ti phase, as determined by density functional theory and nanoindentation. Furthermore, an excess laser energy caused chemical inhomogeneity and unmelted Ti powder particles, while a deficient laser energy resulted in lack of fusion. Neither cracks nor partially melted powders were observed for a powder feed rate of 3 g/min and a laser power of 225-300 W, for which the dilution rate was minimized to less than 5%. For such samples the cladding layers comprised pure α-Ti and a uniform CoTi interface with Co2Ti islands.

The high corrosion resistance, low density, and useful biological activity with heat resistance of titanium alloys have made them the most outstanding choice in various industrial applications. However, their poor tribological properties inhibit utilizing them in applications that need abrasive and adhesive wear resistance. Laser cladding is being applied to increase the capabilities of such alloys by allowing the deposition of different hard coating materials. This paper attempts to study the thermal, microstructure, and clad layer geometry evolution during coaxial laser cladding of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy with tungsten carbide + nickel-based alloy preblended powder. Owing to the difficulty in experimentally measuring the thermal and microstructure evolution due to lots of laser processing parameters, a new three-dimensional numerical model based on finite-difference analysis for studying the entire process has been proposed. The behavior of the different thermophysical properties of WC, NiCrBSiC, and Ti6Al4V materials, as well as the phase transition based on latent heat and fluid dynamics considering materials velocity, viscosity, and buoyancy force, during melting and resolidification processes, were considered to improve and ensure the accuracy of the numerical model. The proposed model could be applied to accurately estimate the temperature history and the deposited clad layer morphology and geometry. The cooling rate and thermal gradient were investigated to predict the solidification rate and microstructure by using different laser cladding parameters. It was confirmed that the laser power has a substantial impact on the peak temperature in the melt-pool, while the laser scanning speed has a significant effect on the heating and cooling rates. In conclusion, the process parameters have to be carefully chosen to certify a good quality clad layer with the preservation of the WC particles.

A high-performance electro-absorption optical modulator based on the epsilon-near-zero (ENZ) effect is proposed. The structure consists of a waveguide with a silicon (Si) core over which a stack of graphene/HfO $_2$ /graphene/ITO/HfO $_2$ /graphene is grown, covered by a Si cladding. An external voltage is applied across the graphene layers to change the carrier concentration in the indium tin oxide (ITO) layers. Using a self-consistent theory, the required voltage to achieve the ENZ points in the ITO layers is calculated up to 3.42 V for an ITO thickness of 5 nm. The operation of the modulator is investigated using a three-dimensional finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method, resulting in a modulation depth as high as 5.23 dB/ $\boldsymbol{\mu}$ m (5.36 dB/ $\boldsymbol{\mu }$ m) at a wavelength of 1.55 $\boldsymbol{\mu }$ m for the TE (TM) polarization, which ensures the polarization-insensitivity of our proposed modulator. It is also calculated that the insertion loss of the modulator is in the order of $\boldsymbol{ 2.5 \times 10^{-3}}$ dB/ $\boldsymbol{\mu }$ m that yields the figure of merit (FOM) of more than 1800. The outstanding features of our proposed modulator are mainly attributed to using the Si cladding layer instead of metal cladding. Furthermore, in contrast to the previously studied structures with metal electrodes, graphene layers significantly reduce the insertion loss.

In this study, influence of magnetron sputtering on indium gallium zinc oxide (IGZO) ceramic target was studied to improve its performance and utilization. Results indicated that state of the target such as target grain uniformity, micro defects, C element pollution, and secondary phase showed significant influence on magnetron sputtering process. Atoms located in small grains were easily bombarded out of IGZO target, and grains with slow sputtering rate protruded from target surface. Porous microstructure of IGZO ceramic created abnormal electric field of the target during sputtering, resulting in the poisoning of target. Moreover, more indium atoms were sputtered from the target, and the proportion of In after sputtering decreased by 0.62–0.97%. The difference in sputtering rates between secondary phase and main phase led to the formation of IGZO cladding layer with poor conductivity under the combined action of sputtering and re-sputtering. In sum, these findings may provide strong guidance for further improvement and performance enhancement of IGZO sputtering target.

This study attempts to analyze the microstructure and interface behavior of aluminum 6061 (Al 6061)-V-grooved stainless steel (SS304) explosive cladding by numerical and experimental methods. Numerical simulation was performed by Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) technique, in ANSYS AUTODYN, and the results are correlated with experimental outcome. The machining of V-grooves on the base plate transform the melted layer formed in conventional cladding (without grooves on the base plate) into a smooth undulating interface, for a similar experimental condition. The flyer plate and collision velocities, observed in numerical simulation, are in good agreement to the analytical expectations. The pressure developed in the flyer plate is higher than the base plate and the maximum pressure is witnessed at the collision point irrespective of grooved base plate or otherwise. The temperature developed in the collision point of conventional explosive cladding exceeds the melting point of both the participant metals, whereas, it exceeds the melting point of aluminum alone, in case of V-grooved base plate cladding. The shear and impact strengths of the V-grooved base plate clads are higher than the conventional clads and the fracture surfaces exhibit mixed modes of fracture.

The alkaline slag produced in the process of recovering heat and Na2CO3 in the black liquor heat treatment of papermaking leads to damage to refractory materials. In this paper, the wetting and erosion cladding properties of alkaline slag on the surface of dense corundum refractories were studied. The experiment was conducted in a high-temperature tubular furnace with different atmospheres (oxidizing atmosphere and reducing atmosphere), various heating rates (10 °C/min, 15 °C/min, 20 °C/min), and multiple angles between the refractory and horizontal planes (0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°). The wetting process of the slag on the refractory surface was observed by a CCD camera. The apparent contact angle and slag column height were measured with ImageJ software. The microstructure, element change and compounds of the cladding layer and interface layer were analysed using SEM-EDS and XRD. The results show that the corrosion of refractories by the slag comes from the following procedure: alumina dissolved and migrated to the cladding layer, then the slag penetrated the dense corundum refractories through the grain boundaries and the channels formed by the dissolution of alumina. Thermodynamic calculation and analysis of experimental results show that the slag and refractories dissolved each other at high temperature and reacted with each other to form mullite, nepheline and feldspar.

This paper discusses about the recent advancements in laser cladding and alloying processes used for surface property enhancement of magnesium and its alloys. Laser cladding and alloying is advanced manufacturing method used for surface modification of metallic materials in the modern industries. The cladding process is surface modification technique, which is used for deposition of thick layer of advanced materials on surface of conventional materials to improve the surface properties like, wear resistance, hardness, oxidation resistance, corrosion resistance, biocompatibility and heat resistance. The advanced materials generally used for cladding operations are transition metals, alloys, ceramics, composites, nanomaterials, rare earth oxide and some solid lubricant additives. The conventional substrate materials are steel, cast iron, titanium alloy, aluminium alloy, magnesium alloys and copper alloys. Laser cladding is most widely used coating technique because of its attractive properties such as low dilution rate, good metallurgical bonding between coating and substrate, less distortion, narrow heat affected zone, high solidification and cooling rate. In this article magnesium alloy is considered as substrate material and the various coating materials used for its surface modification are explained. Also, the effects of various laser process parameters on phase composition, microstructure, elemental composition, mechanical properties, tribological properties and corrosion resistance are discussed. The characterization techniques such as XRD, SEM, EDS, Vickers microhardness test, wear and friction test, corrosion test used for coating analysis are described. Furthermore, the problem arises in laser cladding and alloying on magnesium alloy and their possible remedies are discussed.

In the current study, a comparative study on the surface modification of β-Phase titanium alloy has been carried out using electric discharge machining (EDM) and ball burnishing assisted electrical discharge cladding (BB-EDC) process to improve the surface hardness and surface finish for the potential use of biomedical implants. The surface characteristics of Edmed and BB-EDC modified surface has been investigated. The effect of EDM and BB-EDC process parameters such as peak-current, pulse-duration and supply-voltage on the surface roughness and micro-hardness has been studied. The roughness was measured using a surface profilometer and surface hardness was measured using Vicker’s micro-hardness tester. The results show that BB-EDC modified surface exhibits high surface hardness and low surface roughness as compared with EDMed surface at any parametric condition. The in the case of BB-EDC, the maximum surface hardness (848HV) and minimum surface roughness (0.56 µm) were obtained at 5A peak current, 50 µs pulse duration, and 60 V supply voltage. Moreover, the recast layer obtained after BB-EDC process was flat and smooth with 10–15 µm thickness. The obtained surface from BB-EDC process was free from defects and can be used for biomedical implant application.

WC-10Co4Cr cladding over an austenitic stainless steel (SS-316) was fabricated by using a cost- effective microwave technique. Cladding was performed with 1.20 kW power and a frequency of 2.45 GHz in an industrial microwave oven. The XRD surveillance reveals a cluster of carbide phases adjunct to W-Cr-Fe based hexagonal matrix. The SEM examination reveals a solid microstructure and a homogeneous reinforced skeleton with porosity measures of less than 1% in the clad specimen. Tungsten (W) distributed equally in matrix and carbides, resulting in bulk hardness and matrix micro hardness increasing gradually and reaching a peak at 750HV, respectively, which is significantly greater than the base metal (SS-316) hardness (about 220HV). The clads erosive wear was measured at various impact angles (30°, 60°, and 90°) by utilizing a solid particle erosion with alumina as the erodent. In addition, corrosion testing found that in the NaCl solution of 3.5 wt% the cladded specimen exhibited the less corrosion resistance than that of the base metal.

This present review article discusses about the effect of solid lubricant additive in surface composite coating deposited by laser cladding and alloying process. Wear and friction is challenging problem in moving machinery parts subjected to rubbing action or sliding motion. Therefore to reduce the wear and friction of sliding machinery parts, coated layer is deposited on the surface of machine component to prevent from surface damage due to wear. Laser cladding and alloying is advanced manufacturing technology by which hard and wear resistant coating material is deposited on the surface of soft conventional materials by use of high power laser energy as heat source to provide good metallurgical adherence between coating and substrate materials. The coating materials generally used for enhancing the friction and wear resistance properties of conventional materials are advanced ceramics, advanced composites, nanomaterials and advanced alloys like high entropy alloys. When solid lubricants are added to these coating materials in limited amount then the friction and wear properties of developed surface improves. The solid lubricant additive in coating materials can reduce the friction coefficient and wear rate of materials. The solid lubricant materials acts as anti-friction and anti-wear agent in the coating materials. The most commonly used solid lubricants are h-BN, CaF2, MoS2, WS2, BaF2 and graphite. In this article the effect of these solid lubricant material on wear resistance and friction coefficient of coated surfaces produced by laser alloying and cladding techniques are described. The various engineering materials used for manufacturing of moving or sliding parts are ferrous materials, titanium alloys, aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys and copper alloys. In this article the coating deposited on these materials with solid lubricant additives by laser cladding and alloying process are reviewed. The problem arises during developing solid lubricant additive coating and its remedies are described.

The underwater laser cladding layers of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy were prepared using underwater wire-feeding laser cladding (UWLC) technology under different heat inputs and gas flow rates. At optimum process parameters, the uniform underwater cladding layer without oxidation was obtained, and the cracks inside layer were restrained successfully. The deposition morphology, grain characteristics, microstructure and properties of the cladding layer were analyzed, and the mechanism of crack elimination was investigated. With the increase of heat input, the grain size and thickness of the α lath increased, while the amount of α' decreased, and the oxidation phenomenon had also improved. The sizes of columnar β-crystal grains and spherical β-crystal grains both increased. The microstructure of the different heat input layers was composed of lamellar α phase and acicular α′ phase with different sizes. Besides, the reduction of the cooling rate inhibited the unidirectional growth of acicular martensite, so that the martensite arrangement was close to a disordered state, and the deformation of the cladding layer was more uniform, which effectively prevented the cracks and melt expansion. The corrosion resistance of the coating was improved, and the microhardness was reduced.

This review paper discusses about the deposition of coating with high entropy alloy on metallic materials by laser energy based surfacing process. The purpose of coating is to deposit a hard and wear resistant layer of expansive material on the surface of workpiece material without altering the bulk properties of the workpiece to increase its surface properties. The coating with high entropy alloy shows excellent surface characteristics like corrosion resistance, wear resistance and oxidation resistance at high temperature. Due to high power density and fast cooling rate, laser cladding is most suitable technique for synthesis of coating with high entropy alloy. Coating with high entropy alloy is generally developed on titanium alloy, magnesium alloy, aluminium alloy, copper alloy and ferrous alloy by laser based cladding process. In this paper effects of laser process parameters on high entropy alloy coating developed on various industrial materials has been discussed. The various laser parameters which affect the properties of coating with high entropy alloy are laser power density, laser scanning speed, feed rate of powder, argon flow rate, and frequency. The high entropy alloy exhibits effect due to high entropy, effect due to slow diffusion, cocktail effect and effect due to severe lattice distortion, which leads to tailoring of microstructure and exhibits to excellent surface hardness, corrosion resistance and wear resistance. This paper describes about the brief review on benefits of high entropy alloy coating, challenges arises, suggested remedies for future research work and its applications in aerospace, automobile, marine and chemical industries.

The creep strain rate of FeCrAl oxide dispersion-strengthened alloys, as a promising accident-tolerant fuel (ATF) cladding of the light-water reactors, is accelerated in YAlO3 dispersoids by two to three orders of magnitude compared with Y4Zr3O12 dispersoid at 1273K and even occurs at an applied stress less than threshold stress for dislocation detachment. Two approaches were carried out to interprete new findings and to clarify their mechanism. By optimizing the relaxation of the dislocation line energy at the dispersoid interface, numerical analyses proved the accerelated dislocation-climbing in the YAlO3 dispersoids. The other is a more atomistic approach. The climbing force on the dislocation induced by the stress field around the dispersoid was analyzed in terms of the Peach–Koehler relationship. The accelerated creep strain rate in YAlO3 dispersoids is attributed to a larger climbing force induced by larger lattice misfit with less coherency in YAlO3 dispersoid.

Dynamic response and damage evolution of Zr70Cu13Ni9.8Al3.6Nb3.4Y0.2 bulk metallic glass (Zr-based BMG) under impact pressure ranging from 4.03 GPa to 27.22 GPa were studied. The Hugoniot Elastic Limit (HEL) and the spalling Strength (σsp) were measured as 7.09 GPa and 2.28 GPa, and the curve of impact velocity (D) and particle velocity (u) were also obtained. Under the strain rate of ~105 s−1, local crystallization phenomenon was observed. As increasing the impact pressure, the failure mode of Zr-based BMG changed from spallation to fragmentation caused by the combination of spalling cracks and longitudinal cracks. Cone-cup structures were also observed in the internal spalling zone via nano-CT characterization. When increasing the impact pressure, the thickness of Zr-based BMG increased after impact and the remelting and cladding layers were also observed on the fracture surfaces. The fragments of the specimen were welded after impact due to the high temperature remelting, which causes plastic deformation of Zr-based BMG under shock loading.

A new method of pre-cladding amorphous glass and glass-ceramic brazing was invented to obtain a high-reliability bonding of yttrium iron garnet ferrite (YIG) and magnesium titanate ceramic (MTC) at a relatively low temperature of 725oC. The amorphous glass cladding could alleviate the stress generated by thermal expansion difference between the glass ceramic and base materials. The microstructure shows that micron-scale and nanoscale CoFe2O4 phases were dispersed in the glass seam. The joint shear strength reached 117 ± 6.6 MPa due to the enhancement of CoFe2O4 phases, which was twice as that of the joint directly brazed by amorphous bismuth glass. Correspondingly, the joint weak area was transferred from the glass matrix to the vicinity of the interface and the base material, providing a direct evidence that the glass seam was strengthened by the glass ceramic. It is significant for improving high reliability of the microwave devices for long-term service.

Cladding and structural materials for nuclear reactors must withstand elevated temperatures, energetic particle fluxes, and sustained mechanical loading, while maintaining mechanical strength and integrity. To address this experimental need for new materials, an accelerator end-station has been developed that mates a micro tensile test frame with a 6 MV Van de Graaff Tandem accelerator. This allows ion species with energies up to 100 MeV to strike a specimen during simultaneous heating up to 1200 ℃, uniaxial loading up to 450 kg , or cyclic loading at rates of up to 50 Hz . The ability to perform temperature-controlled tensile, creep, and high-cycle fatigue experiments during ion implantation or irradiation will provide a deeper understanding of the deformation response of materials under various combinations of extreme environments. The capabilities of this facility are demonstrated by inducing irradiation-enhanced creep in coarse-grained copper and suppressing failure during fatigue loading by simultaneous irradiation in nanocrystalline Ni-Fe.

The convective transport of heat and mass can be modified under an external magnetic field during the laser cladding process. The cladding of Inconel 718 powder on a 316L substrate under a static magnetic field was numerically studied. The results show that a static magnetic field has little effect on the characteristics of the temperature field, while an uneven distribution of iron concentration was obtained due to the induced Lorentz force inhibiting melt flow.

The influence of chloride ion concentration in the pitting behavior of 309L cladding used in nuclear power plants has been investigated in-situ by potentiodynamic polarization and morphology observation using microscale electrodes and ex-situ 2D and 3D geometrical characterizations. The results indicate that the concentration of chloride ion affects not only the pitting potential but also the geometry of the pit. The effects of lowering the chloride ions concentration are to enhance the pit growth in depth rather than width. An extremely low chloride ion concentration (0.001 mol/L) cannot give rise to “normal” pitting corrosion but to a transpassivation-induced pit. The related mechanisms are also discussed.

The AISI 904L steel is a superaustenitic stainless steel, which presents a good combination of properties like high strength, weldability, and good corrosion resistance. Despite its wide use in several industrial segments, the literature reporting the performance of claddings deposited with this alloy to improve the corrosion performance of equipment is limited. Based on this scenario, this work evaluates the microstructure and corrosion properties of the AISI 904L steel weld cladding obtained by the electroslag welding (ESW) deposited on a carbon steel ASTM A516 Grade 70. Single layer cladding was deposited on 50 × 400 × 400 mm steel plates with average welding energy of 11.7 kJ/mm to obtain the minimum thickness required. After welding, metallographic examination and corrosion tests were performed on samples removed at 1 and 3 mm parallel to the fusion line. Metallographic characterization was performed by optical and scanning electron microscopy. Cyclic polarization tests in 3.5% NaCl solution were performed at the same positions as the metallographic examinations. The results showed that the austenitic microstructure presenting a low volume fraction of secondary phases provided suitable corrosion results for all conditions studied. It evidences that single layer weld overlays obtained with the AISI 904L steel deposited by the ESW process may be considered an adequate alternative for overlay welding with reduced thicknesses because good results were observed at only 1.0 mm from the fusion line, and this could represent a significant cost reduction.

The ridge morphology, which is related to random atomic step meandering, appears in thick AlInGaN films grown by metal organic chemical vapor deposition on both GaN templates and free-standing GaN substrates; this can be primarily attributed to the in-plane compressive strain in the thick layer. Therefore, a 2.5-μm Al0.08In0.0123GaN film with a slightly tensive strain was grown, with a regular and smooth step-flow morphology; the root mean square deviation of the film (with a size of 5 μm × 5 μm) was 0.56 nm.

A deposited layer of Sn-based Babbitt alloys was fabricated on the surface of the steel substrate via the arc deposition technique. The effect of the composition of Zn on the microstructure and mechanical properties has been systematically studied. The morphology of Babbitt alloys and the interfacial microstructure of the interface between the cladding layer and substrate have been investigated. The experimental results revealed that SnSb phases and Cu6Sn5 phases become more uniformly dispersed in the Sn-matrix as Zn composition increased, which resulting in the improvement of hardness and tensile strength. The enhanced performance can be attributed to precipitation strengthening of the newly formed substitutional solid solution Cu6Zn0.5Sn4.5. The bonding strength of Babbitt and steel has been tested according to the standard destructive testing method of sliding bearing. The bonding strength increased and decreased with the increment of Zn, since excessive Zn led the fracture site to shift from the SnSb phase to the segregated Cu6Sn4.5Zn 0.5 at the interface near IMC layers.

Cu/Al clad sheets with a 304 stainless steel foil (SUS304) interlayer are successfully fabricated by the powder-in-tube method. The influence of SUS304 thickness on the interfacial structure, elemental diffusion, and peeling strength of the clad sheets is studied. Experimental results indicate that the initial Cu/Al interface is partially transformed into a Cu/SUS304/Al interface after introducing the SUS304 interlayer. The proportion of SUS304 fragments at the bonding interface is shown to increase with thickness of the SUS304 interlayer. Differences in deformability between SUS304 interlayer and Cu/Al matrix promote the occurrence of shear deformation at the bonding interface via the cladding process, enhancing atomic diffusion at the Cu/SUS304/Al interface. Peeling tests reveal that interfacial cracks in clad sheets with an SUS304 interlayer propagate along the Cu/SUS304 and Cu/Al interfaces. Under combined effects of interfacial transfer and large shear strain, the interfacial strength of clad sheets is apparently improved. Clad sheets with the thickest SUS304 interlayer (30 μm) exhibit highest peeling strength (30.9 N/mm), demonstrating 73.6% improvement over clad sheets without an interlayer. These findings provide novel insights into the innovative design of clad sheets possessing extraordinary interfacial strength.

The characteristics of the external radiation on the surface of the casks for spent nuclear fuel (SNF) storage by dry method are investigated for the case when the spatial distribution of SNF in the basket changes due to the destruction of the fuel rod claddings. The surface areas are determined, where the changes in fluxes of neutrons, produced by 244Cm actinide, and γ-quanta, produced by long-lived isotopes, are maximum in the result of the decrease in the height of the SNF area. Concrete (VSC-24) and metal (SC-21) casks are considered as examples. The procedure of periodic measurement of the dose rate of neutrons or γ-quanta at the specified points of the cask surface is proposed for identifying the fuel rod cladding destruction. Under normal operation, the decrease in the dose rate produced by neutrons as the function of SNF storage duration is determined by the half-life of 244Cm, and for γ-quanta - by the half-lives of long-lived SNF isotopes. Consequently, a stepwise change in the dose rate of neutrons or γ-quanta, detected by the measurements, as compared to the previous one, would indicate the destruction of the fuel rod claddings.

Nodular cast iron has the strength and toughness which are close to steel and is widely used in industrial fields. The repair and modification of nodular cast iron based on laser cladding can effectively improve the service life, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance of parts. However, nodular cast iron cladding is prone to cracks and hole defects, severely limiting the promotion and application of this technology. The evolution mechanism of multi-field coupling in the spheroidal graphite cast iron laser cladding is the key to quantitatively reveal the improvement of cladding quality. In this paper, moving Gaussian heat source, the influence of temperature change on material physical parameters, the Marangoni effect of molten pool surface tension, and buoyancy on the molten metal flow were considered. A multifield coupling three-dimensional numerical model of IN625 powder laser cladding on nodular cast iron by disk lasers was established. The calculation reveals the transient evolution law of the cladding temperature field, flow field, and plastic stress field. The microstructure morphologies of the cladding layer were observed by Zeiss sigma HD field emission SEM to verify the effectiveness of the model. The results show that the substrate heat input and heat loss reached equilibrium at 0.8s, and the highest temperature reached 1979.7K. There was apparent Marangoni flow in the molten pool, resulting in a small flow velocity in the center and large edges, and the maximum flow velocity was 0.203m/s. When the molten pool was air-cooled to ambient temperature in 1000s, the maximum residual stress was 429MPa. The micromorphology from the bottom to the top of the molten pool is planar crystals, cell crystals, columnar crystals, and equiaxed crystals, which are consistent with the numerical calculation results.

Corrosion phenomena in heavy liquid metal cooled reactors primarily result from dissolution and mass transfer of alloying elements such as nickel from the structural materials to the coolant. We propose and preliminarily demonstrate an approach to passively monitor nickel dissolution in lead and lead-bismuth cooled reactors based on the effect of mass transfer on the neutronics. We support this suggestion with parametric simulations that demonstrate the effect of nickel transfer on reactivity in a modified TRIGA Mark-III reactor with steel cladding and lead coolant. Simulations of a uranium sphere show that nickel contributes a negative effect on the reactivity in the fast spectrum through parasitic absorption which is stronger than its effect on moderation. Transfer of nickel from the cladding to lead in the modified TRIGA reactor model results in removal of some of the nickel from the active core and significantly increases the total reactivity.

Common welding processes that are used for cladding causes dilution and therefore, there is a need to explore new processes of cladding. In this work, friction stir welding process has been used to successfully clad 3 mm thick copper sheet on a 6 mm thick mild steel substrate. The process is different from lap welding, not only because of its intended purpose, but also because several FSW passes are needed to cover the entire surface of the substrate. After one FSW pass, successive passes were carried out to cover a wider width of the clad layer by offsetting the tool. Metallurgical examination of the transverse cross-section of cladded samples was carried out using optical microscopy, SEM–EDS, microhardness test, and XRD. Surface jetting type features, normally seen in explosive welding, were observed at the interface of the two materials. The average grain size of steel substrate below the clad layer for both single and triple passes showed refined grains with size of 3.9 µm and 4.2 µm respectively indicating an improvement of more than 60% over the base steel. Although there was plastic flow of material, the substrate material could not make to the top surface of the clad layer. XRD analysis confirmed no new phases were observed on the top surface of the clad layer after cladding. However, the interface region on the transverse cross-section confirmed the presence of Cu0.8Fe0.2 and Cu0.3Fe1.7 intermetallics. Microhardness for copper clad region remained nearly same across all the passes. However, for the steel substrate, higher hardness values were found near the stir zone due to grain refinement for single pass clad while for double and triple passes, a slight reduction was recorded possibly due to metal transfer across the boundary upon second and third passes.

Full-factorial design was applied to investigate the effect of processing parameters on the aspect ratio, wetting angle, and cladding efficiency. The results indicated that all the selected factors were significantly related to processing parameters, with the linear velocity and defocus having a significant influence on the aspect ratio independently and the laser power having a substantial impact on the wetting angle along with the interactions of the laser power and linear velocity, the laser power and defocus, and the linear velocity and defocus. The defocus also showed a significant influence on the cladding efficiency, along with the interactions of the laser power and defocus and of the linear velocity and defocus. Finally, multiobjective optimization was conducted based on a goal of maximizing the grey relational grade. The optimized processing parameter set was found to be 1800 W, 10 mm/s, and 10 mm, resulting in a smaller aspect ratio, larger wetting angle, and higher cladding efficiency.

TiB2/metal composite material was prepared by magnetic-field-assisted laser cladding on Ti–6Al–4V to improve wear resistance and decrease crack sensitivity. The influences of the magnetostrictive effect on the crack sensitivity and mechanical properties were studied. Moreover, the effects of the magnetic field on the microstructure, lattice parameters, and wear properties of the laser layers were investigated. TiB2 particles were synthesized on the surface of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy in situ by laser cladding. The magnetic intensity influenced the mechanical properties of the laser cladding layers. The wear properties of the composite cladding layers were improved by increasing the hardness and decreasing the elastic modulus of the cladding layer. The lattice mismatch phenomenon in the cladding layer was reduced, and the mechanical properties of the cladding layer were enhanced by introducing a magnetostrictive effect. The application of 20 mT magnetic intensity was appropriate for generating a negative magnetostrictive effect, and the lattice misfit parameter, wear volume, and coefficient of friction were the lowest among all the samples.

Laser cladding Ni-based composite coating has significant advantages in improving the surface properties of QT500-7. WC/Ni60 composite powders with different WC mass fractions were cladded on the surface of QT500-7. The microstructure and tribological properties of the cladding layer were studied on the basis of optimizing process parameters. The study found that the surface morphology appeared bright white area, bright gray area, dark gray area, and black area. With the increase of WC mass fraction, the types of the cladding layer from bottom to top are gradually enriched, and the types of W-containing carbides produced are also increasing. Meanwhile, the hardness, corrosion resistance, and tribological properties are significantly improved.

In this study, a W–ZrC composite coating was applied on graphite substrate by a novel TIG-aided cladding process. The obtained overlay was uniform exhibiting no crack and discontinuity. In-situ reaction between WC and ZrO2 powders promoted by the heat of the TIG source resulted in overlay formation. To investigate and compare the effect of TiC and Co addition on composite microstructure and functionality, TiC and Co powders were added to WC powder. The phase formation, microstructure, adhesion, microhardness and toughness of the coating were the targets of the examinations and characterizations. The cross-sectional image of the coatings indicated a desired metallurgical bonding at the clad/substrate interface. The examined microhardness and toughness values of the composite coating with pure WC were 1700 HV and 4.7 MPa m , respectively. These values were 2500 HV and 4 MPa m for the sample containing TiC and Co additives. Extensive formation of solid solution between carbide materials and liquid phase formation by W and Co in the composite coating containing TiC and Co led to enhancement of the mechanical performance of the latter. Meanwhile, the improved resistance of the graphite against the oxidation and ablation is expected in presence of the composite clad layer in contrast to the bare graphite sample.

Cladding tube is an important part of nuclear power components. This paper presents a simulation and experimental study on the cold drawing process of one kind of cladding tubes, namely thin-walled ribbed steel tube. Three kinds of drawing processes are studied: single pass drawing, tube sinking and fixed-plug combined drawing process, and two pass fixed-plug drawing process. The finite element (FE) simulation model considering Johnson-Cook constitutive equation is established to analyze the effective stress, effective plastic strain, and contact force in different drawing processes. Different out diameter (OD) and wall thickness (WT) 316L stainless steel (SS) tubes are used to investigate the forming process of the ribbed tube. Furthermore, experiments with the same parameter settings are compared with the simulations. It is found that the simulation and experimental results are in good agreement, the ribs height highly depends on the tube OD and WT. The results show that the formation of tube ribs is caused by the extrusion of the drawing die. In addition, during the forming of the tube ribs, inner grooves will be formed on the inner wall of tube, and the fixed-plug drawing process can effectively reduce the depth of the inner groove. Finally, the microstructure and hardness of the ribbed tube at different position are investigated. This work provides a reference for the integrated forming process of the ribbed tube.

Ti–Al–V–Nb alloys with the cluster formula, 12[Al–Ti12](AlTi2)+5[Al–Ti14](V,Nb)2Ti, were designed by replacing V with Nb based on the Ti–6Al–4V alloy. Single-track cladding layers and bulk samples of the alloys with Nb contents ranging from 0 to 6.96 wt.% were prepared by laser additive manufacturing to examine their formability, microstructure, and mechanical properties. For single-track cladding layers, the addition of Nb increased the surface roughness slightly and decreased the molten pool height to improve its spreadability. The alloy, Ti–5.96Al–1.94V– 3.54Nb (wt.%), exhibited better geometrical accuracy than the other alloys because its molten pool height was consistent with the spread layer thickness of the powder. The microstructures of the bulk samples contained similar columnar β-phase grains, regardless of Nb content. These grains grew epitaxially from the Ti substrate along the deposition direction, with basket-weave α-phase laths within the columnar grains. The α-phase size increased with increasing Nb contents, but its uniformity decreased. Along the deposition direction, the Vickers hardness increased from the substrate to the surface. The Ti–5.96Al–1.94V–3.54Nb alloy exhibited the highest Vickers hardness regardless of deposition position because of the optimal matching relationship between the α-phase size and its content among the designed alloys.

Ti2AlC film can be used as a protective coating for fuel cladding materials and structural materials in nuclear reactors. However, the related radiation damage and the helium (He) effects have not been well understood. In this work, the He radiation effects on Ti2AlC thin films, deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering, were studied. In addition to the detailed characterization of the radiation-induced defects and He bubbles, phase transformation was identified and investigated during film deposition, ion irradiation, and subsequent annealing. Results suggested that the hexagonal close-packed (hcp) Ti2AlC was formed from a solid-solution face-centered cubic (fcc) (Ti2Al)C phase during the film deposition process. A phase transformation from hcp-Ti2AlC to fcc-(Ti2Al)C happened during the He ion irradiation, while a reversible phase transformation from fcc-(Ti2Al)C to hcp-Ti2AlC occurred during the post annealings at temperatures above 600 °C. The reversible phase transformation indicates dynamic restoration of this material and provides insights into the design of new irradiation-damage-tolerant ceramic materials.

The structural and phase states of a E110 alloy are studied, and the oxygen and hydrogen contents in the alloy subjected to high-temperature oxidation modeling the loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) conditions are determined. Samples of tubes 9.13 mm in diameter and 0.7 in wall thickness made of a Zr–1% Nb alloy, which is based on electrolytic zirconium (E110) and zirconium sponge (E110G), and a Zr–1% Nb–0.12% Fe–0.13% O modified alloy (E110M) are used for investigation. The samples are subjected to steam oxidation at 1100°C to an equivalent cladding reacted of 18%. The E110G alloy based on a zirconium sponge is found to exhibit the lower oxygen and hydrogen absorption under the LOCA conditions.

In the metal deposition process, the performance of the nozzle is crucial to the quality of clad. Continuous coaxial nozzles are broadly used in this process for repairing two- and three-dimensional parts, because it can create a homogeneous distribution of powder particles. In addition, an inert gas can be applied using this type of nozzles which shields powder particles and laser interaction zone, and prevents the surface from oxidizing at high process temperatures. However, when this type of nozzle is tilted from the vertical axis for cladding non-horizontal surfaces, the effect of gravity on powder particles affects the uniformity of powder distribution at the nozzle outlet. This matter limits the application of the nozzle at non-zero inclination angles in multi-axis cladding. The purpose of this paper is to present a new design for continuous coaxial nozzles which is less sensitive to gravity, and thus, improves the performance of the nozzle at non-zero inclination angles. The new design is based on changing the configuration of nozzle inlets and partitioning powder flow in existing continuous coaxial nozzles. The powder flow is divided into eight parts before entering the nozzle, each part passing through one of the eight radially symmetrical grooves embedded in the inner cone of the nozzle. The performance of the new design is investigated through numerical simulation of powder flow in the nozzle. Improved values for the parameters affecting the powder flow distribution, including the velocity of carrier gas and the geometric dimensions of powder inlet and outlet sections, is also extracted. The simulation results show that using the new design, the deviation of the powder focal point from the nozzle axis is decreased. It is observed that at inclination angles of 0, 20, 30 and 45 degrees, the powder passing through a circle of 2.5 mm diameter is 90%, 89%, 87% and 86%, respectively. This indicates that tilting the nozzle has a small influence on the amount of powder delivered at the nozzle focal plane. Consequently, by reducing the effect of gravity on the powder flow distribution, the new nozzle can be used in a wide range of inclination angles.

Copper and copper alloys own high thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, good plasticity, and corrosion resistance, which are widely used in electric power, aerospace, and marine engineering. Due to low absorption rate of infrared and near infrared light, high thermal conductivity and high activity with oxygen, laser cladding of copper, and copper alloys are difficult to be conducted in air since the problems associated to cracks and voids are always hardly to be eliminated. In this paper, C-Al2O3-Cu composite powder mixed with Ni and Fe was developed to solve these problems. Use of carbon was to depress the oxidation and improve the laser absorption, while alumina was used to improve the laser absorption and mechanical strength. To improve the bonding strength between cladding layer and substrate, Ni and Fe were used. Experimental results showed that no obvious aggregation was observed and the powder showed good fluidity. The tensile strength of the cladding layer is 406.7 ± 0.1MPa which is about 1.7 times higher than that of pure copper substrate, and the tensile fracture of the cladding layer revealed microporous aggregation fracture due to the existence of Al2O3 in the cladding layer.

The present work reviews the laser cladding process as a repairing technique and the conventional repairing techniques and different heat source models. In this review work, the authors have tried to address the various traditional methods studied for repairing and surface modification. The dominantly used heat source model for numerical modelling of the repairing techniques and the mechanism of the laser cladding process, along with its advantages over the conventional repairing techniques, is also reviewed. This paper also focuses on the predominantly used laser of high power for the cladding process and the effect of process parameters on the quality of the clad layer. The different materials used as clad materials for repairing purposes during the laser cladding process have also been discussed briefly. In this paper, the authors have surveyed literature from different regions of the globe and considered the literature since 1969. This review discusses the various conventional repairing techniques used for repairing, heat source model, process parameters, and different materials used in the laser cladding process. The authors have also briefed the advantages, disadvantages, and application in each of the sections. The use of laser cladding for in-situ repairing process, development of a precise model, use of low-power laser, and application of laser cladding for actual engineering components was also considered in future research work.

Vacuum roll-cladding (VRC) is an effective method to produce high quality ultra-heavy AISI P20 plate steel. In the process of VRC, reasonable welding process of electron beam welding (EBW) can significantly avoid welding cracks and reduce the cost. In this paper, the electron beam welding process of AISI P20 tool steel was simulated by using a combined heat source model based on finite element method, and the temperature field and stress field under different welding parameters were studied respectively . The results showed that welding parameters have a greater effect on weld penetration than that of weld width, which making the aspect ratio increases with the increase of welding current, and decrease with the increase of welding speed. The weld morphologies were consistent with those of the modeling and the measured thermal heat curves were good agreement with those of simulated, which was verified the feasibility and effectiveness of temperature fields. The results of stress fields under different welding parameters indicat ed that lower welding speed and higher welding current resulting in lower residual stress at welded joint, which means lower risk of cracking after EBW. The results of this study have been successfully applied to industrial production.

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are potential alternative materials for accident-tolerant fuel cladding due to their excellent irradiation resistance and high-temperature corrosion resistance. In this work, two novel body-centered cubic (bcc) structured Mo0.5NbTiVCr0.25 and Mo0.5NbTiV0.5Zr0.25 HEAs were fabricated. Helium-ion irradiation was performed on the two HEAs to simulate neutron irradiation, and the crystal structure, hardness, and microstructure evolution were investigated. The crystal structure of the Mo0.5NbTiVCr0.25 HEA remained stable at low fluences, while amorphization may occur at high fluences in the two HEAs. The irradiation hardening value of the Mo0.5NbTiVCr0.25 was 0.77 GPa at fluences of 1 × 1017 ions/cm2 and 1.49 GPa at fluences of 5 × 1017 ions/cm2, while the hardening value of the Mo0.5NbTiV0.5Zr0.25 was 1.36 GPa at ion fluences of 5 × 1017 ions/cm2. In comparison with most of the conventional alloys, the two HEAs showed slight irradiation hardening. The helium bubbles and dislocation loops with small size were observed in the two HEAs after irradiation. This is the first time to report the formation of a dislocation loop in bcc-structure HEAs after irradiation. However, voids and precipitates were not observed in the two HEAs which could be ascribed to the high lattice distortion and compositional complexity of HEAs. This research revealed that the two HEAs show outstanding irradiation resistance, which may be promising accident-tolerant fuel cladding materials.

Buildings' facades significantly impact human thermal comfort and the energy budget of buildings. It is estimated that 73% of heat losses or gains are immediately linked to the configuration and types of materials in the buildings' envelope. Building styles in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia witnessed a large and growing expansion in curtain walls, glass facades, metal cladding, and precast concrete. It is striking that terracotta cladding is most often associated with school building facades, especially the government ones, with very limited applications in other building types. This paper investigates the energy-related budget of using Aluminum and terracotta cladding in an educational facility in KSA. The article follows the experimental approach. Data about both cladding materials' specifications were obtained and input into the virtual model building in DesignBuilder software for simulation and analysis. The comparative analysis of energy consumption during the building's operational phase in both cases revealed that more energy budget was needed in the case of Aluminum cladding to provide thermal comfort to the occupants. The study concludes that the efficiency of thermal insulation of Terracotta is better than the Aluminum sheets. On the other hand, and in the long run, the study underscores the preference of using Aluminum cladding for its extensive reuse and recycling potential. Brittleness of Terracotta limits its prospects for recycling; therefore, it might be more energy-consuming when frequently reproduced for new applications or maintenance purposes throughout the building life cycle.

This article discusses the conditions of formation of coatings based on titanium nickelide upon argon dual-arc cladding of titanium and nickel electrode wires on titanium samples. The quality of formation and the geometrical parameters of the joint upon dual-arc cladding have been evaluated. The interrelation between the ratio of the feeding rates of nickel and titanium wires and the chemical composition of cladded coatings has been established. The structures of cladded metal have been analyzed in the preset range of cladding modes. It has been demonstrated that, during argon dual-arc cladding at a preset ratio of feeding rates of titanium and nickel wires, the coatings are formed on the basis of the Ti2Ni and TiNi intermetallic phases. The mechanical and operational properties of the cladded coatings have been evaluated: hardness, resistance against abrasive wear, and heat resistance at 800°C. It has been shown that the relative wear resistance of cladded coatings is superior to that of titanium samples. The relative wear resistance of coatings has been described as a function chemical and phase composition. The heat resistance of cladded coatings as a function of the cladding modes and chemical composition of the metal joint has been determined.

Amodel of three-dimensional temperature and residual stress fields was developed for the process of laser deposition of coatings from a Fe-based alloy containing 32% Mn, 9% Si, 4% Cr, and 3% Ni using a rectangular laser beam. The obtained model links the temperature fields to the structure and makes it possible to calculate the evolving temperature and stresses during cladding. The analysis of the simulation results is provided.

The microstructure, microhardness, and corrosion resistance of laser cladding Ni–WC coating on the surface of AlSi5Cu1Mg alloy were investigated by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, microhardness testing, immersion corrosion testing, and electrochemical measurement. The results show that a smooth coating containing NiAl, Ni3Al, M7C3, M23C6 phases (M=Ni, Al, Cr, W, Fe) and WC particles is prepared by laser cladding. Under a laser scanning speed of 120 mm/min, the microhardness of the cladding coating is 9–11 times that of AlSi5Cu1Mg, due to the synergistic effect of excellent metallurgical bond and newly formed carbides. The Ni–WC coating shows higher corrosion potential (−318.09 mV) and lower corrosion current density (12.33 μA/cm2) compared with the matrix. The crack-free, dense cladding coating obviously inhibits the penetration of Cl− and H+, leading to the remarkedly improved corrosion resistance of cladding coating.

Cu2Nb37O87 exhibits excellent electrochemical properties, high theoretical capacity (401 mAh g−1), safe working voltage (~1.7 V) and outstanding rate performance for lithium-ion batteries. However, poor electrical conductivity inhibits its further development. In this study, Cu2Nb37O87@C nano-wires are prepared by combining electrospinning and carbon-coating techniques to mitigate this issue, which breaks through the barrier of low conductivity, improves the ion diffusion rate and relieves the change of crystal volume. Besides, the sample is tested by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and most importantly, the mechanism of lithium-ion storage is explored by an in-situ X-ray diffraction analysis. Moreover, according to a sequence of electrochemical tests, it is clarified that the electronic conductivity and electrochemical activity of Cu2Nb37O87 are enhanced significantly. All these are inseparable from the synergistic effect of the nano-crystallisation and carbon coating. Therefore, nano-structures and surface cladding provide effective tactics to construct effective ion-migration interfaces and enhance conductivity for the further study of Cu2Nb37O87 and other electrode materials.

A typical three-dimensional finite element model for a fuel assembly is established, which is composed of 16 monolithic U-10Mo fuel plates and Al alloy frame. The distribution and evolution results of temperature, displacement and stresses/strains in all the parts are numerically obtained and analyzed with a self-developed code of FUELTM. The simulation results indicate that (1) the out-of-plane displacements of Al alloy side plates are mainly attributed to the bending deformations; (2) enhanced out-of-plane displacements appear in fuel plates adjacent to the outside Al plates, which results from the occurred bending deformations due to the applied constraints of outside Al plates; (3) an intense interaction of fuel foil with the cladding occurs near the foil edge, which appears more heavily in the fuel plates adjacent to the outside Al plates. The maximum first principal stresses in the fuel foil are similar for all the fuel plates and appear near the fuel foil edge; while, the through-thickness creep strains of fuel foil in the fuel plate near the central region of fuel assembly are larger, and the induced creep damage might weaken the fuel skeleton strength and raise the fuel failure risk.

The composite material of the fiber optic cable tube (G.652D-Stel-K-036-2012) or Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)-Master Batch MB) has been tested for tensile strength, elongation, and functional groups for fiber optic tube cladding materials. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of heating temperatures of 2500C, 2550C, and 2600C on tensile strength, elongation, and functional groups in PBT-MB composite tube for fiber optic tube cladding material. The PBT-MB composite material was made by mixing PBT (80% by weight) with MB (20% by weight) in a ball mill. Then put together and processed into a tube on the extruder. Tensile and elongation strength was tested bytensile test, functional group test with FTIR, and humidity test. The results of the tensile test and elongation test increased with increasing heating temperature and still met the specified standard. The results of the functional group test showed that there was a CH bond from the PBT Tube at the highest wave peak, namely 2923.54 cm-11,725.10 cm-1,there was also a CH Aldehydes bond at a wavelength of 2852.19 cm-1,935.30 cm-1,916.02cm-1,873.59 cm -1,811.88 cm-1, the carbonyl bond C=C at a wavelength of 1708.61 cm-1,and the last is an Aromatic bond at a wavelength of 1504.20 cm-1. The chemical bonds in the test compounds were PBT-MB tube composites. From all the tests carried out, it was concluded that the variation of temperature on the manufacture of PBT-MB tube composites was very influential on the quality and still met the established standards.

Residual stress and deformation of metal matrix composite coatings are significantly influenced by cladding sequences. This paper presents a bionic structure model verified based on the coupling structure of shells, and the difference of residual stress and deformation induced by four laser cladding sequences are simulated using the finite element method. The results indicate that the residual stress principally centralizes on cladding layers, while the deformation chiefly concentrates in the area far away from the fixed points. Furthermore, the distribution trend and value of residual stress are greatly affected by the cladding sequence, while the sequence has little effect on deformation. Based on the simulation results, an optimized cladding sequence of this bionic structure is obtained to control the cladding stress and distortion in the practical application of the Ti-6Al-4V. In addition, Ti-6Al-4V/WC coatings are prepared on the surface of Ti-6Al-4V. The experimental results demonstrate that the bionic coatings can effectively improve the microhardness and wear resistance of substrate.

Bimetal pipes are highly stressed composite components that must resist corrosion in a chemically aggressive environment. They are made by welding resistive material to commonly available carbon steel pipes. The production of pipe bends with a supercritical bend of 0.7D, which are part of serpentine systems, is very complex and technologically demanding because very often undesired cracks occur. To increase the service life of these serpentine systems, the use of a 16Mo3 base steel pipe with a cladding layer of Inconel 625 material was proposed for their production in order to significantly increase their corrosion resistance. For this reason, an extensive analysis of the production of pipe bends with a supercritical bend of 0.7D from bimetal pipes with Inconel 625 cladding was performed, which addressed not only the bend but also the mechanical properties of the pipe with Inconel 625 cladding. It was found that the production of the bent pipes with a bend of 0.7D is feasible completely without defects with perfectly satisfactory mechanical properties, under appropriate technological conditions.

AISI 431 bead-on-plates were deposited on AISI 1010 by laser cladding, since it is a well-known corrosion-resistant material. The effects of laser power, scanning speed, powder feed rate and focal distance on the coatings’ geometry and dilution ratios, as well as microstructure evolution, iron dilution and microhardness of the beads were evaluated by optical and electron scanning microscopes, the last one coupled with x-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy, and microhardness test. The results showed that the clad height is mainly influenced by the scanning speed, while for the width, laser power, scanning speed and focal distance were crucial. Changing laser power has a more marked effect on the dilution than on the aspect ratio, while changing scanning speeds and focal distance shows a marked effect on both dilution and aspect ratio. The microstructure of coating zone is mainly composed by lath martensite. Furthermore, the average hardness by microindentation of the AISI 431 stainless steel cladding coating was about 5 times higher than that of the substrate.

Coal crushers are widely used in the industrial mining of coal. Considerable wear occurs due to the abrasive nature of coal, so regular maintenance is required, and currently hardfacing by using electric arc welding is widely used as a remedy. This study aimed to compare the hardfacing between welding methods, such as shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding with and without added metal powders that will give optimum longevity. The hardfacing was martensitic material that is highly resistant to wear. The results of the study indicate that the welding process with a low-heat input caused less welding dilution than welding with high-heat input. The microstructures in all the hardfacings, when analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, showed martensite and austenite. It was found that a single hardfacing layer contained more alloying elements from the buffer layer than a three-layer hardfacing, resulting in a more austenite phase, lower hardness, and poorer wear resistance. The worn surfaces of hardfacing layers, after wear testing according to ASTM G65, showed mainly cutting and plowing types of wear. The results show that welding with flux-cored wires using the lowest heat input (0.72 kJ/mm) gave the lowest mass loss for both single-layered hardfacing (2343.75 mg) and three-layered hardfacing (1984.50 mg) and is therefore recommended for hardfacing with martensitic materials.