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This is the introductory manuscript for the Special Issue on Fighting Against COVID-19. In this, the guest editors commenters all the accepted manuscripts for publication, presenting them grouped on four main subtopics: (I) COVID-19 dissemination modeling; (II) follow up of social isolation; (III) artificial intelligence and deep learning applied to COVID-19 diagnosis; and (IV) different technological developments on fighting COVID-19.

This chapter presents a specific reliability study of some GEANT4-DNA (version 10.02.p01) processes and models for proton transportation considering ultra-thin layers (UTL). The Monte Carlo radiation transport validation is fundamental to guarantee the simulation results accuracy. However, sometimes this is impossible due to the lack of experimental data and, it is then that the reliability evaluation takes an important role. Geant4-DNA runs in an energy range that makes impossible, nowadays, to perform a proper microscopic validation (cross-sections and dynamic diffusion parameters) and allows very limited macroscopic reliability. The chemical damage cross-sections reliability (experiment versus simulation) is a way to verify the consistency of the simulation results which is presented for 2 MeV incident protons beam on PMMA and PVC UTL. A comparison among different Geant4-DNA physics lists for incident protons beams from 2 to 20 MeV, interacting with homogeneous water UTL (2 to 200 nm) was performed. This comparison was evaluated for standard and five other optional physics lists considering radial and depth profiles of deposited energy as well as number of interactions and stopping power of the incident particle.

Several sources of total cross sections for e$^+$e$^-$ pair production by photon interaction with matter, used by major Monte Carlo codes for particle transport, are quantitatively evaluated with respect to experimental measurements collected from the literature. They include data libraries deriving from theoretical calculations and analytical formulae representing empirical fits to tabulations. Although most of these sources of cross sections are based on one theoretical reference, the statistical data analysis documented in the paper highlights differences in their compatibility with experiment. The cross sections collected in the 1997 version of the Evaluated Photon Data Library (EPDL) exhibit the lowest incompatibility with experiment; the paper details the validation results for all the examined cross section sources. The scarcity of experimental data does not allow the validation process to discern pair production in the field of the nucleus and in the field of atomic electrons; nevertheless, the paper documents relevant clues regarding the contribution of the latter to reproduce experimental measurements., Comment: Accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science

RESUMO Para garantir a proteção dos indivíduos, diversos materiais são utilizados para blindagem de radiação ionizante, dentre eles o sulfato de bário (barita), que se destaca por apresentar boa atenuação de feixes de fótons em diferentes energias, incluindo aqueles utilizados em radioterapia. Nesse contexto, este trabalho propõe três traços de concretos baritados: T.REF (referência), T.10%SA (com substituição de 10% de cimento Portland por sílica ativa) e T.10%CV (com substituição de 10% de cimento Portland por cinza volante) para investigar os efeitos da blindagem da radiação ionizante gerada por um equipamento de radioterapia. As amostras de concreto foram caracterizadas em relação as suas densidades aparentes e resistência à compressão axial. Para avaliar eficácia da blindagem, foram realizadas medidas de atenuação da radiação do feixe primário gerado por um acelerador linear, para tensões máximas de aceleração de 6 MV e 10 MV, em função da espessura dos corpos de prova. Quanto à densidade, todos os concretos baritados foram classificados como “normais” conforme a NBR 8953 e, em relação aos ensaios de resistência à compressão, todos atenderam aos critérios estruturais e de severidade do meio, segundo a NBR 6118. No tocante a blindagem da radiação ionizante, o concreto baritado T.10%CV apresentou maior eficiência reduzindo as espessas paredes das salas de radioterapia em 80,91% e atenuando 95% da radiação incidente. Este traço é composto por cinza volante, um resíduo proveniente da queima do carvão mineral em usinas termelétricas. Portanto, além de propor um método de reaproveitamento e uma destinação adequada ao resíduo sólido, foi possível reduzir o consumo de clínquer; material responsável pela maioria das emissões de gases poluentes no processo de fabricação de cimento. Ademais, os concretos baritados T.REF e T.10%SA também se mostraram adequados para serem aplicados em barreiras de proteções de salas de radioterapia, embora tenham apresentados atenuações menores que o T.10%CV. ABSTRACT To ensure the protection of individuals, different materials have been used as shielding from ionizing radiation, among them the barium sulfate (barite) stands out for presenting good attenuation of photon beams for distinct energies, including those used in radiotherapy. In this context, this work provides three compositions of barium concretes: T.REF (reference), T.10% SA (with 10% replacement of Portland cement with silica fume) and T.10% CV (with 10% replacement of Portland cement with fly ash) to investigate shielding effects against ionizing radiation generated by radiotherapy equipment. Concrete samples were characterized with respect to bulk density and axial compression strength. Regarding the effectiveness of the shielding, measurements of attenuation of the primary beam generated by a linear accelerator were carried out, for maximum acceleration voltages of 6 MV and 10 MV, as a function of the thickness of the samples. The density measurements show that the concretes were classified as “normal” as stated in NBR 8953. In the compressive strength tests, the concretes were in line with structural and severity criteria, according to NBR 6118. Concerning the shielding of ionizing radiation, the barium concrete T.10%CV showed the greater efficiency among all the proposed compositions, reducing the thickness of the wall of radiotherapy rooms by 80.91% with an attenuation of 95% of incident radiation. This trace is composed of fly ash, a residue from the burning of coal in thermoelectric plants. Therefore, in addition to proposing a reuse method and an adequate destination for solid waste, it was possible to reduce the consumption of clinker; the material responsible for most gaseous emissions in the cement manufacturing process. Furthermore, other barium concretes as T.REF and T.10%SA also proved to be suitable for application in protective barriers in radiotherapy rooms, although they presented lower attenuations than T.10%CV.

RESUMO A exposição à radiação ionizante está mais presente na rotina da sociedade atual em consequência do avanço das práticas de saúde. Desta forma, deve-se atentar aos mecanismos de proteção radiológica de modo a minimizar a radiação absorvida pelos indivíduos, principalmente em unidades de saúde. Uma sala de radiologia deve contar com uma blindagem adequada, considerando materiais com densidade e espessura apropriados. Nesse contexto, este estudo propõe um concreto específico para construção de salas de radiologia, utilizando o sulfato de bário (barita) e a rocha de basalto em sua composição. O concreto possui uma densidade aparente média de 2,46 g/cm³, sendo classificado como normal, de acordo com sua densidade, evitando assim excessos de carregamento gerados pela sua estrutura. Nos testes de resistência à compressão axial característica (fck), o concreto atingiu o valor de 102,90 MPa, um aumento de 157% quando comparado ao fck para maior classe de agressividade ambiental (40 MPa), conforme estipulado pela NBR 6118. Para os ensaios de blindagem frente à radiação X, foram moldados 5 corpos de prova prismáticos de seção transversal 10 cm x 10 cm, com espessuras variando de 2 mm a 10 mm. A eficácia da blindagem foi aferida por uma câmara de ionização, posicionada abaixo dos corpos de prova, para diferentes valores de energia do feixe de raios X (60, 90 e 125 kVp). Os resultados indicam que mesmo para 125 kVp, um dos maiores valores utilizados na maioria dos equipamentos de radiologia, uma espessura de 16,70 mm é suficiente para barrar 95% da radiação X, conforme recomendado pela Portaria Federal n°453 da Anvisa. Esse conjunto de fatores, em especial a sua capacidade de blindagem, mostram que o concreto proposto é adequado para aplicações em blindagens de salas de radiologia.

As blindagens são uma parte fundamental na radioproteção. A construção de curvas de transmissão para um material utilizado como blindagem é importante para a definição da espessura necessária da blindagem. O principal objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver um método para caracterizar novos materiais para blindagem de fótons usando a ferramenta computacional Geant4. As amostras irradiadas, denominadas Traço A, B e C, foram produzidas no Laboratório de Resistência de Materiais da UCPel. As validações experimentais de caracterização das amostras foram realizadas pelo teste da camada semirredutora (CSR), medida de kerma e medidas de Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS), sendo os dois primeiros validados por meio de simulações. Os resultados de RBS e do imageamento mostraram a influência da granularidade dos agregados do concreto na homogeneidade e reprodutibilidade das amostras. A validação da aplicação foi feita por meio da verificação dos espectros teóricos e simulados, da geometria de radiação e caracterização do material. Os espectros teóricos e simulados foram validados por testes estatísticos, sendo considerados equivalentes. A geometria de radiação foi validada utilizando um visualizador e as ferramentas de verificação da geometria disponibilizadas pelo Geant4. Espera-se, com esses resultados, fazer medidas experimentais e criar curvas de transmissão simuladas para aplicações na radiologia diagnóstica e radioterapia.

Imaging techniques using protons as incident particles are currently being developed to substitute X-ray computer tomography and nuclear magnetic resonance methods in proton therapy. They deal with relatively thick targets, like the human head or trunk, where protons lose a significant part of their energy, however, they have enough energy to exit the target. The physical quantities important in proton imaging are kinetic energy, angle and coordinates of emerging proton from an absorber material. In recent times, many research groups use the Geant4 toolkit to simulate proton imaging devices. Most of the available publications about validation of Geant4 models are for thin or thick absorbers (Bragg Peak studies), that are not consistent with the contour conditions applied to proton imaging. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the kinetic energy spectrum for protons emerging from homogeneous absorbers slabs comparing it to the experimental results published by Tschalar and Maccabee, in 1970. Different models (standard and detailed) available on Geant4 (version 9.6.p03) are explored taking into account its accuracy and computational performance. This paper presents a validation for protons with incident kinetic energies of 19.68 MeV and 49.10 MeV. The validation results from the emerging protons kinetic energy spectra show that: (i) there are differences between the reference data and the data produced by different processes evoked for transportation and (ii) the validation energies are sensitive to sub-shell processes.

Monte Carlo technique has been widely used as an important tool to develop new irradiation equipment, prototype medical equipment parts, and test methodologies for dosimetry. In this manuscript, we present a methodology to design a low power X-ray tube generator using the Geant4 Monte Carlo toolkit. The simulations were performed considering a large number of variables, namely, the material composition of the target track, the window thickness, and the air pressure of the X-ray tube. The X-ray production was simulated considering monoenergetic electron beams impinging on targets of tungsten and copper with incident kinetic energies ranging from 20 keV to 60 keV and initial divergences from 5° to 30°. For the polyenergetic emission, a conservative approach with Gaussian energy distribution was adopted. The analysis indicates that among the evaluated parameters, the incident kinetic energy, and the target material produced the most notable changes in the spectra shape and conversion efficiency (CE), significantly impacting the X-ray tube design. The studies provide a reliable methodology to explore general configurations for X-ray tube generators, defining the best geometry, material compositions, and thicknesses to be used on spectroscopy applications.

Several total and partial photoionization cross section calculations, based on both theoretical and empirical approaches, are quantitatively evaluated with statistical analyses using a large collection of experimental data retrieved from the literature to identify the state of the art for modeling the photoelectric effect in Monte Carlo particle transport. Some of the examined cross section models are available in general purpose Monte Carlo systems, while others have been implemented and subjected to validation tests for the first time to estimate whether they could improve the accuracy of particle transport codes. The validation process identifies Scofield's 1973 non-relativistic calculations, tabulated in the Evaluated Photon Data Library(EPDL), as the one best reproducing experimental measurements of total cross sections. Specialized total cross section models, some of which derive from more recent calculations, do not provide significant improvements. Scofield's non-relativistic calculations are not surpassed regarding the compatibility with experiment of K and L shell photoionization cross sections either, although in a few test cases Ebel's parameterization produces more accurate results close to absorption edges. Modifications to Biggs and Lighthill's parameterization implemented in Geant4 significantly reduce the accuracy of total cross sections at low energies with respect to its original formulation. The scarcity of suitable experimental data hinders a similar extensive analysis for the simulation of the photoelectron angular distribution, which is limited to a qualitative appraisal., To be published in IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci

Evaluated data libraries for electron-photon transport are most important components in Monte Carlo simulation and have been used in general-purpose Monte Carlo codes for decades. A new version of evaluated atomic data libraries, called EPICS2017, was released in early 2018. This paper reports an extensive assessment of EPICS2017, focused on what has changed, and evaluates the impact of using the new libraries in a Monte Carlo simulation environment. The results provide guidelines for developers and users of Monte Carlo codes wishing to use the new libraries. In addition, they also highlight opportunities for improving the data libraries in future releases.

Thin films of poly(methyl methacrylate) and poly(vinyl chloride) of different thickness are used to investigate the effect of spatial confinement on the efficiency of bond breaking induced by 2 MeV H^{+} and 2.1 GeV Bi ions. Effective cross sections for oxygen and chlorine loss are extracted for films down to a thickness of about 5 nm and are compared to theoretical estimations based on radial energy density profiles simulated with geant-dna. The cross sections are to a large extent thickness independent, indicating that bond breaking is dominated by short-range processes. This is in contrast to the strongly reduced efficiencies found recently for cratering induced by high-energy ions in similar ultrathin polymer films [Phys. Rev. Lett. 114, 118302 (2015)PRLTAO0031-900710.1103/PhysRevLett.114.118302].

Theoretical and semi-empirical methods to calculate electron impact ionization cross sections for atomic shells are subject to validation tests with respect to a wide collection of experimental measurements to identify the state of the art for Monte Carlo particle transport. The validation process applies rigorous statistical analysis methods. Cross sections based on the EEDL Evaluated Electron Data Library, widely used by Monte Carlo codes, and on calculations by Bote and Salvat, used in the Penelope code, are generally equivalent in compatibility with experiment. Results are also reported for various formulations of the Binary-Encounter-Bethe and Deutsch-Märk models.

A test of Geant4 simulation of electron backscattering recently published in this journal prompted further investigation into the causes of the observed behaviour. An interplay between features of geometry and physics algorithms implemented in Geant4 is found to significantly affect the accuracy of backscattering simulation in some physics configurations. A test of Geant4 simulation of electron backscattering recently published in this journal prompted further investigation into the causes of the observed behaviour. An interplay between features of geometry and physics algorithms implemented in Geant4 is found to significantly affect the accuracy of backscattering simulation in some physics configurations.

Backscattering is a sensitive probe of the accuracy of electron scattering algorithms implemented in Monte Carlo codes. The capability of the Geant4 toolkit to describe realistically the fraction of electrons backscattered from a target volume is extensively and quantitatively evaluated in comparison with experimental data retrieved from the literature. The validation test covers the energy range between approximately 100 eV and 20 MeV, and concerns a wide set of target elements. Multiple and single electron scattering models implemented in Geant4, as well as preassembled selections of physics models distributed within Geant4, are analyzed with statistical methods. The evaluations concern Geant4 versions from 9.1 to 10.1. Significant evolutions are observed over the range of Geant4 versions, not always in the direction of better compatibility with experiment. Goodness-of-fit tests complemented by categorical analysis tests identify a configuration based on Geant4 Urban multiple scattering model in Geant4 version 9.1 and a configuration based on single Coulomb scattering in Geant4 10.0 as the physics options best reproducing experimental data above a few tens of keV. At lower energies only single scattering demonstrates some capability to reproduce data down to a few keV. Recommended preassembled physics configurations appear incapable of describing electron backscattering compatible with experiment. With the support of statistical methods, a correlation is established between the validation of Geant4-based simulation of backscattering and of energy deposition. Backscattering is a sensitive probe of the accuracy of electron scattering algorithms implemented in Monte Carlo codes. The capability of the Geant4 toolkit to describe realistically the fraction of electrons backscattered from a target volume is extensively and quantitatively evaluated in comparison with experimental data retrieved from the literature. The validation test covers the energy range between approximately 100 eV and 20 MeV, and concerns a wide set of target elements. Multiple and single electron scattering models implemented in Geant4, as well as preassembled selections of physics models distributed within Geant4, are analyzed with statistical methods. The evaluations concern Geant4 versions from 9.1 to 10.1. Significant evolutions are observed over the range of Geant4 versions, not always in the direction of better compatibility with experiment. Goodness-of-fit tests complemented by categorical analysis tests identify a configuration based on Geant4 Urban multiple scattering model in Geant4 version 9.1 and a configuration based on single Coulomb scattering in Geant4 10.0 as the physics options best reproducing experimental data above a few tens of keV. At lower energies only single scattering demonstrates some capability to reproduce data down to a few keV. Recommended preassembled physics configurations appear incapable of describing electron backscattering compatible with experiment. With the support of statistical methods, a correlation is established between the validation of Geant4-based simulation of backscattering and of energy deposition.

In geology field, the experimental or computational simulation of the sediment deposition process is widely used to characterize regions and possible findings. Noninvasive methods are the best way to evaluate sediments; in order of not to destroy the information of the sediment deposition structure. The use of computed tomography (CT) techniques to get images of sediments will be evaluated. A CT will be analyzed has a two stage process, the scan of body test to produce a set of X-ray images and the reconstruction step where the set of X-ray images is processed by computational algorithm to generate cross-sectional images of the scanned object. To test the method the X-ray images are generated using the Monte Carlo method with a XRMC tool, and the simulated images are 3D reconstructed using the Feldkamp, David e Kress algorithm. The reconstruction planes and the volume generated in the simulation showed very similar after a visual comparison for all of tested volumes. However a statistical analysis showed that there was no statistical coincidence of the simulated dimensions and reconstruction. The results presented showed the possibility to use CT to study the sediments in tanks or rivers.

The Evaluated Atomic, Electron and Photon Data Libraries (EADL, EEDL and EPDL, respectively) provide the grounds for the simulation of electromagnetic interactions in several Monte Carlo particle transport codes. The most recent of them, EPDL97, was released by the Livermore National Laboratory, USA twenty years ago; although they have been in use for a long time, they have been only partially validated through comparisons with experimental data. This presentation reviews the status of the validation of these data libraries; it summarizes the results reported in the literature and illustrates a few recent ones, which have not been published yet. It identifies the current gaps in the validation of the various components of the three data libraries and the shortage of experimental data in some areas, which hinders the validation. Furthermore, it highlights their position with respect to other calculations in view of determining the state of the art of electromagnetic cross sections and other atomic parameters. These results are relevant to most major Monte Carlo codes and provide guidelines for the next generation of data libraries currently in preparation.

New cross section calculations are usually advertised as improvements over previous ones. Nevertheless these claims are not always supported by rigorous statistical tests. A set of electron impact ionization cross sections for inner shells, suitable for Monte Carlo particle transport, has been evaluated in a large scale validation test with respect to an extensive collection of experimental data retrieved from the literature. It includes the cross sections tabulated in EEDL (Evaluated Electron Data Library), recent calculations by Bote and Salvat, the BinaryEncounter-Bethe (BEB) model and the Deutsch-Mrk (DM) model. The cross sections were compared to experimental data by means of goodness-of-fit tests. The picture that emerges from the validation test does not fully support the expectations of improvement. The complete and final results of the validation process are reported in detail and critically discussed.

In this paper are presenting a comparison by using experimental data about chemical damage for all possible physics list for Geant4-DNA (Geant4 version 10.02.p01) for protons incident beam interacting with homogeneous nano-layers of water. Associated to the chemical damage it were evaluated: radial profile of energy deposition, profile of energy deposition on depth, number of interactions, proportion among possible processes and stopping power of the incident particle. The application considers water ultra-thin layers of thicknesses from 2 nm to 200 nm with monodirectional and monochromatic (2 MeV to 20 MeV) protons impinging normally on its entrance surface. It was evoked the standard physics list (“G4EmDNAPhysics” class) and other 5 physics list available (names Opt 1 up to 5). Concerning the experimental data, the films were bombarded by 2 MeV H+ textbf in vacuum at a HVEE 3 MV Tandetron and Xray photoelectron spectroscopy was performed on the irradiated samples at Universite de Namur, Belgium. The preliminary results show that radial and depth profile of energy deposition to all physics lists evaluated presented as expected, with exception for the physics list Opt1. This physics list shows a peak of energy deposition at the end of the layer on depth profile. On radial profile it is clear that the secondaries electrons transported by Opt1 presented larger range than the presented by other evaluated physics list. It was observed for few simulations considering standard physics list that for thickness above $\sim 350$ nm the curve of depth profile achieve it “saturation” and stop the increasing on energy deposition with depth.

The objective of this project was to compare XRMC version 6.5.0–2 to Geant4 version 10.02.p02 and the results of both Monte Carlo tools to experimental data collected by using three different mammographs for dosimetric applications in mammography (external dosimetry), validating XRMC and Geant4 for dosimetric applications in mammography. To validate the quantities simulated one experimental database was structured with data from three different mammographic equipments (Mammomat Inspiration, Mammomat 3000 and LORAD MIII). The absolute quantities exposure and kerma were collected for different setups and used to calculate the derived quantities half-value-layer (HVL) and backscattering (BSF). To evaluate the difference in results due the differences on description of the incident spectra it was modeled spectra from two different sources: catalogue IPEM Report 78 and the spectra generated for Lorad MIII equipment configuration, based on model published by Tucker et al. 1991. The results show good agreement between simulated and experimental data. The XRMC is presenting similar agreement to experimental data as the results presented by Penelope model, but with a significant reduction on running time (in transmission mode it can reduces the running time, at least, $\sim 5$ time compared to Geant4 Penelope model) when normalized values are compared. The use of catalogued spectrum instead of experimental spectrum made visible the need of a semiempirical correction to adjust the number of photons emitted by unit of area by total tube transported charge.

The main objective of this project was to define a methodology for sediments characterization, imaging the material deposited in the tanks or in locu. It was evaluated the 3D reconstruction of the simulated planar images and the definition of limitations of the technique by simulating the sediment images. The strategy defined was to use as base material acetylene and as object of contrast (OC) acetylene with 10% of barium. Deterministic calculations were used to estimate some limitations of the technique by estimating the subject contrast (SC) and the transmission (T). The XRMC version 6.5.0–2 was used to generate the planar images, simulating 360 degrees in steps of 1 degree. The FeldkampDavid-Kress (FDK) reconstruction method was used to generate 3D images. The reconstructed images were evaluated (by using automated macros in Fiji) considering the dimensions of the OC and the sign, sign-to-noise ratio among other characteristic of the image sing. The deterministic calculation guided the selection of realistic spectra giving an idea about the limitation of the technique. The simulated images confirmed the limitation, for monochromatic incident photons beam of 30 keV, to image thicknesses up to 30 cm. Ir-192 was used to image larger thicknesses with consistent results. The XRMC proved to be an interesting and useful tool to generate geological images and guide on new strategies to image sediments. The results show that FDK reconstruction method can be used, but this method needs to be improved for reconstruct images with low contrast and high noise. Partial angular samples cannot be reconstructed with the FDK method.

The aim of this work is to simulate transmission data for different beam geometry and material composition in order to evaluate the effect of these parameters on transmission curves. The simulations are focused on outgoing spectra for shielding barriers used in PET facilities. The behavior of the transmission was evaluated as a function of the shielding material composition and thickness using Geant4 Monte Carlo code, version 9.2 p 03.The application was benchmarked for barited mortar and compared to The American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) data for lead. Their influence on the transmission curves as well the study of the influence of the shielding material composition and beam geometry on the outgoing spectra were performed. Characteristics of transmitted spectra, such as shape, average energy and Half-Value Layer (HVL), were also evaluated. The Geant4 toolkit benchmark for the energy resulting from the positron annihilation phenomena and its application in transmission curves description shown good agreement between data published by American Association on Physicists in Medicine task group 108 and experimental data published by Brasil. The transmission properties for different material compositions were also studied and have shown low dependency with the considered thicknesses. The broad and narrow beams configuration presented significant differences on the result. The fitting parameter for determining the transmission curves equations, according to Archer model is presented for different material. As conclusion were defined that beam geometry has significant influence and the composition has low influence on transmission curves for shielding design for the range of energy applied to PET.

Evolutions of Geant4 code have affected the simulation of electron backscattering with respect to previously published results. Their effects are quantified by analyzing the compatibility of the simulated electron backscattering fraction with a large collection of experimental data for a wide set of physics configuration options available in Geant4. Special emphasis is placed on two electron scattering implementations first released in Geant4 version 10.2: the Goudsmit-Saunderson multiple scattering model and a single Coulomb scattering model based on Mott cross section calculation. The new Goudsmit-Saunderson multiple scattering model appears to perform equally or less accurately than the model implemented in previous Geant4 versions, depending on the electron energy. The new Coulomb scattering model was flawed from a physics point of view, but computationally fast in Geant4 version 10.2; the physics correction released in Geant4 version 10.2p01 severely degrades its computational performance. Evolutions in the Geant4 geometry domain have addressed physics problems observed in electron backscattering simulation in previous publications., To be published in IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci

We report preliminary results of an extensive investigation of theoretical and semi-empirical calculations of electron impact ionization cross sections, detailed by individual shells: they encompass the well known tabulations of the EEDL data library (also distributed within ENDF/B-VII) used by Geant4, MCNP and other codes, recent calculations used in Penelope, as well as other models not yet used in general-purpose Monte Carlo transport codes. All models have been subject to a rigorous validation test against a wide collection of experimental measurements. Special attention has been devoted to possible sources of systematics affecting the validation process, both of physical and mathematical origin. As most of the data reported in the literature as experimental measurements of ionization cross sections actually derive from X-ray production measurements, the systematic effect of different compilations of fluorescence yields has been quantitatively assessed. The compatibility of calculated and experimental cross sections has been further examined with categorical analysis methods to determine whether the observed differences across the various models are statistically significant. The results of this validation process identify objectively and quantitatively the state of the art in modeling electron impact ionization; they are relevant for the improvement of ionization modeling in Monte Carlo codes.

Half Value Layer (HVL) test is an important technical information in conventional radiology once it is the only test which allows us to quantify beam quality in a complete way. This work promotes a preliminary analysis of the impact of aluminum alloy composition in the determination of HVL value taking into account a realistic geometry. Deterministic calculations and Monte Carlo Method were applied in order to make the proposed analysis. Six aluminum alloys (99% pure) commercialized and pure aluminum were used as comparative basis for both methods. Experimental data were collected in conventional radiology, using tungsten target and aluminum filter for two peak tensions (66 kVp, 81 kVp), and in mammography, using three target filter combinations( molybdenum-molybdenum, molybdenum-rhodium, tungsten-rhodium) for three peak tensions (25 kVp, 30 kVp and 35 kVp). Spectra used in the deterministic calculations were taken from Report No 78 of Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine, 1997. Results show that Mammography is more sensitive than conventional X-ray equipment to impurities in aluminum alloys (up to 34.65% variation for W-Rh combination with 30 kVp).

This paper shows the comparison among experimental, theoretical published data and data generated by the Geant4 toolkit to determine X-ray transmission curves in an energy range suitable for radiology as well a study of the influence of spectra and shielding composition on transmission data. The objectives of this work were: to compare the differences on transmission data considering different shielding material composition, to validate the application for Geant4 and to calculate transmission curves for new material based on the proposed methodology. Transmission curves and fitting equations for lead, concrete, barited concrete and barited mortar were obtained as a function of shielding thickness and X-ray polychromatic spectra. The simulated transmission curves for lead showed to be statistically the same when compared to published reference. Good agreement was calculated between the experimental data and the data simulated using Geant4. For the other composite materials no comparable reference data is available, but the spread in the transmission values is below 10% for the range of the thicknesses used in real shielding. The results showed that changes in composition for the studied materials can have some impact on the transmission data. The X-ray transmission was sensitive to changes in the incoming beam energy spectra for a fixed acceleration voltage. The simulation application developed in this work can be used, associated to a shielding composition elemental analysis, to customize transmission curves for different composite materials and X-ray spectra.

Objetivo: Apresentar uma ferramenta de análise de dados que pode ser utilizada para proteção de pacientes e traba- lhadores em áreas de uso de equipamentos móveis. Materiais e Métodos: Foi desenvolvida uma ferramenta, em pla- nilha ativa Excel®, que utiliza medidas de exposição para gerar um banco de dados de fatores de forma e calcular o kerma no ar ao entorno de um leito. O banco de dados inicial foi coletado com três equipamentos móveis. Um espalhador não antropomórfico foi utilizado, sendo realizadas medidas de exposição em uma malha de (4,2 × 4,2) m2, ao passo de 0,3 m. Resultados: A ferramenta calcula o kerma no ar (associado à exposição de pacientes expostos e ao equiva- lente de dose ambiente) à radiação secundária. Para distâncias inferiores a 60,0 cm, valores acima do limite máximo de equivalente de dose ambiente definido para área livre (0,5 mSv/ano) foram verificados. Os dados coletados a 2,1 m foram sempre inferiores a 12% do referido limite. Conclusão: A ferramenta é capaz de auxiliar na proteção radiológica de pacientes e trabalhadores, quando associada à coleta de dados adequada, pois possibilita a determinação de áreas livres ao entorno de leitos em áreas onde equipamentos móveis geradores de radiação X são utilizados. Objective: To present a data analysis toolkit that may be utilized with the purpose of radiation protection of hospital inpatients and workers in areas where mobile apparatuses are used. Materials and Methods: An Excel® ActiveSheet was utilized to develop a computational toolkit with exposure measurements to generate a database of shape factors and to calculate the air kerma around hospital beds. The initial database included data collected with three mobile apparatuses. A non-anthropomorphic phantom was utilized and exposure measurements were performed on a (4.2 × 4.2) m2 mesh-grid at 0.3 m steps. Results: The toolkit calculates the air kerma (associated with patients’ radiation exposure and with ambient equivalent dose) under secondary radiation. For distances lower than 60.0 cm, values above the maximum ambient equivalent dose threshold defined for radiation free areas (0.5 mSv/year) were verified. Data collected at 2.1 m have always presented values lower than 12% of that threshold. Conclusion: The toolkit can aid in the radiological protection of patients and workers, provided it is combined with appropriate data collection, since it allows the determination of radiation free areas around beds in rooms where mobile X-ray apparatuses are utilized.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the intermethod agreement in the measurement of compression force as well as variations in the testing of different mammography systems. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten compression force measurements were performed for each proposed method on each mammography apparatus (Mammomat 3000-Siemens, Mammo Diagnostic UC-Philips and Alpha ST-GE), with an evaluation of the differences among the mammographic equipments as far as the application of such measurement methods is concerned, as well as the differences among the applied methods. RESULTS: Significant differences were observed among the results for the different systems and methods, and the values measured with the aid of a bathroom-scale-type dynamometer resulted in compression force underestimation. Each compression system presented different responses for the proposed methods. CONCLUSION: Differences were observed among compression systems and among proposed methods. Thus the choice of the way the compression test is performed is critical for the acceptance of the mammography equipment, the technical lead being the most competent to define the most appropriate and realistic testing method. It is suggested that the compression force measurement should be performed with an extension dynamometer, rather than with a compression dynamometer, in cases where the mammography compression system functioning is not known.

Purpose Recently, we proposed the use of the synchrotron radiation (SR) beam for a new rotational radiotherapy technique for breast cancer treatment (SR3T) [1] ;. In this work, we show, via Monte Carlo (MC) simulations, the potential of SR3T also for application in breast radiosurgery with the patient in prone position. Methods We simulated the irradiation condition of the breast rotational radiosurgery with a MC code based on GEANT 4 toolkit. The pendant breast was modeled as a polyethylene cylinder with a diameter of 14 cm and height of 9 cm with a 1-cm tumor simulated in the centre or at 4 cm from the cylinder axis. A monoenergetic laminar SR beam of size 1.5 cm × 1.0 cm with energy ranging between 60 and 120 keV irradiated the phantom during a complete rotation with the center of rotation along the tumor mass. Results A collimated SR beam irradiating a pendant breast produces a dose distribution peaked at the center of rotation. MC simulations showed that is possible to perform partial-breast irradiation with a skin sparing comparable with that from a conventional MV breast radiotherapy. Conclusions We proposed a kV SR beam for partial-breast irradiation, for breast radiosurgery in the treatment of small lesions. We foresee the use of dose-enhancement agents in order to improve the dose to the target volume with proper sparing of healthy tissues.

OBJETIVO: O processo de migração de sistemas analógicos para digitalizados, para aplicações diagnósticas, requer cuidados específicos, a fim de manter a qualidade das imagens e minimizar a dose no paciente. Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar e comparar a qualidade da imagem e o kerma num simulador não antropomórfico de tórax gerados por sistemas analógicos e digitalizados CR. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foram analisados a qualidade da imagem e o kerma, de entrada e saída, no simulador para dois equipamentos de raios X diferentes (Siemens e Emic), com diferentes sistemas de retificação de onda (12 pulsos e alta frequência). Ambos os sistemas (analógico e digitalizado) estavam sendo utilizados no mesmo local. Foram geradas imagens em filme e em image plates. RESULTADOS: Foi observado aumento na tensão e/ou na carga transportada pelo tubo de raios X quando houve a migração para o sistema CR, para manutenção das características diagnósticas da imagem. Isto resultou em aumento de kerma coletado. CONCLUSÃO: As maiores diferenças determinadas (aumento de dose e redução da qualidade da imagem) foram observadas no equipamento com retificação de onda de 12 pulsos e transdutor de imagem CR (image plates). OBJECTIVE: The process of migration from analog to digital imaging system requires specific attention to preserve images quality and minimizing the dose to the patients. The present study was aimed at analyzing and comparing images quality and entrance and exist air kerma measurements in a non-anthropomorphic chest phantom with analog and CR digital imaging systems. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two different X-ray units (Siemens and Emic) with different wave rectification systems (12-pulse and high-frequency) were utilized in a single institution along the process of migration from analog to CR digital imaging system. Images were acquired on films and image plates. RESULTS: An increase on the X-ray tube peak voltage and/or load was observed in the migration from analog to CR digital system to preserve the diagnostic quality of the image. As a result, an increase in the air kerma rate was observed. CONCLUSION: The greatest differences (increase in dose and decrease in image quality) were observed with the 12-pulse wave rectification system with the CR image transducer (imaging plates).

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste trabalho foi obter a distribuição da dose absorvida no ar numa sala de mamografia durante a simulação de um exame mamográfico, visando a reavaliar a necessidade do uso de barreiras de proteção radiológica nessas salas e a exposição das pacientes. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Os dados da dose absorvida no ar foram coletados mediante simulação de exame mamográfico de um simulador de mama de BR12, em um equipamento Senograph 600T-Senix HF. Para tal, 158 pastilhas de CaSO4 foram distribuídas em malhas retangulares em torno do bucky, em três alturas distintas. RESULTADOS: O valor mais elevado da dose absorvida no ar, registrado no ponto central da superfície do simulador, centralizado no feixe primário, foi de 8,33 mGy, enquanto o menor valor registrado, devido exclusivamente ao espalhamento, foi de 0,008 mGy. CONCLUSÃO: Estes resultados indicam que o uso de blindagem adicional nas salas de mamografia pode não ser necessário na incidência crânio-caudal, desde que as distâncias consideradas neste trabalho sejam observadas. No entanto, eles enfatizam a necessidade de proteção da paciente. OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at evaluating the absorbed dose in air in a medical examination room during a mammography simulation, to re-evaluate the level of patients' exposure as well as the necessity of radiological protection barriers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data regarding absorbed dose in air were collected during mammography simulation with a BR12 breast phantom in a Senograph 600T-Senix HF mammograph. For this purpose, 158 CaSO4 dosimeters were distributed over rectangular grids around the bucky at three different heights. RESULTS: The highest value for absorbed dose in air recorded on the center of the phantom surface and centralized on the primary beam was 8.33 mGy, while the lowest value recorded exclusively due to radiation scattering was 0.008 mGy. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that the utilization of additional shielding in mammography facilities might not be necessary for craniocaudal acquisition, provided the distances considered for the present study are observed. However, the necessity of radiation protection of the patient should be emphasized.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste trabalho foi obter a distribuição da dose absorvida no ar numa sala de mamografia durante a simulação de um exame mamográfico, visando a reavaliar a necessidade do uso de barreiras de proteção radiológica nessas salas e a exposição das pacientes. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Os dados da dose absorvida no ar foram coletados mediante simulação de exame mamográfico de um simulador de mama de BR12, em um equipamento Senograph 600T-Senix HF. Para tal, 158 pastilhas de CaSO4 foram distribuídas em malhas retangulares em torno do bucky, em três alturas distintas. RESULTADOS: O valor mais elevado da dose absorvida no ar, registrado no ponto central da superfície do simulador, centralizado no feixe primário, foi de 8,33 mGy, enquanto o menor valor registrado, devido exclusivamente ao espalhamento, foi de 0,008 mGy. CONCLUSÃO: Estes resultados indicam que o uso de blindagem adicional nas salas de mamografia pode não ser necessário na incidência crânio-caudal, desde que as distâncias consideradas neste trabalho sejam observadas. No entanto, eles enfatizam a necessidade de proteção da paciente.OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at evaluating the absorbed dose in air in a medical examination room during a mammography simulation, to re-evaluate the level of patients' exposure as well as the necessity of radiological protection barriers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data regarding absorbed dose in air were collected during mammography simulation with a BR12 breast phantom in a Senograph 600T-Senix HF mammograph. For this purpose, 158 CaSO4 dosimeters were distributed over rectangular grids around the bucky at three different heights. RESULTS: The highest value for absorbed dose in air recorded on the center of the phantom surface and centralized on the primary beam was 8.33 mGy, while the lowest value recorded exclusively due to radiation scattering was 0.008 mGy. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that the utilization of additional shielding in mammography facilities might not be necessary for craniocaudal acquisition, provided the distances considered for the present study are observed. However, the necessity of radiation protection of the patient should be emphasized.

OBJETIVO: Desenvolver um programa computacional para avaliar e controlar as características das curvas sensitométricas. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Para o desenvolvimento do programa, foi elaborado um método de obtenção dos valores das características sensitométricas, de filmes de baixo e alto contraste, sem a necessidade da fixação de degraus de referência. RESULTADOS: O programa, denominado Sensito, foi implementado e testado utilizando dados sensitométricos de curvas características dos departamentos de radiologia convencional, hemodinâmica e mamografia. Ficou comprovada a possibilidade da análise das curvas sensitométricas destas áreas sem a necessidade de ajustes, dependentes dos usuários, e sem incorrer em desvios nos parâmetros sensitométricos avaliados e na variação destes. CONCLUSÃO: O programa possibilita a criação de um banco de dados de curvas sensitométricas para diferentes processadoras de uma instituição, gerando com facilidade as curvas sensitométrica e gama, de um registro, e os gráficos de constância das características sensitométricas avaliadas, fornecendo importante ferramenta para manter o controle sensitométrico.OBJECTIVE: To develop of a software tool for evaluation and control of sensitometric curves. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A method was developed for obtaining high- and low-contrast films sensitometric values, with no need to define wedge steps. RESULTS: The software named Sensito was implemented and tested utilizing data of sensitometric strips from conventional radiology, hemodynamics, and mammography departments. The feasibility of analyzing sensitometric curves from these areas remained evidenced with no need of user-dependent adjustments, and with no deviation in the evaluated sensitometric parameters and variations. CONCLUSION: The software allows the creation of a database including sensitometric curves from different processors in a same institution, easily generating gamma curves of a register and constant charts of the evaluated sensitometric characteristics, constituting an important tool for sensitometric control.

OBJETIVO: Desenvolver um programa computacional para avaliar e controlar as características das curvas sensitométricas. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Para o desenvolvimento do programa, foi elaborado um método de obtenção dos valores das características sensitométricas, de filmes de baixo e alto contraste, sem a necessidade da fixação de degraus de referência. RESULTADOS: O programa, denominado Sensito, foi implementado e testado utilizando dados sensitométricos de curvas características dos departamentos de radiologia convencional, hemodinâmica e mamografia. Ficou comprovada a possibilidade da análise das curvas sensitométricas destas áreas sem a necessidade de ajustes, dependentes dos usuários, e sem incorrer em desvios nos parâmetros sensitométricos avaliados e na variação destes. CONCLUSÃO: O programa possibilita a criação de um banco de dados de curvas sensitométricas para diferentes processadoras de uma instituição, gerando com facilidade as curvas sensitométrica e gama, de um registro, e os gráficos de constância das características sensitométricas avaliadas, fornecendo importante ferramenta para manter o controle sensitométrico.

Fluoroscopic barium meal (BM) studies are largely used around the world and very common to be performed in children. The medical and occupational exposures are important parameters that need to be investigated to evaluate the radiological effects. Calibration of the dosimeter used for exposure measurement is usually done with primary X-ray beam. The difference in energy spectra of primary and scattered radiation can influence obtained results. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the X-ray scattered spectra by different pediatric phantoms (simulation of patients subjected to BM procedures) to calculate an energy correction factor to the absorbed energy by the thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD). To perform this evaluation, the TLDs were positioned over three areas in two occupational workers eyes, thyroid and hands. The Geant4 toolkit was used to define the spectra that reached TLDs and made possible to correct entrance surface air kerma. The present work was developed in two stages: (i) evaluation of scattered spectra by different standard phantoms (newborn, 1 year old, 5 years old and 10 years old); (ii) definition of the energy correction factor to the absorbed energy by each TLD. The results of this work show that Geant4 is a good toolkit to these analysis making possible to generate a correction factor considering a primary spectrum of 60 keV.

Imaging techniques using protons are actively being developed currently to substitute X-ray computer tomography and nuclear magnetic resonance method in proton therapy. They deals with relatively thick targets like the human head or trunk where protons lose the major part of their energy, however they having enough energy to exit the target. The physical quantities important in proton imaging are proton exit energy, angle and coordinates. Nowadays many research groups are using The Geant4 toolkit for the development of proton imaging devices. However the most of available publications about validation of the Geant4 models are or for thin absorbers, or for energy deposition of completely absorbed protons (Bragg Peak), what are not important characteristics in proton imaging. The main objective of this work is to validate different models available on Geant4 (version 9.6.p03) taking into account its accuracy and computational performance from the viewpoint of proton imaging. This paper presents the comparison against experimental data published by Tschalar and Maccabee (for incident kinetic energies for protons of 19.68 MeV and 49.10 MeV). The results show that for the validation energies the spectra of the kinetic energy of the emerging protons: (i) there are differences between the validation and the different processes invoked for transportation and (ii) the validation energies are sensitive to sub-shell processes.

Concepts, methods and tools relevant to assessing the reliability of Monte Carlo simulation in sensitive experimental applications are briefly reviewed. An overview of ongoing research in the domain of simulation validation and related activities, such as software quality evaluation and uncertainty quantification, is summarized.

The Inverse Square Law (ISL) is a mathematical rule used to adjust the KERMA and exposure to different distances of focal spot having as reference a determined point in space. Taking into account the limitations of this rule and its application, we have as main objective to verify the applicability of ISL to determine exposure on radiodiagnostic area (maximum tensions between 30kVp and 150kVp). Experimental data was collected, deterministic calculation and simulation using Monte Carlo Method (Geant4 toolkit) were applied to conventional radiology and mammography. The experimental data was collected using a calibrated ionizing chamber TNT 12000 from Fluke. The conventional X-ray equipment used was a Multix Top of Siemens, with Tungsten track and total filtration equivalent to 2.5 mm of aluminum; and the mammographic equipment was a Mammomat Inspiration from Siemens, presenting the track-add filtration combinations of Molybdenum-Molybdenum, Molybdenum-Rhodium, Tungsten-Rhodium. Both equipments have the Quality Control testes in agreement to Brazilian regulations. Based on the results it is possible conclude that the ISL presents lower performance in correct measurements on mammography spectra, i.e. the associated error (differences) achieves a value up to 77.8% and it can cause significant impact on both areas depending on the spectra energy and distance to correct.

OBJETIVO: Verificar o efeito da mudança no contraste do objeto, tempo de exposição e dose de radiação quando diferentes espessuras de filtração de molibdênio (Mo) e ródio (Rh) são empregadas em mamógrafos. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Realizaram-se medidas da exposição na entrada da pele com uma câmara de ionização para diferentes espessuras para os filtros de Mo e Rh. Para determinar a dose glandular média foi utilizado simulador de BR12 (50% tecido adiposo e 50% tecido glandular) de diferentes espessuras (4 cm e 8 cm). Energias na faixa de 24 kVp a 34 kVp foram empregadas e filmes Kodak MinR 2000 foram utilizados. RESULTADOS: Os resultados evidenciaram dados de contraste do objeto, dose glandular e tempo de exposição para diferentes espessuras de filtros adicionais e diferentes tensões. Esses dados indicaram aumento nos valores de contraste do objeto e tempo de exposição, com o aumento da espessura dos filtros. A dose glandular apresentou comportamento com diferentes tendências para cada caso analisado. Equações foram definidas para possibilitar a estimativa do contraste do objeto, dose glandular e tempo de exposição para os casos estudados. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados possibilitaram a estimativa de equações que auxiliam na verificação do comportamento do contraste do objeto e da dose glandular para simuladores com espessura de 4 cm e 8 cm e para os filtros de Rh e Mo. Dessa forma, torna-se possível estimar a figura de mérito (razão entre o contraste do objeto e a dose glandular), podendo auxiliar na análise da relação risco-benefício dos casos estudados.OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to verify the effect of changes in subject contrast, exposure time and radiation dose when different thicknesses of molybdenum (Mo) and rhodium (Rh) filters are used in mammography equipments. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Entrance skin exposure measurements were performed with an ionization chamber for different thicknesses of Mo and Rh filters. Average glandular dose was determined with a BR12 simulator (50% fat tissue and 50% glandular tissue) of different thicknesses (4 cm and 8 cm). Energies in the range of 24 to 34 kVp and Kodak MinR 2000 films were used. RESULTS: Results have evidenced data on subject contrast data, glandular dose and exposure time for different thicknesses of additional filters and different kVp values. These data have indicated an increase both in values of subject contrast and exposure time when filters thickness is increased. The glandular dose has presented a different behavior tendency for each case analyzed. Equations were defined to allow us to estimate subject contrast, glandular dose and exposure time for the cases studied. CONCLUSION: The results have made possible to define equations to assist with the evaluation of subject contrast and glandular dose behavior in simulators with 4 cm and 8 cm thicknesses and for Rh and Mo additional filters. In this way, it is possible to estimate the figure of merit (subject contrast/glandular dose ratio) to assist in the risk-benefit analysis of the cases studied.

Some data analysis methods typically used in econometric studies and in ecology have been evaluated and applied in physics software environments. They concern the evolution of observables through objective identification of change points and trends, and measurements of inequality, diversity and evenness across a data set. Within each analysis area, various statistical tests and measures have been examined. This conference paper summarizes a brief overview of some of these methods.

INTRODUCTION: The objective of this paper is to verify the influence of the source geometry on Geiger Müller (GM) exposure rate data. This paper presents a validation of an application based on Monte Carlo (MC) data simulated using Geant4, based on a comparison of the exposure rates calculated via MC and Deterministic Calculations (DC) to experimental (measured) exposure rates. METHODS: Experimental data that were collected through measurements of standard sources were used for MC and DC validation. In addition, the best method of analyzing the impact of the real source geometry on calculations of a descarpack box of radioactive waste was verified. Furthermore, were estimated the exposure rates from a homogeneous solid waste box (used at clinical sites) and from a point source. These results were compared to confirm possible discrepancies related to source geometry in exposure rates collected using a GM detector. RESULTS: The investigated estimation methods were statistically compared; the MC presented higher agreement with the experimental data than did the deterministic calculations. The impact of considering a point source instead of the real geometry (descarpack box) was an underestimation of between 20% and 70%, depending on the source - detector distance and the isotope evaluated. CONCLUSION: The DC always presented a higher difference with respect to the experimental data than did the MC calculation. The use of realistic geometry proved to exert a significant impact on the exposure rate data for solid radioactive waste compared with the exposure rate induced by a point source; the exposure rate estimation obtained using the real geometry was always at least 16% higher than the estimation obtained for a point source, and some differences greater than 50% were found.

This document briefly summarizes the status of an ongoing project concerning the assessment, validation, improvement and documentation of physics models for electron-photon transport relevant to multi-disciplinary experimental applications, including medical imaging simulation. Recent results on Geant4 electron backscattering validation are summarized. More extensive documentation can be found in dedicated publications in IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science.

Several models for the Monte Carlo simulation of Compton scattering on electrons are quantitatively evaluated with respect to a large collection of experimental data retrieved from the literature. Some of these models are currently implemented in general purpose Monte Carlo systems; some have been implemented and evaluated for possible use in Monte Carlo particle transport for the first time in this study. Here we present first and preliminary results concerning total and differential Compton scattering cross sections., Comment: 5 pages, 3 figures, to be published in the Proceedings of IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium 2013