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Glaucophyta are members of the Archaeplastida, the founding group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that also includes red algae (Rhodophyta), green algae, and plants (Viridiplantae). Here we present a high-quality assembly, built using long-read sequences, of the ca. 100 Mb nuclear genome of the model glaucophyte Cyanophora paradoxa. We also conducted a quick-freeze deep-etch electron microscopy (QFDEEM) analysis of C. paradoxa cells to investigate glaucophyte morphology in comparison to other organisms. Using the genome data, we generated a resolved 115-taxon eukaryotic tree of life that includes a well-supported, monophyletic Archaeplastida. Analysis of muroplast peptidoglycan (PG) ultrastructure using QFDEEM shows that PG is most dense at the cleavage-furrow. Analysis of the chlamydial contribution to glaucophytes and other Archaeplastida shows that these foreign sequences likely played a key role in anaerobic glycolysis in primordial algae to alleviate ATP starvation under night-time hypoxia. The robust genome assembly of C. paradoxa significantly advances knowledge about this model species and provides a reference for exploring the panoply of traits associated with the anciently diverged glaucophyte lineage., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Kazusa DNA Research Institute.)

Glaucophytes are a kingdom-scale lineage of unicellular algae with uniquely underived plastids. The genus Cyanophora is of particular interest because it is the only glaucophyte that is a flagellate throughout its life cycle, making its morphology more directly comparable than other glaucophytes to other eukaryote flagellates. The ultrastructure of Cyanophora has already been studied, primarily in the 1960s and 1970s. However, the usefulness of that work has been undermined by its own limitations, subsequent misinterpretations, and a recent taxonomic revision of the genus. For example, Cyanophora's microtubular roots have been widely reported as cruciate, with rotationally symmetrical wide and thin roots, although the first ultrastructural work described it as having three wide and one narrow root. We examine Cyanophora cuspidata using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and construct a model of its cytoskeleton using serial-section TEM. We confirm the earlier model, with asymmetric roots. We describe previously unknown and unsuspected features of its microtubular roots, including (i) a rearrangement of individual microtubules within the posterior right root, (ii) a splitting of the posterior left root into two subroots, and (iii) the convergence and termination of the narrow roots against wider ones in both the anterior and posterior subsystems of the flagellar apparatus. We also describe a large complement of nonmicrotubular components of the cytoskeleton, including a substantial connective between the posterior right root and the anterior basal body. Our work should serve as the starting point for a re-examination of both internal glaucophyte diversity and morphological evolution in eukaryotes., (© 2017 Phycological Society of America.)

Chloroplasts are believed to be descendants of ancestral cyanobacteria that have a peptidoglycan layer between the outer and the inner membranes. In particular, cyanelles having peptidoglycan in Cyanophora paradoxa are considered as evidence for the endosymbiotic origin of chloroplasts. The moss Physcomitrella patens has a complete set of genes involved in the synthesis of peptidoglycan, but a peptidoglycan layer has not been observed by conventional electron microscopy to date. Recently, a new metabolic labeling technique using a fluorescent probe was applied to visualize putative peptidoglycan surrounding the chloroplasts. The exact localization of the peptidoglycan, however, has not been clearly identified. Here we examined conventional electron micrographs of two types of moss materials (mutants or ampicillin-treated plants), one presumably having peptidoglycan and the other presumably lacking peptidoglycan, and analyzed in detail, by single-pixel densitometry, the electron density of the chloroplast envelope membranes and the intermembrane space. Statistical analysis showed that the relative electron density within the intermembrane space with respect to that of the envelope membranes was significantly higher in the materials presumably having peptidoglycan than in the materials presumably devoid of peptidoglycan. We consider this difference as bona fide evidence for the presence of peptidoglycan between the outer and the inner envelope membranes in the wild-type chloroplasts of the moss, although its density is lower than that in bacteria and cyanelles. We will also discuss this low-density peptidoglycan in the light of the phylogenetic origin of peptidoglycan biosynthesis enzymes., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Japanese Society of Plant Physiologists. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

A heterotrophic organism 1-2 billion years ago enslaved a cyanobacterium to become the first photosynthetic eukaryote, and has diverged globally. The primary phototrophs, glaucophytes, are thought to retain ancestral features of the first photosynthetic eukaryote, but examining the protoplast ultrastructure has previously been problematic in the coccoid glaucophyte Glaucocystis due to its thick cell wall. Here, we examined the three-dimensional (3D) ultrastructure in two divergent species of Glaucocystis using ultra-high voltage electron microscopy. Three-dimensional modelling of Glaucocystis cells using electron tomography clearly showed that numerous, leaflet-like flattened vesicles are distributed throughout the protoplast periphery just underneath a single-layered plasma membrane. This 3D feature is essentially identical to that of another glaucophyte genus Cyanophora, as well as the secondary phototrophs in Alveolata. Thus, the common ancestor of glaucophytes and/or the first photosynthetic eukaryote may have shown similar 3D structures.

The cyanelles of glaucocystophytes are probably the most primitive of known extant plastids and the closest to cyanobacteria. Their kidney shape and FtsZ arc during the early stage of division define cyanelle division. In order to deepen and expand earlier results (Planta 227:177-187, 2007), cells of Cyanophora paradoxa were fixed with two different chemical and two different freeze-fixation methods. In addition, cyanelles from C. paradoxa were isolated to observe the surface structure of dividing cyanelles using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). A shallow furrow started on one side of the division plane. The furrow subsequently extended, covering the entire division circle, and then invaginated deeply, becoming clearly visible. The typical FtsZ arc was 2.3-3.4 microm long. This length matches that of the cleavage furrow observed using FE-SEM. The cyanelle cleavage furrows are from one-fourth to one-half of the circumference of the division plane. The shallow furrow that appears on the cyanelle outer surface effectively changes the division plane. Using freeze-fixation methods, the electron-dense stroma and peptidoglycan could be distinguished. In addition, an electron-dense belt structure (the cyanelle ring) was observed inside the leading edge at the cyanelle division plane. The FtsZ arc is located at the division plane ahead of the cyanelle ring. Immunogold-TEM localization shows that FtsZ is located interiorly of the cyanelle ring. The lack of an outer PD ring, together with the arch-shaped furrow, suggests that the mechanical force of the initial (arch shaped) septum furrow constriction comes from inside the cyanelle.

The nature of the cytoplasmic pathway of starch biosynthesis was investigated in the model glaucophyte Cyanophora paradoxa. The storage polysaccharide granules are shown to be composed of both amylose and amylopectin fractions, with a chain length distribution and crystalline organization similar to those of green algae and land plant starch. A preliminary characterization of the starch pathway demonstrates that Cyanophora paradoxa contains several UDP-glucose-utilizing soluble starch synthase activities related to those of the Rhodophyceae. In addition, Cyanophora paradoxa synthesizes amylose with a granule-bound starch synthase displaying a preference for UDP-glucose. A debranching enzyme of isoamylase specificity and multiple starch phosphorylases also are evidenced in the model glaucophyte. The picture emerging from our biochemical and molecular characterizations consists of the presence of a UDP-glucose-based pathway similar to that recently proposed for the red algae, the cryptophytes, and the alveolates. The correlative presence of isoamylase and starch among photosynthetic eukaryotes is discussed.

Cyanelles of the biflagellate protist Cyanophora paradoxa have retained the peptidoglycan layer, which is critical for division, as indicated by the inhibitory effects of beta-lactam antibiotics. An FtsZ ring is formed at the division site during cyanelle division. We used immunofluorescence microscopy to observe the process of FtsZ ring formation, which is expected to lead cyanelle division, and demonstrated that an FtsZ arc and a split FtsZ ring emerge during the early and late stages of cyanelle division, respectively. We used an anti-FtsZ antibody to observe cyanelle FtsZ rings. We observed bright, ring-shaped fluorescence of FtsZ in cyanelles. Cyanelles were kidney-shaped shortly after division. Fluorescence indicated that FtsZ did not surround the division plane at an early stage of division, but rather formed an FtsZ arc localized at the constriction site. The constriction spread around the cyanelle, which gradually became dumbbell shaped. After the envelope's invagination, the ring split parallel to the cyanelle division plane without disappearing. Treatment of C. paradoxa cells with ampicillin, a beta-lactam antibiotic, resulted in spherical cyanelles with an FtsZ arc or ring on the division plane. Transmission electron microscopy of the ampicillin-treated cyanelle envelope membrane revealed that the surface was not smooth. Thus, the inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis by ampicillin causes the inhibition of septum formation and a marked delay in constriction development. The formation of the FtsZ arc and FtsZ ring is the earliest sign of cyanelle division, followed by constriction and septum formation.

Envelope membranes were isolated by sucrose density gradient floatation centrifugation from the homogenate of cyanelles prepared from Cyanophora paradoxa. Two yellow bands were separated after 40 h of centrifugation. The buoyant density of one of the two fractions (fraction Y2) coincided with that of inner envelope membranes of spinach or plasma membranes of cyanobacteria. The other yellow fraction (fraction Y1) migrated to top of sucrose-gradient even at 0% sucrose. Pigment analysis revealed that the heavy yellow fraction was rich in zeaxanthin while the light fraction was rich in beta-carotene, and the both fractions contained practically no chlorophylls. Another yellow fraction (fraction Y3) was isolated from the phycobiliprotein fraction, which was the position where the sample was placed for gradient centrifugation. Its buoyant density and absorption spectra were similar to outer membranes of cyanobacteria. We have assigned fractions Y2 and Y3 as inner and outer envelope membrane fractions of cyanelles, respectively. Protein compositions were rather different between the two envelope membranes indicating little cross-contamination among the fractions.