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Hexapods in the Mediterranean Basin are very diverse in terms of species and biological traits, and have been used in both fundamental and applied research. The chapter covers different aspects of the biology and ecology of Hexapods, with special emphasis on those subjects that are relevant in the Mediterranean context. Moreover, it includes a taxonomic key for Entognatha (springtails) at species level and Insecta at order level. The biology and ecology of Hexapods is separated into two different sections: aquatic or semiaquatic springtails and aquatic insects. The second section includes the topics like origin of endemicity, singular aquatic habitats, biological traits, dispersal strategies, metacommunities dynamics, their role in food webs, their response to disturbances, their use in biological assessment of water quality, and known alien aquatic Hexapods. Conservation and management of aquatic Hexapods in the Mediterranean Basin represent a challenge because of their high biodiversity, with adapted species to the hydrological characteristics imposed by the Mediterranean climate, and the fact that aquatic habitats are under intense human pressures.

Temporary rivers (TRs) have been largely overlooked in conservation assessments. Because TRs are such dynamic ecosystems, spatial and temporal aspects of their hydrology and ecology need to be taken into account when designing conservation plans. The aim of this paper is to propose a set of recommendations that could be useful for managers to do this, using seasonal diatom and macroinvertebrate data from north-eastern Spain as a case study. Beta diversity was partitioned into local and species contributions to beta diversity (LCBD and SCBD). Additionally, priority conservation sites covering the spatial distribution of all species were identified using Marxan and the selection frequency (MSF) of the sites served as a measure of the relative irreplaceability of each site. Using both approaches (beta diversity and Marxan), the effects of changing spatiotemporal connectivity and habitat heterogeneity on the selection and prioritization of sites to be conserved were assessed. It was found that LCBD and MSF ranged widely both in space and time. However, LCBD and MSF were weakly related. Marxan adequately represented all taxa by selecting a few sites, while LCBD selected communities with higher differentiation but not necessarily those with rare species. In addition, SCBDs assigned low values to rare taxa, thus care must be taken when using this index for conservation planning. Spatiotemporal connectivity and local habitat heterogeneity played a critical role at the regional and local scales, driving site prioritization. Overall, we recommend: 1) monitoring multiple hydrological phases to encompass the different community types and capturing total diversity; 2) using Marxan and LCBD in combination, to benefit from their complementary insights; and 3) integrating spatiotemporal isolation and habitat heterogeneity into conservation plans, since they are the main drivers of community variation over space and time in TRs.

Temporary rivers are aquatic ecosystems that alternate periods of water flow with dry periods. Diatoms are a group of unicellular microalgae with a high colonizing ability, but little is known about their responses to drying. We carried out different resistance and resilience experiments to evaluate temporal and spatial dispersal capacity of diatoms during the dry period. The resistance was tested experimentally by rehydrating dried biofilms and sediments from temporary rivers, whereas resilience was tested by installing artificial mesocosms along a dry river section. Disconnected pools were also sampled to evaluate their propagule emission capacity. In turn, dogs from the area were sampled to test potential zoochory dispersal capacity. In the resistance experiment, we found living diatoms in all the rehydrated sediments but not in biofilms. Diatoms with mobility traits, high ecological plasticity, and resistance spores presented high, along with typical soil diatoms. In the resilience experiment, all mesocosms hosted living diatoms, which were low-profile, pioneering, and small species. Diatoms found in the mesocosms were also common in the disconnected pools, underscoring the potential role of the latter as a propagule emission zone. Dogs' paws also had living diatoms, which evidences that wild fauna could potentially act as passive diatom vectors.

In Mediterranean climate regions, intermittent rivers (IRs) harbor highly dynamic communities with species and trait composition changing over time and space. Simultaneously considering multiple biodiversity facets and a spatiotemporal perspective is, therefore, key to developing effective conservation strategies for these ecosystems. We studied the spatiotemporal dynamics of aquatic macroinvertebrates in rivers of the western Mediterranean Basin by analysing (1) the taxonomic and functional richness and the local contribution to beta diversity (LCBD; measured considering taxonomic and functional facets) of perennial rivers and IRs over five sampling times, and (2) their relation with flow intermittence, local environmental uniqueness, and the number of anthropogenic impacts. Both analyses were also conducted for the subset of data including only IRs to compare values between their flowing and disconnected pool phases. According to our results, taxonomic and functional richness tended to be higher in perennial rivers than in IRs, while taxonomic and functional LCBD tended to be higher in IRs than in perennial rivers. When comparing IR sites over time, higher values of taxonomic and functional LCBD corresponded mostly to their disconnected pool phase. Flow intermittence, the number of anthropogenic impacts and the environmental uniqueness were significant predictors of taxonomic and functional richness, but only flow intermittence was an important predictor of taxonomic LCBD. For the IR-only data subset, disconnected pool permanence was the main predictor explaining spatiotemporal patterns. Our results highlight the importance of IRs to biodiversity conservation of Mediterranean climate rivers, especially during the disconnected pool phase, suggesting that these ecosystems cannot be ignored in conservation planning strategies.

Temporary rivers (TRs) are stream ecosystems in which the effects of anthropogenic disturbances are mixed with the effects of the natural disturbance imposed by flow intermittence. Despite the advances in TRs research, many gaps persist that limit the development of appropriate methodologies for the assessment of the ecological status. In this review, we identify the current challenges for the assessment of the ecological status of TRs and analyze the existing opportunities to address these challenges. These challenges focus on: the differentiation between natural and hydrologically impacted TRs, the differentiation between natural and anthropogenic disturbances, the development of biological indices for disconnected pools and dry riverbeds, the adaptation of hydrogeomorphological indices, and the application of the metacommunity theory in TRs. The opportunities are related to: the use of molecular tools, the existence of alternative indices to the traditional ones, the availability of data to be able to do modeling, and the social implication in the assessment of the hydrological and ecological status. The review focuses mainly on the scientific and management knowledge accumulated since the implementation of the Water Framework Directive in Spain but gathers experiences from TRs around the world to guide conservation and management actions in these unique ecosystems highly threatened by global change.

The growing interest in combining spatial and temporal patterns in nature has been fostered by the current availability of high-frequency measurements. However, we still lack a methodological framework to process and interpret spatiotemporal datasets into meaningful values, adaptable to different time windows and/or responding to different spatial structures. Here, we developed and tested a framework to evaluate spatiotemporal connectivity using two new measures: the spatiotemporal connectivity (STcon) and the spatiotemporal connectivity matrix (STconmat). To obtain these measures, we consider a set of spatially connected sites within a temporally dynamic network. These measures are calculated from a spatiotemporal matrix where spatial and temporal connections across sites are captured. These connections respond to a determined network structure, assign different values to these connections and generate different scenarios from which we obtain the spatiotemporal connectivity. We developed these measures by using a dataset of stream flow state spanning a 513-day period obtained from data loggers installed in seven temporary streams. These measures allowed us to characterise connectivity among stream reaches and relate spatiotemporal patterns with macroinvertebrate community structure and composition. Spatiotemporal connectivity differed within and among streams, with STcon and STconmat capturing different hydrological patterns. Macroinvertebrate richness and diversity were higher in more spatiotemporally connected sites. Community dissimilarity was related to STconmat showing that more spatiotemporally connected sites had similar communities for active and passive dispersers. Interestingly, both groups were related to spatiotemporal connectivity patterns for some of the analysed scenarios, highlighting the relevance of spatiotemporal connectivity in dynamic systems. As we exemplified, the proposed framework can help to disentangle and quantify spatiotemporal dynamics

Rivers are dynamic ecosystems in which both human impacts and climate-driven drying events are increasingly common. These anthropogenic and natural stressors interact to influence the biodiversity and functioning of river ecosystems. Disentangling ecological responses to these interacting stressors is necessary to guide management actions that support ecosystems adapting to global change. We analysed the independent and interactive effects of human impacts and natural drying on aquatic invertebrate communities—a key biotic group used to assess the health of European freshwaters. We calculated biological response metrics representing communities from 406 rivers in eight European countries: taxonomic richness, functional richness and redundancy, and biomonitoring indices that indicate ecological status. We analysed metrics based on the whole community and a group of taxa with traits promoting resistance and/or resilience (‘high RR’) to drying. We also examined how responses vary across Europe in relation to climatic aridity. Most community metrics decreased independently in response to impacts and drying. A richness-independent biomonitoring index (the average score per taxon; ASPT) showed particular potential for use in biomonitoring, and should be considered alongside new metrics representing high RR diversity, to promote accurate assessment of ecological status. High RR taxonomic richness responded only to impacts, not drying. However, these predictors explained little variance in richness and other high RR metrics, potentially due to low taxonomic richness. Metric responsiveness could thus be enhanced by developing region-specific high RR groups comprising sufficient taxa with sufficiently variable impact sensitivities to indicate ecological status. Synthesis and applications. Metrics are needed to assess the ecological status of dynamic river ecosystems—including those that sometimes dry—and thus to identify priority sites requiring action to tackle the causes of

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) mandates to incorporate the participation of stakeholders and the general public in the development and updating of the river basin management plans. So far, the WFD implementation has been mainly focused on perennial rivers without considering temporary rivers properly, neither in biomonitoring programs nor participatory processes. This paper aims at adapting participatory processes in river basin management to enhance the inclusion of ecosystems with poor or no social recognition such as temporary rivers. To do so, we examined previous experiences of participatory processes conducted in the WFD and adapted them to propose and implement an approach for promoting stakeholders’ engagement in temporary rivers. The approach is based on a collaborative leadership, includes multiple participatory engagement mechanisms, uses future global change scenarios and the concept of ecosystem services at different stages of the process, and aims at involving stakeholders not only in the proposal of measures stage but in the diagnosis of the ecological status. It also includes an evaluation of participants’ satisfaction on the process. We tested our approach in temporary rivers from the Mediterranean region. We found that the combination of environmental education and citizen science activities, together with the inclusion of the ecosystem services concept, was the most useful way to raise awareness on the biodiversity and ecological value of temporary rivers and to promote stakeholders’ engagement. Workshops conducted during the diagnosis stage played an important role in both including stakeholders’ suggestions and increasing their knowledge on temporary rivers. Further, envisaging climate-related future scenarios allowed participants to incorporate measures that could tackle new and emerging pressures on these ecosystems. As future environmental changes will increase the proportion of rivers with temporary flow regimes, our approach c

The biomonitoring methods implemented by water authorities are mostly developed for perennial rivers, and do not apply to temporary rivers (TRs). We propose a new classification for TRs to better assess their ecological status. It arises from the LIFE+ TRivers project, which was conducted in the Catalan and the Júcar Mediterranean river basin districts (RBD). The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) provided two systems to set river types (systems A or B from Annex II), which have been officially used by water authorities across Europe to set “national river types” (NRTs). However, essential hydrological variables for TRs are largely omitted. NRTs established according to the WFD were compared with TR categories obtained by using a rainfall-runoff model, “natural flows prescribed regimes” (NFPRs), and with “aquatic phases regimes” (APRs) calculated by using TREHS software. The biological quality indices currently used in Spain, based on macroinvertebrates and diatoms (IBMWP, IMMI-T, and IPS), were compared with a “general degradation” gradient in order to analyze the two TR river classification procedures (NFPR and APR). The results showed that NRTs did not properly classify TRs, and that the APR classification identified ecologically meaningful categories, especially those related to stagnant phases. Four “management temporary river categories” based on APRs are proposed to be used for water managers to properly assess the ecological status of TRs.

1. Rivers are dynamic ecosystems in which both human impacts and climate-driven drying events are increasingly common. These anthropogenic and natural stressors interact to influence the biodiversity and functioning of river ecosystems. Disentangling ecological responses to these interacting stressors is necessary to guide management actions that support ecosystems adapting to global change., 2. We analysed the independent and interactive effects of human impacts and natural drying on aquatic invertebrate communities—a key biotic group used to assess the health of European freshwaters. We calculated biological response metrics representing communities from 406 rivers in eight European countries: taxonomic richness, functional richness and redundancy, and two biomonitoring indices that indicate ecological status. We analysed metrics based on the whole community and a group of taxa with traits promoting resistance and/or resilience ('high RR') to drying. We also examined how responses vary across Europe in relation to climatic aridity., 3. Most community metrics decreased independently in response to impacts and drying. A richness-independent biomonitoring index (the average score per taxon; ASPT) showed particular potential for use in biomonitoring, and should be considered alongside new metrics representing high RR diversity, to promote accurate assessment of ecological status., 4. High RR taxonomic richness responded only to impacts, not drying. However, these predictors explained little variance in richness and other high RR metrics, potentially due to low taxonomic richness. Metric responsiveness could thus be enhanced by developing region-specific high RR groups comprising sufficient taxa with sufficiently variable impact sensitivities to indicate ecological status., 5. Synthesis and applications. Our results inform recommendations guiding the development of metrics to assess the ecological status of dynamic river ecosystems—including those that sometimes dry—thus identifying priority sites requiring further investigation to identify the stressors responsible for environmental degradation. We recommend concurrent consideration of richness-independent biomonitoring indices (such as an ASPT) and new high RR richness metrics that characterize groups of resistant and resilient taxa for region-specific river types. Interactions observed between aridity, impacts and drying evidence that these new metrics should be adaptable, promoting their ability to inform management actions that protect river ecosystems responding to climate change.

1. Rivers are dynamic ecosystems in which both human impacts and climate-driven drying events are increasingly common. These anthropogenic and natural stressors interact to influence the biodiversity and functioning of river ecosystems. Disentangling ecological responses to these interacting stressors is necessary to guide management actions that support ecosystems adapting to global change., 2. We analysed the independent and interactive effects of human impacts and natural drying on aquatic invertebrate communities—a key biotic group used to assess the health of European freshwaters. We calculated biological response metrics representing communities from 406 rivers in eight European countries: taxonomic richness, functional richness and redundancy, and two biomonitoring indices that indicate ecological status. We analysed metrics based on the whole community and a group of taxa with traits promoting resistance and/or resilience (‘high RR’) to drying. We also examined how responses vary across Europe in relation to climatic aridity., 3. Most community metrics decreased independently in response to impacts and drying. A richness-independent biomonitoring index (the average score per taxon; ASPT) showed particular potential for use in biomonitoring, and should be considered alongside new metrics representing high RR diversity, to promote accurate assessment of ecological status., 4. High RR taxonomic richness responded only to impacts, not drying. However, these predictors explained little variance in richness and other high RR metrics, potentially due to low taxonomic richness. Metric responsiveness could thus be enhanced by developing region-specific high RR groups comprising sufficient taxa with sufficiently variable impact sensitivities to indicate ecological status., 5. Synthesis and applications. Our results inform recommendations guiding the development of metrics to assess the ecological status of dynamic river ecosystems—including those that sometimes dry—thus identifying priority sites requiring further investigation to identify the stressors responsible for environmental degradation. We recommend concurrent consideration of richness-independent biomonitoring indices (such as an ASPT) and new high RR richness metrics that characterize groups of resistant and resilient taxa for region-specific river types. Interactions observed between aridity, impacts and drying evidence that these new metrics should be adaptable, promoting their ability to inform management actions that protect river ecosystems responding to climate change.

Temporary rivers are characterized by shifting habitats between flowing, isolated pools, and dry phases. Despite the fact that temporary rivers are currently receiving increasing attention by researchers and managers, the isolated pools phase has been largely disregarded. However, isolated pools in temporary rivers are transitional habitats of major ecological relevance as they support aquatic ecosystems during no-flow periods, and can act as refugees for maintaining local and regional freshwater biodiversity. Pool characteristics such as surface water permanence and size, presence of predators, local physicochemical conditions, time since disconnection from the river flow, or distance to other freshwater habitats challenge a comprehensive understanding of the ecology of these habitats, and challenge ecological quality assessments and conservation practices in temporary rivers. In this paper, we aim at providing a characterization of isolated pools from a hydrological, geomorphological, physicochemical, biogeochemical, and biological point of view as a framework to better conceptualize, conserve, and manage these habitats

Ecosystems experience natural disturbances and anthropogenic impacts that affect biological communities and ecological processes. When natural disturbance modifies anthropogenic impacts, current widely used bioassessment metrics can prevent accurate assessment of biological quality. Our aim was to assess the ability of biomonitoring metrics to detect anthropogenic impacts at both perennial and intermittent sites, and in the latter including both flowing and disconnected pool aquatic phases. Specifically, aquatic macroinvertebrates from 20 rivers were sampled along gradients of natural flow intermittence (natural disturbance) and anthropogenic impacts to investigate their combined effects on widely used river biomonitoring metrics (i.e. taxonomic richness and standard biological indices) and novel functional metrics, including functional redundancy (i.e. the number of taxa contributing similarly to an ecosystem function, here a trophic function) and response diversity (i.e. how functionally similar taxa respond to natural disturbance and anthropogenic impacts). Only the widely used IBMWP index (Iberian Biological Monitoring Working Party) was able to detect anthropogenic impacts in intermittent rivers when used during flowing phases. Several functional metrics also detected anthropogenic impacts regardless of flow intermittence. Besides, functional redundancy of the entire community remained effective even in disconnected pools. Synthesis and applications . Our results show that natural flow intermittence can confound river bioassessment, and that a set of new functional metrics could be used as effective alternatives to standard metrics in naturally disturbed intermittent rivers. Our findings suggest that water managers should incorporate alternative functional metrics in the routine biomonitoring of naturally disturbed rivers.