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Disability research and program evaluation have generally been viewed with suspicion in Indian country because research designs, procedures, instruments, and interpretation and dissemination of outcomes have often ignored potential cultural conflicts. This paper explores a national evaluation in eight tribal communities that established systems of care for children with serious emotional disturbances and their families. Examples of psychological and evaluation research in Indian country are briefly reviewed. A first step toward identifying challenges that Native children and their families face, and toward identifying strengths and weaknesses of service systems available to them, is to understand the extended family system of care. Systems of care and the "wraparound process" are culturally relevant concepts for service delivery. The federally funded Comprehensive Community Mental Health Services for Children and Their Families program has supported development of systems of care in 43 states, including 8 tribal communities. These eight tribal programs and their common structures and approaches are described, focusing on culturally appropriate assessment instruments and interventions. Evaluation of these programs is described, including system-level assessment of infrastructure and service delivery, longitudinal outcome study, language and translation issues, and how cultural incongruities between the national and tribal evaluations were handled. Community empowerment was enhanced through extensive, collaborative relationships between the evaluation teams and community-based advisory committees. (Contains 48 references.) (SV)

Family connections, traditional activities, educational goals, and fatalism are themes running throughout research and published observations about Appalachia. Information from 3 days of interviews with the author's grandmother, an 87-year-old Appalachian woman, is compared to these common research themes. The interviewee's experiences concerning family connections were consistent with the literature in that they revealed strong family ties and a marriage to a mentally and physically abusive man who kept her isolated at home. Traditional activities such as farming, canning, and quilting were all strongly present in the interviewee's life, which corresponded with findings in the literature. Much of the literature regarding Appalachian beliefs about education portrays Appalachians as being less interested in education, with many considering formal education as a substitute for hard work. Higher education, especially for women, is discouraged. The author's grandmother did not have those experiences. She graduated high in her class and intended to attend college, but finances prevented it. At age 67, she took a few college classes. The fatalism reported in research was not a dominant theme in the interviews, but threads of resignation were detected toward the hardships she endured. While the grandmother's life mirrored many of the research themes, her strength, dignity, and courage overshadowed their negativity. (Contains 20 references.) (TD)

Using a sample of 7,656 children observed over a 3-year period in the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), the paper documents the proportion of time children spend in various living arrangements and the number of transitions among them. It focuses on four types of living arrangements for children: living with a married mother; coresiding with a single mother and her parents; cohabiting with a single mother and her male partner; and living with a single mother who is neither coresiding nor cohabiting. A substantial number of children experience coresiding and cohabiting arrangements, and approximately 11 percent of the children experience at least one transition. Results suggest that living with a single mother or living in a cohabiting arrangement is associated with poorer child development outcomes relative to living in married mother arrangements. In contrast, children in coresiding arrangements do not have poorer outcomes relative to children in married mother arrangements. (Contains 35 references.) (Author/SM)

School-based drug abuse prevention programs have been a standard approach in American Indian communities for three decades, but the evidence for their effectiveness is meager. However, it is unreasonable to expect that schools alone could have a major impact on a behavior that has multiple and interactive social causes. It would be folly to eliminate school-based efforts since they come from one of the major socialization forces in the lives of American Indian children and it may be that these initiatives have some as-yet unmeasured effect. The total answer to the drug abuse problem will only come when all elements of the community can come together and present a unified message to their young people. The many specific avenues for prevention that are available in American Indian communities have been listed and all must be brought to bear on the problem. Given what we know about American Indian families and what the research is beginning to show, it is absolutely essential that they be significantly involved in any drug prevention strategy. Any effort that does not include the family will certainly overlook the major asset of American Indian communities and likely will not succeed. The schools continue to do their part, but they alone do not have the potency needed to address this most serious problem. (Contains 20 references.) (TD)

Protective factors were ingrained in the traditional Nez Perce way of life. The imposition of the White way of life introduced alcohol, suppressed protective factors, and facilitated the development of risk factors across all domains. For the past decade, the tribe has obtained federal funding for a variety of substance abuse prevention programs. These programs have included cultural therapy--culturally specific activities designed to revive the traditional Nez Perce way of life and its cultural protective factors. Since existing evaluation instruments did not recognize the unique contribution of culture, an instrument was developed which captured culture as a resource. Six areas of interest were delineated: spirituality; family life and traditions; recreation and celebration; culture; education, jobs, and life skills; and health and medicine. This instrument was administered to 110 tribal adults in 1995, 116 tribal youths in 1997, and 135 tribal youths in 1998. For both adults and youth, greater identification to Nez Perce culture (for youth, specifically spirituality) was related to lower alcohol use. Among youth, greater identification with spirituality was also related to lower drug use. Among youth, however, greater identification with bicultural peer associations, beliefs about education, and involvement in sports were related to higher alcohol and other drug use. (TD)

An inquiry into Indigenous education by an Australian Senate committee examined government reports produced in 1989-99 and conducted school site visits and public hearings. During the inquiry, it became clear that educational equity for Indigenous people had not been achieved, and Indigenous participation and achievement rates lagged behind those of the non-Indigenous population in most sectors. Much of the inquiry focused on rural and remote regions, where Indigenous people have limited access to education. Chapter 1 of this report provides an overview of Indigenous educational policies, historical context, issues of self-determination and community control of schools, and educational funding. Other chapters discuss the evolution of a national Indigenous education policy; social and community issues (poverty, kinship, cultural differences, child rearing, attitudes toward schooling and work, low school attendance, racism, alcoholism, family problems, crime and imprisonment); curriculum issues (inclusion of Aboriginal culture and language, status of Aboriginal English, "two-way" education, mainstream educational reforms, use of technology); literacy education, bilingual education, and the teaching of Aboriginal languages; teacher education (lack of Indigenous teachers and staff, community-based teacher training, rural recruitment and retention, salaries, teaching conditions, specific training for teaching Indigenous students); postsecondary education (vocational education and training, adult education, higher education); impact of health on education (inadequate health care, Indigenous health problems, otitis media, community health education, malnutrition); and cultural diversity and differences in educational needs across remote, rural, and urban areas. Recommendations are presented in each chapter. Appendices list goals of the Aboriginal Education Policy, submissions received, witnesses at public hearings, site visits, and acronyms. (SV)

The success of the Minimbah Aboriginal Preschool in Armidale, New South Wales (Australia) is due largely to the leadership abilities of its Aboriginal director, Dianne Roberts. Much of her leadership success comes from knowing her communities and her place in them. From an Aboriginal perspective, there is much more to knowing a community than a non-Aboriginal person would suspect. Kin knowledge is far more complex than a family tree and contains many intricate details of human relationships. Knowledge of kin relationships is necessary for understanding how local social networks operate and is a source of authority. Roberts is related to many local Aboriginal people, and she insists that detailed local knowledge of the community is needed for successful leadership at the local level. However, she does not settle for being labeled an "insider" or an "outsider." Instead, she switches from one to the other depending on which community she is dealing with. She also is a member of the educational community and maintains connections with town councils, educational associations, and various government bodies. Her authority in the professional community derives from her formal education qualifications; her ability to code switch from Aboriginal English to standard English; and the fact that she is an "authentic" Aboriginal, meaning that she was not removed from her family as were may Aboriginal children of the 1950s "stolen generation." In an interview, Roberts reflects on the universality of Indigeneity and how she has been influenced by Indigenous people in New Zealand, Canada, and the United States. (Contains 25 references.) (TD)

Bahamian women often carry the bulk of responsibility for family well-being, particularly in the domain of parenting. This ethnographic study investigated the role of Bahamian mothers and their perceptions of parenting. Face-to-face qualitative interviews, comprised of a series of open-ended questions, were conducted with 18 mothers on the islands of Eleuthera, Harbour Island, and Spanish Wells, Bahamas. All interviews were audio taped and transcribed. Several issues emerged from the data regarding motherhood: the multiple role expectations placed on women, the involvement of the extended family and community in child rearing, and the pregnancy and birthing experience. Most mothers carried the bulk, if not all, of the responsibility for the well-being of their children, with familial obligations taking significant personal tolls; however, the community, often in the form of extended family, provided informal assistance. The small and relatively safe communities provided a reassuring context in which to raise children, and birthing experiences were also more of a family or community affair. Mothering experiences seemed to vary somewhat by island and the unique circumstances of the community. (Contains 27 references.) (Author/EV)

This paper examines the intersection where migration and adult learning converge, exploring how a transnational social context of living relates to adults' formal and informal learning experiences. In-depth life-history interviews were conducted with 29 adults participating in two social networks that link the central coast region of California with several areas in Mexico and an urban area in Honduras. Interviewees ranged in age from early 20s to early 80s and included immigrants to California, adult children of immigrants, and individuals in Mexico whose lives have been touched deeply by the migration of close family members and numerous community members. Interview excerpts form the basis of discussion about adult learning experiences in Mexico, decisions and preparations to migrate, the role of social networks and informal learning in the actual move north, formal education (language and citizenship classes) and informal socially based learning in California, and the formation of identities and lives with multiple dimensions and roots in two countries. The findings suggest that linear models of immigration and acculturation must be replaced with more complex analyses of transnational social relations and their role in adults' lives and learning processes. Contains 36 references. (Author/SV)

This paper reviews and synthesizes a broad range of research studies and theoretical essays related to the transition to fatherhood. This literature suggests that the transition to fatherhood can best be described as a set of normative developmental events that occur during the life course. In addition, while transformation into the role of father is a critical stage for individual development, the process takes place within the context of small social systems, such as dyads, nested within families or family-like environments. In order to understand fatherhood experiences, the review analyzes the fathers' relationship with his child, his child's mother, and the functioning of the family as a unitary social entity. Larger social networks, such as extended families and families of origin, affect the process of role change among new and expectant fathers; these networks are examined as well. Finally, the special case of early role transition to fatherhood among adolescents is a major topic reviewed in this paper. Implications for research and practice are discussed. (Contains 66 references.) (Author/KB)

Recognizing the challenge of building family-school-community partnerships and the variety of ways that families within one ethnic group can be involved in their children's education, this publication summarizes research findings about Chinese American young children and their families and suggests strategies that can be pursued by families and educators to build a more fruitful partnership to promote Chinese American children's success in school. Topics covered, using a question-answer format, include: (1) major research findings that teachers and administrators should know; (2) the diversity present among Chinese American families, especially between those who have completed all their education in American schools, those who completed part of their education overseas, and immigrant parents who completed all their education overseas; (3) parents' views on education, schools, and teachers; (4) characteristics of successful children; (5) the distinction between Chinese traditional reverence for teachers and schools and current complaints about American schools; (6) Chinese American parents who do not seem to care about their children's education; (7) ways Chinese American parents support their children's education at home; (8) suggestions for building strong partnerships between educators and Chinese American parents, especially recognizing the diversity of Chinese Americans, the need to encourage extended family involvement, and the need to better understand the concept of "training" in Chinese childrearing philosophy and how it differs from authoritarianism; (9) findings about teachers of particular interest to Chinese American parents; and (10) suggestions for Chinese American parents who want to support their child's schooling. (KDFB)

During the past few years, there has been a notable increase in the number of children in foster care, with foster care that is provided by relatives accounting for a substantial part of the increase. At the same time, there has been a shift in thinking in the field of child welfare, from viewing placement with a relative as a last resort to favoring placement with a relative. Despite the growth in relative-provided foster care, child welfare systems seem not to have addressed systematically such questions as whether kin caregivers should or should not be considered in the same category as unrelated foster caregivers. This paper summarizes research on kinship care and explores child welfare policy at is relates to this type of foster care. The paper begins with an overview of the topic, including a consideration of possible advantages and disadvantages of putting kinship caregivers into the same category as unrelated foster parents. Section two contains a brief history of foster care, including ethnic differences in that history. Section three focuses on several aspects of the present day foster care system that are pertinent to the topic of kinship foster care, including the overloaded child welfare system. Section four considers the ramifications of kinship foster care for children, while the ramifications of kinship foster care for the relatives involved are considered in section five. Section six illustrates the lack of consensus about who should be included in the term "kinship foster parents" and how those parents ought to be categorized. Finally, the paper offers recommendations for promoting the well-being of kinship foster parents and the children for whom they care. Three appendices include discussion of concepts, terms, and policies related to kinship care in the areas of licensure and monitoring, custody and legal rights, and funding sources for foster care. (WJC)

This report presents findings on children's living arrangements as taken from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP). The SIPP is unique in that it records how each person is related to everyone else in the household. Detailed information on parent-child relationships is provided, allowing identification of biological, step, foster, and adoptive ties. Similar data are collected for siblings. With this additional information, it is possible to examine family structure in more detail than was possible in previous Bureau of the Census reports. The statistics contained herein are based on national-level estimates of children under 18 and their living situations, for the period June through September, 1991. The report's findings pertain to all children, regardless of their marital or parental status. Included in these findings was the fact that 73 percent of children under age 18 lived with two parents, 24 percent lived with one parent, and 3 percent lived with neither parent. Black children were 2.5 times more likely to live in a one-parent family than were White children. The report examines both traditional nuclear families and nontraditional families, and includes data on children in blended families, adopted children, extended families, and other arrangements. Five figures and 12 tables summarize the data. Appendixes include an overview of the SIPP program, definitions and explanations of terms, and source and accuracy of estimates. (RJM)

This project focused on the role of the family in providing support to a relative with a disability in two American Indian cultures, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. A review of the literature notes the documented importance of involving family in the rehabilitation process. Ten families in each location were interviewed. In addition, five focus group interviews were held, one in each location for family members, one for persons with disabilities, and one for service providers. Content analysis was performed on transcripts, focusing on: structures of family support systems; description of, adjustment to, and impact of a disability; issues of access, assistance, and acceptance; family commitment and future concerns; and family needs, consumer needs, and vocational rehabilitation. Analysis showed that, though families often acknowledge extended family members as part of their support network, there frequently existed a lack of involvement of extended family and even immediate family in the daily lives of persons with disabilities. Analysis also addressed issues of social support, respite care, role validation, responsiveness of professionals, and transition. Recommendations are offered for future research, for rehabilitation professionals, and for participating Indian communities. (Contains 17 references.) (DB)

This paper examines parental involvement in schools and schooling. "Parents" in this case are interpreted broadly to include extended families and the variety of child caretakers. Building on existing literature, it offers some expanded conceptual frameworks with a view to enhancing subsequent intervention research, practice, and policy making. The first section, on society's agenda for involving the home, gives a rationale on intentional intervention. Explained are the respective agendas for involving the home--socialization, economic, political, and helping agendas. The second section focuses on the forms of involvement in schools. Reviewed are existing categorizations found in the literature. A continuum model differentiates types of involvement in terms of a system or individual function or both. The third section concerns the nature of barriers to involvement; institutional and impersonal barriers are addressed. The final section discusses general intervention concerns, steps, and strategies relating to enhancing involvement. The four major intervention steps to be planned, complemented, and evaluated are discussed: (1) organizing the institution for involvement; (2) inviting involvement; (3) facilitating involvement; and (4) maintaining involvement. (Contains 65 references.) (RR)

Review of theories, research, and models of the learning styles of American Indian/Alaska Native students reveals that they generally learn in ways characterized by social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic perspectives, expressive creativity, and nonverbal communication. Native learning styles are strongly influenced by language, culture, and heritage and are "different" but not deficient. Implications for instruction, curricula, assessment, and future research are discussed. (Contains 286 references.) (Author/TD)

Remarriage of parents may bring new grandparents and stepgrandparents into the lives of children, creating new family structures and needs for adjustment. The extended/blended family may benefit from specific counseling interventions. (Author/MKA)