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This study's first purpose was to investigate effects of a fourth- and fifth-grade “next-generation” fraction intervention, which included six enhancements over a previously validated fraction intervention, designed to address career- and college-readiness standards. The study's second purpose was to assess effects of the next-generation fraction intervention at follow-up, 1 year after intervention ended. The third purpose was to isolate the effects of one of the six intervention enhancements: interleaved fraction calculations instruction. Students with intensive intervention needs were randomized to next-generation fraction intervention (Super Solvers [SSINT]) with blocked calculations instruction (SSINT_B), SSINT with interleaved calculations instruction (SSINT_I), and control. On a mix of proximal and transfer outcomes, SSINT (across conditions) produced strong, significant effects over control at posttest. At follow-up, effect sizes were weaker but remained significant on calculations: g = 1.22. On other measures, follow-up g was 0.39 to 0.58. The effect of SSINT_I over SSINT_B, although not significant at posttest ( g = 0.28), was statistically significant and large at follow-up ( g = 0.65), in line with the cognitive science literature showing long-term advantages for interleaved instruction. Results suggest next-generation fraction intervention efficacy for intensive-needs students and the importance of interleaved instruction.

Although the important role of children's executive function (EF) in their reading development has been well-established, less is known about the extent to which multilingual children's EF components vary and whether the variability in different EF abilities explains multilingual children's English reading achievement. The present study explored the US first-grade multilingual children's (N = 3,819) profiles of EF abilities and how the profile membership was associated with their English reading achievement, using a nationally representative sample of multilingual children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K: 2011) study. We fit latent profile analysis with various EF components, including working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, approaches to learning, and attentional focus, and found three distinct EF profiles in multilingual children: (a) Below-Average EFs with Above-Average Cognitive Flexibility (10.13%), (b) Above-Average EFs (84.09%), and (c) Very Low Cognitive Flexibility (5.78%). Controlling for kindergarten English reading achievement scores and demographic variables, children in the Above-Average EFs profile attained a significantly higher English reading achievement score than their peers, while children in the Very Low Cognitive Flexibility group had the lowest English reading achievement score. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding multilingual children's heterogeneity in EF and have implications for the early identification of and tailored intervention for multilingual children at risk for reading difficulties.

Although educators frequently use assessment to identify who needs supplemental instruction and if that instruction is working, there is a lack of research investigating assessment that informs what instruction students need. The purpose of the current study was to determine if a brief (approximately 20 min) task that reflects a common middle school expectation (writing in response to text) provides educators with information about students' strengths and weaknesses in four research-based components of writing. Results indicated that, at the end of elementary school (Grade 5), students' word- and sentence-level errors, text-level plan, and typing fluency predicted 43% of their performance in written composition quality and all these factors play a role in writing achievement. At the end of middle school (Grade 8), text-level plan and word-level accuracy remained important components. Implications for using assessment to guide selection of evidence-based writing instruction throughout middle school are discussed.

The purpose of this study was threefold: to examine unique and shared risk factors of comorbidity for reading comprehension and word-problem solving difficulties, to explore whether language minority (LM) learners are at increased risk of what we refer to as higher order comorbidity (reading comprehension and word-problem solving difficulties), and to examine the profiles of at-risk LM learners compared with at-risk non-LM learners. At-risk (LM n = 70; non-LM n = 89) and not-at-risk (LM n = 44; non-LM n = 114) students were evaluated on foundational academic (word reading, calculation), behavioral (behavioral attention), cognitive (working memory, processing speed, nonverbal reasoning), and language (vocabulary, listening comprehension) measures in English. Results indicated listening comprehension was the only shared risk factor for higher order comorbidity. Furthermore, LM learners were 3 times more likely to be identified as at risk compared with non-LM learners. Finally, among at-risk learners, no differences were found on cognitive dimensions by language status, but LM learners had lower reading and listening comprehension skills than non-LM learners, with a relative advantage in behavioral attention. Results have implications for understanding higher order comorbidity and for developing methods to identify and intervene with higher order comorbidity among the growing population of LM learners.

This best-evidence synthesis reviews the past 20 years of rigorous reading intervention research to identify effective programs of instruction for Grade K–3 English Learners (ELs), as well as to determine the average effect of reading instruction on reading outcomes for this population. We identified 10 studies, all of which only included students in Grades K, 1, and/or 2. These studies evaluated the effects of seven programs, reporting 76 effect sizes. We did not identify any studies that included Grade 3 ELs. To guide researchers and practitioners, we describe each program and discuss associated effect sizes in foundational skills, fluency, comprehension, and oral language. Proactive Reading, delivered in a small group setting, produced some of the largest effects on foundational skills, fluency, and reading comprehension outcomes. Sound Partners was also shown to be effective even when delivered for a shorter duration, in a one-to-one setting. Finally, for practitioners and researchers aiming to improve oral language outcomes, Early Vocabulary Connection, delivered to small groups of students for 20 weeks, had the largest effects on oral language outcome measures. The primary limitation of this review was the small number of studies meeting the best-evidence synthesis criteria. Future research is needed to better understand the impact of reading interventions on reading outcomes for ELs in Grades 2–3 and the impact of meaning-focused intervention on reading outcomes. In particular, additional research is needed to identify interventions that have the potential to meaningfully improve reading comprehension and oral language outcomes for K–3 ELs.

Single-phase multiferroic materials that allow the coexistence of ferroelectric and magnetic ordering above room temperature are highly desirable, motivating an ongoing search for mechanisms for unconventional ferroelectricity in magnetic oxides. Here, we report an antisite defect mechanism for room temperature ferroelectricity in epitaxial thin films of yttrium orthoferrite, YFeO3, a perovskite-structured canted antiferromagnet. A combination of piezoresponse force microscopy, atomically resolved elemental mapping with aberration corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy and density functional theory calculations reveals that the presence of YFe antisite defects facilitates a non-centrosymmetric distortion promoting ferroelectricity. This mechanism is predicted to work analogously for other rare earth orthoferrites, with a dependence of the polarization on the radius of the rare earth cation. Our work uncovers the distinctive role of antisite defects in providing a mechanism for ferroelectricity in a range of magnetic orthoferrites and further augments the functionality of this family of complex oxides for multiferroic applications., Ferroelectricity in orthoferrite perovskites has stimulated intense research, but the mechanism remains unclear. Here, the authors propose an antisite defect mechanism for introducing ferroelectricity in magnetically ordered YFeO3 and the family of rare earth orthoferrites.

We examined the extent to which self-efficacy and growth mindsets predict reading comprehension growth in sixth grade and the moderating role of initial word reading. Students (N = 303) reported on their self-efficacy as well as domain-general and reading-specific mindsets at the beginning of sixth grade. They completed brief bi-monthly reading comprehension measures throughout the year and a multiple-choice reading comprehension measure at the end of the school year. Results from a series of latent basis growth models indicated that self-efficacy predicted the initial level but not growth in reading comprehension. In contrast, a domain-general growth mindset did not predict the initial level but did predict growth, which in turn predicted the end-of-year reading comprehension outcome. Unexpectedly, a reading-specific growth mindset predicted none of the reading comprehension outcomes, and the initial word reading skill did not moderate the relation between growth mindsets and reading comprehension growth. Our findings highlight the critical role that self-efficacy and a domain-general growth mindset play in promoting students’ reading comprehension development.

Understanding students' development academic language skills within informational writing is only beginning to emerge. We evaluate Grade 5 and Grade 8 students' writing (in the genre of descriptive informational writing in response to a single text) to determine which metrics may be the most indicative of academic language and what role they play. The roles include contributions to writing quantity, quality, and level of narrativity. An individual differences design was used to compare several word and sentence-level features to determine the degree to which the features signal academic language at the beginning and end of middle school. Results suggest that frequency of longer words may be the most useful measure of academic language in informational writing and that several sentence-level measures may challenge our current conceptualization of quality writing. Results provide promising avenues for the measurement and assessment of academic language in writing that detects development as well as important finer grained malleable aspects of written composition.

본 연구는 팬과 페미니스트의 정체성이 공존하며 팬덤 내에서 비판적 팬 수행을 하는 이들을 ‘페미니스트 팬’이라 정의하고, 2015년 한국의 페미니즘 재점화 이후에 나타난 3세대 K-Pop 남성 아이돌의 여성 페미니스트 팬들을 대상으로 그들의 팬 수행 경험과 감정을 질적 연구로써 접근하고자 하였다. 특히 기존과 달리 팬덤 이탈(‘탈덕’)을 의미 있는 팬 수행이라 여기는 이들의 인식에 주목하여, 본 연구는 방탄소년단(BTS)의 팬덤 아미(ARMY) 내 페미니스트 팬들을 대상으로 선정, 심층 인터뷰를 통해 페미니스트 팬 경험을 자료화하였다. 자료 분석 결과, 페미니스트 팬 수행 경험은 페미니스트 팬 정체화, 이에 따른 비판적 팬 수행, 그 과정에서의 페미니스트/팬 정체성 모순에 대한 갈등, 이로 인한 팬덤 이탈(고려)까지가 공통적으로 나타났다. 이들에게 팬덤 이탈은 아이돌에 대한 감정적⋅물질적 소비에 대한 개인적⋅정치적으로 의미 있는 팬 수행이자 운동으로 여겨진다. 하지만 팬덤 이탈을 포함한 이들의 운동은 엄밀히 볼 때 실패한 운동으로, 인간의 상품화로 자본을 얻는 아이돌 산업의 근원적 구조는 페미니즘을 불필요한 담론으로 여기고 페미니스트 팬들의 이탈은 결국 배제라 볼 수 있기 때문이다. 그럼에도 불구하고 페미니스트 팬들은 결론적으로 페미니스트 대중의 한 부분이 되고, 이들은 대중문화의 여성혐오적 구조에 균열을 일으킨다. 3세대 K-Pop 아이돌 페미니스트 팬들의 팬덤 이탈을 포함한 팬 수행 경험을 고찰하는 것은 페미니즘이라는 사회적 의제 아래 K-Pop과 그 팬덤에 어떤 변화가 나타나고 있는지, 한국 대중문화와 여성 대중이 앞으로 어떤 관계를 맺을 것인지 질문을 던지는 것에 의의를 둔다.

We conducted a secondary analysis of data from a randomized control trial to explore this question: Does “response/no response” best characterize students’ reactions to a generally efficacious first-grade reading program, or is a more nuanced characterization necessary? Data were collected on 265 at-risk readers’ word reading prior to and immediately following program implementation in first grade and in spring of second grade. Pretreatment data were also obtained on domain-specific skills (letter knowledge, decoding, passage comprehension, language) and domain-general skills (working memory, non-verbal reasoning). Latent profile analysis of word reading across the three time points with controls as a local norm revealed a strongly responsive group ( n = 45) with mean word-reading z scores of 0.25, 1.64, and 1.26 at the three time points, respectively; a mildly responsive group ( n = 109), z scores = 0.30, 0.47, and 0.55; a mildly non-responsive group ( n = 90), z scores = −0.11, −0.15, and −0.55; and a strongly non-responsive group ( n = 21), z scores = −1.24, −1.26, and −1.57. The two responsive groups had stronger pretreatment letter knowledge and passage comprehension than the two non-responsive groups. The mildly non-responsive group demonstrated better pretreatment passage comprehension than the strongly non-responsive group. No domain-general skill distinguished the four groups. Findings suggest response to early reading intervention was more complicated than response/no response, and pretreatment reading comprehension was an important predictor of response even with pretreatment word reading controlled.

We attempted to strengthen an evidence-based, peer-mediated, first-grade reading program (First Grade Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies [PALS]) by modestly revising its content and adding a repeated-reading (RR) component. In a cluster-randomized trial, we conducted a component analysis of the revised program by creating two versions of it. “PALS+Fluency” represented the modified program with an RR component, whereas “PALS-Only” represented the same program without RR. We tested the efficacy of the two PALS versions together against controls and against each other to determine if peer-mediated RR had “value added.” With moderator analyses, we further explored whether the PALS programs benefited weaker and stronger readers alike. Thirty-three first-grade classroom teachers (and 491 students) from eight urban schools were randomly assigned to the three study groups within their schools. The PALS-Only and PALS+Fluency programs ran for 22 weeks. Multilevel modeling showed that the combined effects of the two PALS programs on phonological awareness (PA), word reading, and reading fluency were superior to those of controls. Students’ pretreatment PA moderated combined program effects on PA and word reading, indicating stronger effects for students with weaker PA. PALS-Only students improved PA skills (over PALS+Fluency students) with stronger effects for those with weaker pretreatment PA.

Y-rich yttrium iron garnet (Y-YIG) thin films were grown on gadolinium gallium garnet substrates using pulsed laser deposition from a ${\mathrm{YFeO}}_{3}$ target. The films are epitaxial on the substrate, and the unit cell of (001)- and (111)-oriented Y-YIG undergoes a tetragonal or rhombohedral distortion, respectively. The Y-YIG has lower room temperature magnetization but higher low-temperature magnetization than bulk YIG, and its Curie temperature was in the range of 330--400 K, depending on the growth conditions. First-principles calculations predict that ${\mathrm{Y}}_{\mathrm{Fe}}$ antisite defects are more stable in octahedral than tetrahedral Fe sites. Temperature-dependent magnetization measurements together with a superexchange dilution model and composition determined from x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy indicate that nonmagnetic species (${\mathrm{Y}}^{3+}$ and vacancies) are predominantly accommodated in the octahedral sites, but there is a significant occupancy of tetrahedral sites.

We examined whether dynamic decoding assessment (DDA) predicts growth in word reading skill during first grade using latent change score models. In addition, we compared classification accuracy of the DDA to static measures for identifying students at risk for reading disabilities (RD) designated using the dual discrepancy criteria. At the beginning of first grade, students (N = 104) were assessed on the DDA and static measures of word reading, arithmetic, and domain-general and domain-specific skills. They were assessed again at the end of first grade on static measures of word reading and arithmetic. In DDA, students were taught six novel symbols associated with English sounds and how to read words in this new orthography. Instructional prompts were provided incrementally, from least to most explicit. The amount of instructional prompts required for a student to decode words in this new orthography was indexed as students’ learning potential for decoding. Results from a series of latent change score models indicate the DDA is positively associated with growth in word reading but not with arithmetic skill growth. The DDA made significant, positive contributions to word reading growth beyond domain-specific (phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming) and domain-general (behavioral attention, intelligence) predictors. Furthermore, the DDA improved classification accuracy by improving sensitivity when added to the static measures of word reading predictors, supporting the use of DDA as a supplementary screener for early prediction of RD.

This meta-analysis systematically identified reading intervention research for students with reading difficulties and problem behaviors in grades K–12 to determine the (a) impact of these reading interventions on reading outcomes and (b) extent to which reading outcomes varied based on student characteristics (e.g., grade, disability), intervention characteristics (e.g., group size, additional behavioral supports), and quality indicator characteristics. Follow-up analyses investigated three of the four hypothesized mechanisms underlying the high co-occurrence rate between reading difficulties and problem behaviors: (a) reading difficulties lead to future problem behaviors, (b) problem behaviors lead to future reading difficulties, and (c) a bi-directional association exists between reading difficulties and problem behaviors. Eleven studies were identified. There was a statistically significant main effect of reading interventions on reading outcomes (g = 0.86, p

This study investigated the word reading and listening comprehension difficulties of fourth-grade students with significant reading comprehension deficits and the cognitive difficulties that underlie these weaknesses. Latent profile analysis was used to classify a sample of fourth-grade students ( n = 446) who scored below the 16th percentile on a measure of reading comprehension into subgroups based on their performance in word reading (WR) and listening comprehension (LC). Three latent profiles emerged: (a) moderate deficits in both WR and LC of similar severity (91%), (b) severe deficit in WR paired with moderate LC deficit (5%), and (c) severe deficit in LC with moderate WR difficulties (4%). Analyses examining the associations between cognitive attributes and group membership indicated students with lower performance on cognitive predictors were more likely to be in a severe subgroup. Implications for educators targeting improved reading performance for upper elementary students with significant reading difficulties were discussed.

Supplemental material, Supplemental_file_04042020_vfinal for A Quasiexperimental Evaluation of Two Versions of First-Grade PALS: One With and One Without Repeated Reading by Douglas Fuchs, Eunsoo Cho, Jessica R. Toste, Lynn S. Fuchs, Jennifer K. Gilbert, Kristen L. McMaster, Ebba Svenson and Anneke Thompson in Exceptional Children

We examined dynamic assessment’s (DA’s) added value over traditional assessments for identifying Spanish-speaking English learners’ (ELs) risk for developing mathematics disabilities, as a function of the language of test administration (English vs. Spanish), type of math outcome, and EL’s language dominance. At the start of first grade, ELs ( N = 368) were randomly assigned to English-DA or Spanish-DA conditions, were assessed on static mathematics measures and domain-general (language, reasoning) measures in English, and completed DA in their assigned language condition. At year’s end, they were assessed on calculation and word-problem solving outcomes in English. Results from multigroup path models indicated that Spanish-DA mitigates the impact of ELs’ language dominance on DA performance. Moreover, ELs’ language dominance moderated DA’s predictive validity differentially depending on DA language and type of outcome. Spanish-DA showed higher predictive validity in Spanish-dominant ELs than English-dominant ELs when predicting calculations but not word-problem solving. English-DA was predictive for both outcomes, regardless of ELs’ language dominance.

Supplemental material, Supplement_Figure_S1 for Is “Response/No Response” Too Simple a Notion for RTI Frameworks? Exploring Multiple Response Types With Latent Profile Analysis by Peng Peng, Douglas Fuchs, Lynn S. Fuchs, Eunsoo Cho, Amy M. Elleman, Devin M. Kearns, Samuel Patton and Donald L. Compton in Journal of Learning Disabilities

This meta-analysis examined the effects on reading comprehension of foundational reading skills and multicomponent reading interventions provided to students with or at risk for reading difficulties or disabilities (students with RDs) in kindergarten through Grade 3. The meta-analysis included studies identified by Wanzek et al. (2016) and Wanzek et al. (2018), with an updated search through August of 2019, for a total of 47 included studies (m = 112; total student N = 7446). The weighted average effect on norm-referenced reading comprehension outcomes was estimated as g = 0.37, indicating that primary-grade interventions have an educationally meaningful effect on reading comprehension for students with RDs. Effects did not differ for interventions focused only on foundational reading skills and those that provided both foundational skills and comprehension instruction. Effects were significantly moderated by the measurement timepoint, with follow-up effect sizes being, on average, 0.16 smaller than immediate posttest effect sizes.

This study explored the developmental trajectories and predictors of word reading and reading comprehension among young at-risk readers. In fall of first grade, 185 students identified as at-risk for reading difficulties were assessed on measures of domain-specific skills (phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and vocabulary), domain-general skills (working memory, nonverbal reasoning, and processing speed), and word reading and reading comprehension. Word reading and reading comprehension were assessed again in spring of grades 1–4. Individual growth curve modeling showed that the children demonstrated decelerated growth on word reading and linear growth on reading comprehension, although their performance on both word reading and reading comprehension were consistently below average on national norms. After controlling for word reading and reading comprehension in first grade, letter knowledge predicted growth in word reading; vocabulary and nonverbal reasoning predicted growth in reading comprehension. That is, we found different developmental trajectories and different predictors for word reading and reading comprehension among our at-risk sample. Implications are discussed for theory and early reading instruction for at-risk children.

This study examined how differences in listening comprehension and word reading at the beginning of the school year influence changes in reading comprehension for English learners (ELs) with significant reading difficulties compared to non-ELs with significant reading difficulties. The study investigated heterogeneity in response to instruction among 400 struggling readers in fourth grade ( n = 183 for non-EL; n = 217 for EL) who received an intensive reading intervention. At pretest, word reading, listening comprehension, and reading comprehension were measured, and at posttest, reading comprehension was measured again. Results from moderated multiple regression analyses showed a significant three-way interaction such that reading comprehension at posttest was higher for ELs than non-ELs with similar levels of low word reading but relatively higher levels of listening comprehension. However, non-ELs outperformed ELs with similar levels of relatively high word reading and average to high listening comprehension. The findings suggest that pre-intervention skill profiles may need to be interpreted differently for ELs and non-ELs with significant reading difficulties in relation to language and literacy outcomes.

Reading for understanding is a challenging task for many upper elementary struggling readers, and their attitudes toward such challenges can make a difference in their subsequent engagement and reading achievement. Mindset and achievement goals provide a useful explanatory framework for understanding struggling readers’ engagement and reading comprehension. This study examined the extent to which mindset and achievement goals are associated with reading comprehension; as well as the mechanism through which engagement mediates this relation, controlling for the effects of vocabulary, word recognition, and limited English proficiency status. Structural equation modeling of four and fifth grade struggling readers (N = 107) demonstrated the importance of achievement goals in predicting reading comprehension. Effects of mindset on engagement and reading comprehension were completely mediated by mastery and performance-avoidance goals; further, these goals had indirect relations to reading comprehension through emotional engagement. Performance-approach goals had a direct, negative relation to reading comprehension. Findings highlight the importance of including motivational variables in understanding sources of individual differences in reading comprehension for struggling readers.

This study examined the extent to which struggling readers' perceived classroom goal structures explain their adoption of personal achievement goals and ratings of perceived competence. We also investigated how these motivational characteristics relate to outcomes in word reading and reading comprehension in a sample of fourth and fifth grade struggling readers (N = 112). In a series of path analyses, different motivational patterns emerged in predicting word reading and reading comprehension. Mastery goals negatively predicted while perceived competence positively predicted word reading. For reading comprehension, only perceived competence was a significant motivational predictor. However, for both reading outcomes, perceived competence had a positive moderating role against the potential negative effect of performance-avoidance goals on reading. Our findings also highlight the importance of focusing on mastery goals within the classroom in order to promote students' perceptions of competence in reading comprehension.

We have studied the density functional theory of epitaxially strained ABO3 (A = La, Y, Sc, B = Al, Ga) films on SrTiO3 (001) crystals with SrO- and TiO-terminations to investigate polar catastrophe induced by the epitaxial thin film growth. Interfacial polar nature of the strained films depends on the type of cations. While lanthanum based perovskite films produces polarity based on the ionic nature of interfacial atoms, the smaller cations show rather opposite polarities arising from progressive ferroelectric structural distortion acting opposite to the polar nature of cation ions.

Models of irregular word reading that take into account both child- and word-level predictors have not been evaluated in typically developing children and children with reading difficulty (RD). The purpose of the present study was to model individual differences in irregular word reading ability among 5th grade children (N = 170), oversampled for children with RD, using item-response crossed random-effects models. We distinguish between 2 subtypes of children with word reading RD, those with early emerging and late-emerging RD, and 2 types of irregular words, “exception” and “strange.” Predictors representing child-level and word-level characteristics, along with selected interactions between child- and word-characteristics, were used to predict item-level variance. Individual differences in irregular word reading were predicted at the child level by nonword decoding, orthographic coding, and vocabulary; at the word level by word frequency and a spelling-to-pronunciation transparency rating; and by the Reader group × Imageability and Reader group × Irregular word type interactions. Results are interpreted within a model of irregular word reading in which lexical characteristics specific to both child and word influence accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)

Controlled phase conversion in polymorphic transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) provides a new synthetic route for realizing tunable nanomaterials. Most conversion methods from the stable 2H to metastable 1T phase are limited to kinetically slow cation insertion into atomically thin layered TMDs for charge transfer from intercalated ions. Here, we report that anion extraction by the selective reaction between carbon monoxide (CO) and chalcogen atoms enables predictive and scalable TMD polymorph control. Sulfur vacancy, induced by anion extraction, is a key factor in molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) polymorph conversion without cation insertion. Thermodynamic MoS2-CO-CO2 ternary phase diagram offers a processing window for efficient sulfur vacancy formation with precisely controlled MoS2 structures from single layer to multilayer. To utilize our efficient phase conversion, we synthesize vertically stacked 1T-MoS2 layers in carbon nanofibers, which exhibit highly efficient hydrogen evolution reaction catalytic activity. Anion extraction induces the polymorph conversion of tungsten disulfide (WS2) from 2H to 1T. This reveals that our method can be utilized as a general polymorph control platform. The versatility of the gas-solid reaction-based polymorphic control will enable the engineering of metastable phases in 2D TMDs for further applications.

In the present study, we compared the extent to which linguistic comprehension (vocabulary and listening comprehension) and word reading explain reading comprehension differentially for English learners (ELs) and non-ELs with reading difficulties, and we investigated whether different mechanisms of reading comprehension failure exist for each group. Using the simple view of reading as our framework, we tested a model in which vocabulary exerts a direct effect on reading comprehension and indirect effects through listening comprehension and word reading. Results from a multigroup structural equation model with a sample of 446 struggling fourth-grade readers (n = 229 for ELs; n = 211 for non-ELs) demonstrated both similarities and differences in the sources and mechanisms of reading comprehension difficulties for ELs and non-ELs with reading problems. Word reading was an important source of reading comprehension difficulty for both groups. For non-ELs, the effect of word reading was larger than the effects of linguistic comprehension (vocabulary and listening comprehension combined); however, for ELs, the effects of linguistic comprehension were greater than the effect of word reading. Vocabulary had indirect effects via both listening comprehension and word reading for ELs, but it demonstrated a direct effect on reading comprehension for non-ELs. These results suggest that developing a range of linguistic comprehension skills (e.g., word-level and sentence-level language skills) may be important for ELs with reading comprehension difficulties in the upper-elementary grades.