Search

Regulators across the globe have imposed penalties on consumers for digital piracy consumption. Contrary to expectations, however, digital piracy consumption has continued to grow. The authors develop a simple model of competition between a copyright holder and a pirate firm to offer a plausible account for this observation as well as actionable guidelines for optimal regulation design. The core of this idea is to endogenize the pirate firm's strategic investment in antitracking technologies that help consumers evade a regulator's penalty. The authors find that as the penalty rises, piracy consumption can surprisingly increase after decreasing first; relatedly, the copyright holder and the society may suffer from tighter regulation. Depending on the cost of antitracking technologies of the pirate firm, the regulator optimally sets the penalty to operate in two different regimes. When the technology is available at a low cost, the regulator can achieve the goals of maximizing social welfare and minimizing piracy consumption simultaneously by setting a moderate penalty that maximizes consumers' expected penalty and tolerates some level of piracy consumption. In contrast, when the technology is costly, the regulator should set a relatively high penalty to completely impede piracy supply. Additionally, the authors show that supply-side regulation does not substitute away demand-side regulation, and educating consumers about copyright protection may unintentionally lead to an increase in piracy consumption. Last, the authors identify complex nonmonotonic long-run effects of piracy consumption regulation on the copyright holder's incentives for content creation and copyright protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Each year, government contracting programs dole out tens of billions of dollars to businesses that meet certain racial criteria. For example, in 2023, the State of Wisconsin spent over $200 [...]

In recent decades, policy-makers have taken policy actions to improve dietary quality and prevent further increases in obesity, type 2 diabetes and other noncommunicable diseases, including policies that require mandatory [...]

The normative role of the World Health Organization (WHO) involves creating evidence-based, principled guidelines to guide its Member States in making well-informed public health decisions. While these guidelines often need to be adapted to ensure contextual relevance, foster better implementation and adherence, adapting existing guidelines is more efficient than creating new ones. Here we describe the adaptation of the WHO coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) living guideline on pharmacological interventions for the Caribbean using the grading of recommendations, assessment, development and evaluation (GRADE)-ADOLOPMENT method. The Caribbean Public Health Agency and the Pan American Health Organization led the effort, assembling a diverse panel of 16 experts from seven Caribbean countries and territories. The adaptation process, involving 15 steps, was guided by an experienced methodologist and included selecting relevant clinical questions and prioritizing them based on regional needs. The panel evaluated the latest WHO guidelines and integrated additional local data. They adjusted the direction and strength of several recommendations to better fit the Caribbean context, considering local values and preferences, resources, accessibility, feasibility and impact on health equity. Ultimately, we changed the direction of two recommendations and the strength of five, tailoring them to regional realities. This effort highlights the importance of adapting global guidelines to local settings, improving their applicability and effectiveness. The adaptation process also serves as a valuable opportunity for skill transfer and capacity-building in guideline development. Continued research is needed to assess the impact of these adaptations on health-care outcomes in the Caribbean. [phrase omitted] Le role normatif de l'Organisation mondiale de la sante (OMS) consiste a elaborer des lignes directrices fondees sur des donnees scientifiques et sur des principes afin d'aider ses Etats membres a prendre des decisions eclairees en matiere de sante publique. Bien qu'elles necessitent souvent des adaptations pour garantir leur pertinence par rapport a des contextes precis et pour favoriser une meilleure mise en oeuvre et adhesion, il est plus efficace d'adapter les lignes directrices existantes que d'en creer de nouvelles. La presente publication decrit l'adaptation de la ligne directrice evolutive de l'OMS sur les interventions pharmacologiques dans le cadre de la maladie a coronavirus (COVID-19) pour les Caraibes en appliquant la methodologie GRADE (classement des recommandations, de l'appreciation, du developpement et de l'evaluation)-ADOLOPMENT. LAgence de sante publique des Caraibes et l'Organisation panamericaine de la Sante ont dirige les travaux en reunissant un groupe diversifie de 16 experts issus de sept pays et territoires des Caraibes. Le processus d'adaptation, comptant 15 etapes et encadre par un methodologiste experimente, a consiste a selectionner des questions cliniques pertinentes et a les classer par ordre de priorite selon les besoins regionaux. Ce groupe a evalue les dernieres lignes directrices de l'OMS et a integre des donnees locales supplementaires. Il a ensuite ajuste l'orientation et le poids de plusieurs recommandations afin de mieux les adapter au contexte des Caraibes, en tenant compte des valeurs et des preferences locales, des ressources, de l'accessibilite, de la faisabilite et de l'impact sur l'equite en matiere de sante. En fin de compte, l'orientation de deux recommandations et le poids de cinq autres ont ete modifies, en les adaptant aux realites regionales. Cet effort souligne l'importance d'adapter des lignes directrices mondiales aux contextes locaux, afin d'en ameliorer l'applicabilite et l'efficacite. Le processus d'adaptation represente egalement une occasion precieuse de transfert de competences et de renforcement des capacites en matiere d'elaboration de lignes directrices. Des recherches continues s'imposent pour evaluer l'impact de ces adaptations sur les resultats des soins de sante dans les Caraibes. [phrase omitted] La funcion normativa de la Organizacion Mundial de la Salud (OMS) consiste en elaborar directrices basadas en pruebas y principios para orientar a sus Estados Miembros en la toma de decisiones de salud publica bien fundamentadas. Aunque con frecuencia es necesario adaptar estas directrices para garantizar su pertinencia contextual y fomentar una mejor implementacion y observancia, la adaptacion de directrices existentes es mas eficiente que la creacion de otras nuevas. Aqui describimos la adaptacion de la directriz vigente de la OMS sobre la enfermedad por coronavirus (COVID-19) relativa a las intervenciones farmacologicas para el Caribe utilizando el metodo de clasificacion de valoracion, elaboracion y evaluacion de las recomendaciones (GRADE)ADOLOPMENT. La Agencia de Salud Publica del Caribe y la Organizacion Panamericana de la Salud lideraron la iniciativa, que reunio a un variado grupo de 16 expertos de siete paises y territorios caribenos. El proceso de adaptacion, que comprendio 15 pasos y fue guiado por un metodologo experimentado, Incluyo la seleccion de preguntas clinicas pertinentes y su priorizacion en funcion de las necesidades regionales. El grupo evaluo las ultimas directrices de la OMS e integro datos locales adicionales. Ajustaron la orientacion y la fuerza de varias recomendaciones para adaptarlas mejor al contexto caribeno, teniendo en cuenta los valores y preferencias locales, los recursos, la accesibilidad, la viabilidad y el impacto en la equidad sanitaria. Finalmente, cambiamos la orientacion de dos recomendaciones y la fuerza de cinco para adaptarlas a las realidades regionales. Esta iniciativa destaca la importancia de adaptar las directrices mundiales a los contextos locales, lo que mejora su aplicabilidad y eficacia. El proceso de adaptacion tambien constituye una valiosa oportunidad para la transferencia de conocimientos y el desarrollo de capacidades en la elaboracion de directrices. Es necesario seguir investigando para evaluar el impacto de estas adaptaciones en los resultados de la atencion sanitaria en el Caribe., Introduction Although the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was a global catastrophe, its impact was not felt equally around the world. Despite being home to only 8% of the world's [...]

Objective To compare uptake of the voluntary Health Star Rating front-of-pack nutrition labelling system with uptake of a mostly mandatory country-of-origin label in Australia over a similar period. Methods We used data on numbers and proportions of products carrying health stars and country-of-origin labelling recorded annually between 2015 and 2023 through surveys of four large Australian food retailers. We determined the proportion of products with health stars and country-of-origin labels for each year by dividing the number of products carrying each label by the total number eligible to carry that label. Findings The uptake of the voluntary Health Star Rating increased steadily between 2014 and 2018, reaching a maximum of 42% (8587/20 286) of products in 2021 before decreasing to 39% (8572/22 147) in 2023. Mandatory country-of-origin labelling uptake rose rapidly and was found on 93% (17 567/18 923) of products in 2023. In categories where country- of-origin labelling was voluntary, uptake by 2023 was 48% (3313/6925). In our 2023 sample of 22 147 products, 11 055 (50%) carried country-of-origin labelling only, 7466 (35%) carried both health star and country-of-origin labelling, 1106 (5%) carried health star labels only and 2520 (11%) carried neither label. Conclusion The experience with country-of-origin labelling shows that widespread and rapid food labelling change can be achieved when required by law. The Australian government should mandate the Health Star Rating without delay. Australia's experience supports other jurisdictions in implementing mandatory front-of-pack nutrition labelling as well as updates to global guidance to recognize mandatory labelling as best-practice in delivering benefits to consumers. [phrase omitted] Objectif Comparer, au cours de la meme periode, l'adoption en Australie du systeme d'etiquetage nutritionnel facultatif Health Star Rating, a l'avant des emballages, avec celle de l'etiquetage mentionnant le pays d'origine, generalement obligatoire. Methodes Nous avons exploite les donnees relatives a la quantite et au pourcentage de produits arborant les etoiles du Health Star Rating et la mention du pays d'origine, recoltees sur une base annuelle entre 2015 et 2023 lors d'enquetes menees aupres de quatre grands magasins d'alimentation australiens. Nous avons ensuite calcule le pourcentage de produits munis d'etoiles et d'une mention du pays d'origine pour chaque annee en divisant le nombre de produits portant chaque etiquette par le nombre total de produits susceptibles d'en etre pourvus. Resultats L'adoption du systeme d'etiquetage nutritionnel facultatif Health Star Rating a augmente de facon constante entre 2014 et 2018, parvenant a un maximum de 42% (8587/20 286) en 2021 avant de redescendre a 39% (8572/22 147) en 2023. Quant a l'etiquetage obligatoire concernant le pays d'origine, son adoption a rapidement grimpe pour atteindre 93% (17 567/18 923) des produits en 2023. Dans les categories ou la mention du pays d'origine n'etait pas obligatoire, le pourcentage d'adoption en 2023 s'elevait a 48% (3313/6925). Dans notre echantillon de 2023, constitue de 22 147 produits, 11 055 (50%) n'indiquaient que le pays d'origine, 7466 (35%) presentaient les deux types d'etiquetage, 1106 (5%) n'affichaient que les etoiles du Health Star Rating et 2520 (11%) ne possedaient aucune des deux etiquettes. Conclusion L'experience menee sur la mention du pays d'origine montre qu'un changement d'etiquetage alimentaire rapide et largement repandu peut etre obtenu par le biais d'une obligation legale. Le gouvernement australien doit donc imposer le systeme Health Star Rating au plus vite. Cette experience encourage egalement d'autres juridictions a instaurer un etiquetage nutritionnel obligatoire a l'avant des emballages, ainsi qu'a mettre a jour les directives mondiales afin d'ajouter cette mesure aux bonnes pratiques benefiques pour les consommateurs. [phrase omitted] Objetivo Comparar la adopcion del sistema voluntarlo de etiquetado frontal nutricional Health Star Ratlng con la adopcion de una etiqueta del pais de origen mayoritariamente obligatoria en Australia durante un periodo similar. Metodos Se utilizaron datos sobre el numero y el porcentaje de productos que llevan etiquetas con estrellas de salud y el pais de origen registrados cada ano entre 2015 y 2023 a traves de encuestas a cuatro de los principales minoristas de alimentos australianos. Se determino el porcentaje de productos con etiquetas de estrellas de salud y del pais de origen de cada ano dividiendo el numero de productos que llevaban cada etiqueta por el numero total de productos elegibles para llevarla. Resultados La adopcion de la clasificacion voluntaria Health Star Rating aumento de forma constante entre 2014 y 2018, alcanzando un maximo del 42% (8587/20 286) de los productos en 2021 antes de disminuir al 39% (8572/22 147) en 2023. El etiquetado obligatorio del pais de origen aumento rapidamente y se encontro en el 93% (17 567/18 923) de los productos en 2023. En las categorias en las que el etiquetado del pais de origen era voluntario, la adopcion en 2023 fue del 48% (3313/6925). En la muestra de 2023, compuesta por 22 147 productos, 11 055 (50%) solo llevaban el etiquetado del pais de origen, 7466 (35%) llevaban tanto el etiquetado de las estrellas de salud como el del pais de origen, 1106 (5%) solo llevaban el etiquetado de las estrellas de salud y 2520 (11%) no llevaban ninguna de estas etiquetas. Conclusion La experiencia con el etiquetado del pais de origen demuestra que se puede conseguir un cambio rapido y generalizado en el etiquetado de los alimentos cuando asi lo exige la ley. El gobierno australiano deberia exigir la clasificacion Health Star Rating sin demora. La experiencia de Australia apoya a otras jurisdicciones en la implementacion del etiquetado frontal nutricional obligatorio, asi como en la actualizacion de las directrices mundiales para reconocer esta medida como una de las mejores practicas en beneficio de los consumidores., Introduction Unhealthy diets are a leading cause of death and disability globally. (1) Current food environments are characterized by unprecedented availability, accessibility and affordability of prepackaged and often ultraprocessed foods [...]

In recent decades, considerable advances have been made in assuring the safety of blood transfusion and organ transplantation. However, with the increasing movement of medical products of human origin across international boundaries, there is a need to enhance global norms and governance. These products, which include blood, organs, tissues, cells, human milk and faecal microbiota, are today crucial for health care but they also pose unique risks due to their human origin, such as disease transmission and graft failure. Moreover, the demand for medical products of human origin often exceeds supply, leading to dependence on international supply chains, and emerging technologies like cell and gene therapy present further challenges because of their unproven efficacy and long-term risks. Current regulatory mechanisms, especially in low- and middle-income countries, are insufficient. The World Health Organization (WHO) has both the mandate and experience to lead the development of international quality and safety standards, consistent product nomenclature, and robust traceability and biovigilance systems. An international, multistakeholder approach is critical for addressing the complexities of how medical products of human origin are used globally and for ensuring their safety. This approach will require promoting uniform product descriptions, enhancing digital communication systems and leveraging existing resources to support countries in establishing regulations for these products. As illustrated by World Health Assembly resolution WHA77.4 on transplantation in 2024, WHO's ongoing efforts to ensure the safe, efficient and ethical use of medical products of human origin worldwide provide the opportunity to galvanize international cooperation on establishing norms. [phrase omitted] Au cours des dernieres decennies, des progres considerables ont ete realises pour assurer la securite des transfusions sanguines et des transplantations d'organes. Cependant, avec l'augmentation de la circulation de produits medicaux d'origine humaine par-dela les frontieres internationales, il est imperatif de renforcer la gouvernance et les normes mondiales. Ces produits, parmi lesquels figurent le sang, les organes, les tissus, les cellules, le lait maternel et le microbiote fecal, sont aujourd'hui essentiels pour les soins de sante. Mais ils comportent egalement des risques particuliers en raison de leur origine humaine, comme la transmission de maladies et le rejet de greffe. En outre, la demande en produits medicaux d'origine humaine depasse souvent l'offre, ce qui engendre une dependance vis-a-vis des chaines d'approvisionnement internationales, tandis que des technologies emergentes telles que la therapie cellulaire et genique posent de nouveaux defis en raison de leur efficacite non demontree et des risques a long terme. Les mecanismes de reglementation actuels sont insuffisants, surtout dans les pays a revenu faible et intermediaire. LOrganisation mondiale de la Sante (OMS) possede a la fois le mandat et l'experience necessaires pour mener le developpement de normes internationales de qualite et de securite, d'une nomenclature coherente des produits, ainsi que de systemes de tracabilite et de biovigilance solides. Une approche internationale et multilaterale est cruciale pour gerer la complexite liee a l'utilisation de produits medicaux d'origine humaine dans le monde et garantir leur innocuite. Cette approche devra prevoir la mise en place de descriptions de produits uniformes, l'amelioration des systemes de communication numeriques et l'exploitation des ressources existantes afin d'aider les pays a definir des regles pour de tels produits. Comme l'illustre la resolution WHA77.4 de l'Assemblee mondiale de la Sante sur la transplantation, emise en 2024, les efforts constants de l'OMS visant a assurer la securite, l'efficacite et l'usage ethique des produits medicaux d'origine humaine a travers le monde represente l'occasion de stimuler la cooperation internationale en matiere d'etablissement des normes. [phrase omitted] En las ultimas decadas, se han realizado avances considerables para garantizar la seguridad de las transfusiones de sangre y los trasplantes de organos. Sin embargo, con el creciente movimiento de productos medicos de origen humano a traves de las fronteras internacionales, es necesario reforzar las normas y la gobernanza mundiales. Estos productos, que incluyen sangre, organos, tejidos, celulas, leche humana y microbiota fecal, son hoy cruciales para la asistencia sanitaria, pero tambien plantean riesgos unicos por su origen humano, como la transmision de enfermedades y el fracaso de los injertos. Ademas, la demanda de productos medicos de origen humano suele ser superior a la oferta, lo que hace depender de las cadenas de suministro internacionales, y las tecnologias emergentes, como la terapia celular y genetica, plantean nuevos desafios debido a su eficacia no demostrada y a sus riesgos a largo plazo. Los mecanismos reguladores actuales, en especial en los paises de ingresos bajos y medios, son insuficientes. La Organizacion Mundial de la Salud (OMS) tiene tanto el mandato como la experiencia para liderar el desarrollo de estandares internacionales de calidad y seguridad, nomenclatura coherente de productos y sistemas solidos de trazabilidad y biovigilancia. Para responder a la complejidad del uso global de los productos medicos de origen humano y garantizar su seguridad, es fundamental un enfoque internacional que incluya a todas las partes interesadas. Este enfoque requerira promover descripciones uniformes de los productos, reforzar los sistemas de comunicacion digital y aprovechar los recursos existentes con el fin de ayudar a los paises a establecer normativas para estos productos. Como se ilustra en la resolucion WHA77.4 de la Asamblea Mundial de la Salud sobre trasplantes en 2024, los esfuerzos en curso de la OMS para asegurar el uso seguro, eficiente y etico de los productos medicos de origen humano en todo el mundo brindan la oportunidad de impulsar la cooperacion internacional en el establecimiento de normas., Introduction In recent decades, substantial progress has been made in assuring the safety of blood transfusion and the transplantation of medical products of human origin, which are also referred to [...]

Problem At the beginning of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, reliable, globally applicable recommendations for safe and continuous school operations were lacking. Approach In October 2020, the German Association of Scientific Medical Societies' task force for COVID-19 guidelines and public health researchers at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen initiated the rapid development of a living evidence- and consensus-based guideline to reduce severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 transmission in schools. To facilitate transparent, structured and comprehensive decision-making with a whole-of-society perspective, they applied the WHO- INTEGRATE evidence-to-decision framework. This framework supported a broad, multisectoral composition of the guideline panel. The panel used newly synthesized evidence on nine school measures. Participating medical societies or the guideline secretariat completed evidence- to-decision tables. They also drafted recommendations for the guideline panel, who discussed and revised them during moderated consensus conferences. Local setting In Germany, each state is responsible for organizing schooling. The German Association of Scientific Medical Societies coordinates development of evidence- and consensus-based guidelines. Relevant changes The first version of the guideline was published in February 2021, and the guideline dissemination created much media attention. Of the 16 state education ministries, almost all knew about the guideline, nine recognized it as a relevant source of information and five used it to check existing directives. Lessons learnt The WHO-INTEGRATE framework facilitated a comprehensive assessment of school measures from the start of guideline development, considering the broad societal impact of the measures. Using the framework in rapid mode was feasible, but it fell short of its potential. [phrase omitted] Probleme Au debut de la pandemie de maladie a coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), il n'existait pas de recommandations fiables et applicables a l'echelle mondiale pour assurer le fonctionnement des ecoles sans interruption et en toute securite. Approche En octobre 2020, le groupe de travail de l'Association allemande des societes scientifiques et medicales charge d'emettre des lignes directrices sur la COVID-19, en collaboration avec des chercheurs en sante publique de l'Universite Louis-et-Maximilien de Munich, a lance le developpement rapide d'une orientation evolutive fondee sur le consensus et sur des preuves, afin de limiter la transmission du coronavirus 2 du syndrome respiratoire aigu severe dans les ecoles. Pour favoriser un processus decisionnel transparent, structure et exhaustif adoptant la perspective de la societe dans son ensemble, il a applique le cadre WHO-INTEGRATE, un outil privilegiant une prise de decision fondee sur des donnees probantes. Ce cadre a permis de composer un vaste panel multisectoriel qui, a la lumiere d'une synthese recente d'elements factuels, a examine neuf mesures scolaires. De leur cote, les societes medicales participantes ou le Secretariat des directives ont complete des tableaux de prises de decision fondees sur des donnees probantes. Ils ont egalement formule des recommandations a l'attention du panel, qui en a discute et les a revisees lors de conferences de concertation moderees. Environnement local En Allemagne, l'education releve de la responsabilite des Etats federes. C'est l'Association allemande des societes scientifiques et medicales qui coordonne l'elaboration de lignes directrices fondees sur le consensus et sur des preuves. Changements significatifs La premiere version de l'orientation a ete publiee en fevrier 2021 et sa diffusion a engendre une forte couverture mediatique. Parmi les 16 Ministeres de l'Education des Etats federes, presque tous en connaissaient l'existence, neuf d'entre eux la consideraient comme une source d'information pertinente et cinq l'utilisaient pour verifier les directives existantes. Lecons tirees Vu l'Impact majeur de ces mesures sur la societe, le cadre WHO-INTEGRATE a contribue a une evaluation globale des mesures scolaires des le debut de l'elaboration de l'orientation. Ce cadre a pu etre rapidement mis en oeuvre, mais n'a pas atteint son plein potentiel. [phrase omitted] Situacion Al principio de la pandemia de la enfermedad por coronavirus de 2019 (COVID-19), no existian recomendaciones fiables y aplicables a escala mundial para el funcionamiento seguro y continuo de las escuelas. Enfoque En octubre de 2020, el grupo de trabajo encargado de las directrices sobre la COVID-19 de la Asociacion alemana de sociedades cientificas medicas e investigadores de salud publica de la Ludwig-Maximilians- Universitat Munchen iniciaron el desarrollo rapido de una directriz activa basada en la evidencia y el consenso para reducir la transmision del sindrome respiratorio agudo grave por coronavirus 2 en las escuelas. Para facilitar una toma de decisiones transparente, estructurada y exhaustiva con una perspectiva de toda la sociedad, aplicaron el marco WHO-INTEGRATE, una herramienta para la toma de decisiones basada en evidencias. Este marco propicio una composicion amplia y multisectorial del panel de directrices. El panel utilizo pruebas recientemente sintetizadas sobre nueve medidas escolares. Las sociedades medicas participantes o la secretaria de la directriz completaron las tablas de evidencia para la toma de decisiones. Tambien redactaron recomendaciones para el panel de directrices, que las debatio y reviso durante conferencias de consenso moderadas. Marco regional En Alemania, cada estado es responsable de organizar la escolarizacion. La Asociacion alemana de sociedades cientificas medicas coordina la elaboracion de directrices basadas en la evidencia y el consenso. Cambios importantes La primera version de la directriz se publico en febrero de 2021 y su difusion suscito una gran atencion mediatica. De los 16 ministerios de educacion estatales, casi todos conocian la directriz, nueve la reconocieron como fuente de informacion pertinente y cinco la utilizaron para verificar las directrices existentes. Lecciones aprendidas El marco WHO-INTEGRATE permitio una evaluacion exhaustiva de las medidas escolares desde el inicio de la elaboracion de las directrices, y tuvo en cuenta el amplio impacto social de las medidas. Utilizar el marco en modo rapido fue factible, pero no alcanzo su potencial., Introduction Public health and social measures played a pivotal role in containing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Most governments closed schools during the early months of the pandemic. (1) [...]

This study assessed the right to food policies, justice and sovereignty in Nigeria. The main areas of concentration were: introduction, meaning of food policy, some food policies in Nigeria, types of policies, audit of right to food policies in Nigeria, past policy articulations (1900-1999), food policy articulation and policy thrust in 2003, food policy legislations, sovereignty of food and agricultural development among many others. The study indicated that food policy is a public declaration that conveys the decisions to pursue a specific course of action aimed at improving food production practices, ensuring output growth and the overall development of the food sector. Some food policies in Nigeria are; food crop production policy, livestock production policy, food commodity storage policy among others. The study identified three types of polices namely; position declaration, policy statements and discussion papers. Past policy articulations are: Timber/non timber policy 1937, food policy 1946 and food policy for the western region 1952. Some policy legislations were identified, namely: adulteration of produce ordinance No.67 of 1917; 29 of 1920, 8th November 1917, Weight and measurements Act No. 32 of 1974 to June 1975 and River Basin Development Authorities Act No.35 of 1st October, 1986. Some inventory of right to food sovereignty strategies in Nigeria includes: Sovereignty strategy formulations, commodity boards, National Accelerated Food Production Project (NAFPP), National Livestock Development Project (NLDP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) and Green Revolution among very many others. One major problem of food policy implementation is lack of a well-defined programme. In conclusion, Right to Food Policy, Justice and Sovereignty Implementation means money spent, laws enforced, employees hired, plan of action formulated and carried out successfully for the development of the Nigerian food sub-sector. But the problem with Nigerian food policies is the structure among which is the absence of central coordinating members. Also, the study recommended that there is the need for government to set institutions that will monitor the planning and execution of food polices projects. Key words: Agricultural Development, Food, Justice, Legislations, Nigeria, Policies, Rights, Sovereignty, INTRODUCTION The agricultural development plan (food), the economic development plan and the annual budgets are the three tools commonly used to guide the development of the Nigerian economy [1]. Such [...]

Working through the complexities of food insecurity with the intention to address issues requires taking a step back to the drawing board to firm up the understanding of food security through the principles that inform the governance framework of the right to food in the context of the current global food security crisis. Considering the multi-dimensional nature of food security in relation to the right to food alongside concepts such as food sovereignty, and issues such as climate change, food loss and food waste, economic and political turmoil is paramount in determining exactly why all people at all times do not have access to adequate food, or the means for its procurement. This commentary delves into the intricacies of the concept of food security, and the hindrances to realising food security for all by considering what food security is, and where, therefore, the challenges in effecting the right to food are. Through careful consideration of the components of the food security equation, this commentary seeks to show how the right to food comes down to more than ensuring that food is physically available. By connecting the right to food to the factors that affect food security and exploring the ways in which those factors can be broken down and addressed separately, this commentary ultimately advocates for the realisation of food security through collaboration. The consideration of the singular concepts that form the food security equation in solving the multidimensional food security problem through conjoined and synchronised efforts influenced by obligations of states and international organisations with mandates directly connected to, and influencing the different aspects of the food security equation. Using reports, statistics, theories and academic opinions, this commentary seeks to explore the different components, which form the concept of food security to draw conclusions and analyse existing systems in an attempt to determine what approaches could be considered in addressing the growing food security crisis and the concerns attached to it. Key words: Food security, right to food, climate change, crisis, malnutrition, food loss, food waste, Definition of Concepts i. Food Security When all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs, and food [...]

It has been two years since the Supreme Court decided Dobbs v. Jackson, overturning Roe v. Wade. It is worth taking stock of where the pro-life movement finds itself now. [...]

INTRODUCTION 1380 I. IMMIGRATION AS A CIVIL MATTER 1386 A. The Origin of Immigration Hearings as Civil Proceedings 1386 B. Immigration Court Process 1388 II. THE FEDERAL RULES OF CIVIL [...], Government lawyers frequently argue, and courts have frequently held, that noncitizens in removal proceedings do not have the same rights as defendants in criminal proceedings. A common argument made to support this position is that removal proceedings are civil matters. Accordingly, a noncitizen facing deportation has fewer due process protections than a criminal defendant, and deportation proceedings similarly provide fewer protections than criminal proceedings. In many ways, however, the rules governing immigration proceedings differ markedly from those governing civil actions in court. Immigration proceedings suffer from arcane and hypertechnical procedures that impede immigrants from having their claims reviewed on the merits. Notably, similar problems plagued the civil justice system back in the early twentieth century. The response was to create the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, which emphasized a preference for deciding cases on their merits rather than on procedural technicalities. The modern Federal Rules have substantially simplified pleading requirements and emphasized flexibility in order to foster the goals of fairness, efficiency, and decisions on the merits. This Article argues that the process that spawned the Federal Rules can offer valuable lessons for reforming immigration proceedings. The Article identifies several examples where immigration rules differ from the Federal Rules in ways that inhibit decisions on the merits. It then proposes a fundamental reexamination of immigration rules with an eye toward promoting decisions based on substance rather than procedure, as well as a structure for ongoing reform. Given the high stakes in removal proceedings, if society continues to treat immigration proceedings as civil matters, the least it can do is incorporate those aspects of the Federal Rules that best promote access to justice for noncitizens.

INTRODUCTION 1301 I. THE MONITOR MODEL 1307 A. Challenges of Venture Investing 1307 B. Monitoring as a Solution 1309 1. Equity Incentives 1309 2. Staged Financing 1309 3. Preferred Stock [...], Venture capitalists ("VCs") are increasingly abandoning their traditional role as monitors of their portfolio companies. They are giving startup founders more equity and control and promising not to replace them with outside executives. At the same time, startups are taking unprecedented risks--defying regulators, scaling in unsustainable ways, and racking up billion-dollar losses. These trends raise doubts about the dominant model of VC behavior, which claims that VCs actively monitor startups to reduce the risk of moral hazard and adverse selection. We propose a new theory in which VCs use their role in corporate governance to persuade risk-averse founders to pursue high-risk strategies. VCs are motivated to take risks because most of the gains in venture funds come from the exponential growth of one or two outlier companies. By contrast, founders are reluctant to gamble because they bear firm-specific risk that cannot be diversified. To compensate founders for their risk exposure, VCs offer an implicit bargain in which the founders agree to pursue high-risk strategies and, in exchange, the VCs provide them private benefits. VCs can promise to give founders early liquidity when their startup grows, job security when it struggles, and a soft landing if it fails. In our model, VCs who develop a founder-friendly reputation have a competitive advantage in ex ante pricing but are more exposed to poor performance ex post due to suboptimal monitoring. Stakeholders who are not party to the VC-founder bargain--and society at large--are forced to bear uncompensated risk.

INTRODUCTION 1562 I. BACKGROUND 1566 A. Black Property Ownership 1566 1. Post-Civil War Developments and Rural Landownership 1566 2. Suburbanization and Redlining 1569 B. Heirs Property 1573 1. Tenancies in [...], Throughout history, internal and external pressures on Black landowners have resulted in the fragmentation of ownership through heirs property. This fragmentation is analogous to the erosion of community ties within minoritized neighborhoods susceptible to gentrification. Both contexts contribute directly to involuntary exit and land loss within the Black community. This Note analyzes the history of Black property ownership within the United States to illustrate the roots of heirs property and gentrification and evaluates traditional responses to these phenomena through the lens of the tragedy of the anticommons. In doing so, it highlights flaws in existing solutions to heirs property. It culminates with a proposed Uniform Act to mitigate and prevent gentrification-induced involuntary exit that incorporates elements of both the Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act and responses to the tragedy of the anticommons.

INTRODUCTION 1522 I. FROM MARITAL PRESUMPTIONS TO EMBRYO MIX-UPS 1526 A The Marital Presumption: Genetics Just Aren't Enough 1526 B. Legislative Response: Recommendations, not Requirements 1529 C. ART-istic Approaches: Judicial [...], Embryo mix-ups--instances in which fertility clinics mistakenly implant one couple with another couple's embryo--confound courts' determinations of who, between the two couples, are the legal parents. Lax regulation of the fertility industry permitted this relatively new injury to develop, and it has led to morally and legally fraught questions of parenthood and personal autonomy. This Note reviews parentage doctrines, beginning with a discussion of the martial presumption; it also tracks how courts have traditionally responded to parentage questions that fertility medicine has generated, including embryo division in divorce and parentage in surrogacy contracts. It then analyzes potential approaches to resolving parentage disputes in embryo mix-ups and outlines how each approach either comports with or contradicts other parentage doctrines. Finally, this Note proposes that in cases of embryo mix-ups, courts should adopt a presumption that the gestational parents are the legal parents. This solution both avoids legally endorsing nonconsensual surrogacy and incentivizes greater clinic accountability for these grave mistakes.

PFAS regulation. Should they stay, or should they go? Legislative insights offer answers to common questions. Per- and poly-fluoroalkyi substances (PFAS) are synthetic compounds with many societal uses. Applications from [...]

After several years of testing in Minor League Baseball, Major League Baseball introduced a regular-season extra-inning rule in 2020 by which teams begin each extra inning with a runner on [...]

Introduction I. Background and findings from our larger project II. The pornographic sexual script III. Pornography sets the stage for "rough sex" IV. Coerced pornography viewing V. "Rough sex" on [...], Drawing upon the authors&apos; earlier research studying the consent defence when it is used to suggest that the complainant agreed to "rough sex" involving violence, this paper develops an extended analysis of the complex role of pornography in these decisions. This paper focuses on a subset of "rough sex" cases, where pornography played a role in "scripting" the accused&apos;s behaviour. Thematically, these cases included: those where the accused had a substantial history of consumption of violent pornography; cases in which the accused forced the complainant to view pornography as part of the assault; cases where the accused recorded the attack, engaging in the making of pornography themselves; and finally those cases where the airing of the "rough sex" defence in the courtroom, including cross-examination based on the re-playing of the recordings made by the accused, creates a "theatre of pornography." The authors underline concerns about the growing role of pornography in sexual violence against women, and propose both legal and non-legal strategies in response. S&apos;appuyant sur les recherches ant rieures des auteurs qui tudient la d fense de consentement lorsqu&apos;elle est utilis e pour sugg rer que la plaignante a accept des << rapports sexuels brutaux >> impliquant de la violence, cet article d veloppe une analyse approfondie du r le complexe de la pornographie dans ces d cisions. L&apos;article se concentre sur un sous-ensemble d&apos;affaires de << sexe brutal >>, o la pornographie a jou un r le dans la << sc narisation >> du comportement de l&apos;accus . Sur le plan th matique, ces afaires comprennent: les cas o l&apos;accus a un lourd pass de consommation de pornographie violente; les cas o l&apos;accus a forc la plaignante regarder de la pornographie dans le cadre de l&apos;agression; les cas o l&apos;accus a enregistr l&apos;agression, se livrant lui-m me la production de pornographie; et enfn les cas o la pr sentation de la d fense de << sexe brutal >> dans la salle d&apos;audience, y compris le contre-interrogatoire bas sur la relecture des enregistrements effectu s par l&apos;accus , cr e un << th tre de la pornographie >>. Les auteurs soulignent les pr occupations concernant le r le croissant de la pornographie dans la violence sexuelle l&apos; gard des femmes et proposent des strat gies juridiques et non juridiques pour y r pondre.

Introduction I. Evolution of municipal government in Newfoundland and Labrador 1. Settlement of Newfoundland and Labrador: A general history 2. Governmental institutions in the Colonial Era: The protomunicipal system 3. [...], Newfoundland and Labrador is unique among Canadian provinces in its municipallevel governmental structures, and in particular, its substantial lack thereof. The province does not have a system of counties or an operating form of regional government. Many areas of the province operate without a formal municipal government and avoid property taxation by operating on a limited fee-for-service model of local government, or in some cases a total lack of sub-provincial government. Tens of thousands of residents live within this tax-free model today. This paper explores how this anomalous situation came to be, the issues it creates in modern society and how these issues are dealt with in practice. Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador est unique parmi les provinces canadiennes en ce qui concerne les structures gouvernementales au niveau municipal, et en particulier leur absence quasi totale. La province ne dispose pas d&apos;un syst me de comt s ou d&apos;une forme op rationnelle de gouvernement r gional. De nombreuses r gions de la province fonctionnent sans administration municipale ofcielle et vitent l&apos;imp t foncier en appliquant un mod le limit de paiement l&apos;acte de l&apos;administration locale ou, dans certains cas, une absence totale d&apos;administration infraprovinciale. Des dizaines de milliers d&apos;habitants vivent aujourd&apos;hui dans le cadre de ce mod le d&apos;exon ration fiscale. Dans pr sent article, nous explorons la gen se de cette situation anormale, les probl mes qu&apos;elle engendre dans la soci t moderne et la mani re dont ces probl mes sont trait s dans la pratique.

Introduction I. The Sports Industrial Complex 1. The hierarchy 2. The Global North bias in sports and medicine II. Problematizing the Court of Arbitration for Sport 1. CAS: Structure, adjudicators, [...], In March 2023, World Athletics, the regulating body for the sport of Athletics introduced The Eligibility Regulations for the Female Classification (Athletes with Differences of Sex Development). These Regulations limit participation in female Athletics events at international competition and to set world records. They require certain athletes to maintain a testosterone threshold below 2.5nmol/L, despite their naturally occurring testosterone levels. On one level, this paper is about gender regulation in sport, particularly regulating testosterone in elite, female athletes. On another level it is about power and privilege at the intersection of race, nationality, and gender. It argues that through its gender regulations, World Athletics is racializing non-western bodies and asserting white, Global North civilization as the appropriate authority on, and representation of, gender in sport. En mars 2023, World Athletics, l&apos;organisme de r glementation du sport de l&apos;athl tisme, a introduit les r glements d&apos;admissibilit pour la classification f minine (athl tes ayant une diff rence de d veloppement sexuel). Ces r glements limitent la participation des femmes aux preuves d&apos;athl tisme lors des comp titions internationales et l&apos; tablissement de records du monde. Elles imposent certaines athl tes de maintenir un seuil de testost rone inf rieur 2,5nmol/L, en d pit de leur taux de testost rone naturel. D&apos;une part, le pr sent article traite de la r gulation du genre dans le sport, en particulier de la r gulation de la testost rone chez les athl tes f minines d&apos; lite. D&apos;autre part, il traite du pouvoir et des privil ges l&apos;intersection de la race, de la nationalit et du sexe. ll soutient qu&apos; travers ses r glementations en mati re de genre, World Athletics racialise les corps non occidentaux et affirme que la civilisation blanche du Nord est l&apos;autorit appropri e en mati re de genre dans le sport et de repr sentation de ce dernier.

Introduction I. The data sharing examples 1. Private financial data and national statistics: The case of StatCan 2. Mobility data and public health: The case of PHAC II. Discussion 1. [...], Governments increasingly seek to use personal data sourced from the private sector for purposes that range from the generation of statistics to municipal planning. The data collected by companies is often high volume and rich in detail. Location and mobility data--which have many applications--are collected by multiple private sector actors, from cellular service providers to app developers and data brokers. Financial sector organizations amass rich data about the spending and borrowing habits of consumers. Even genetic data is collected by private sector companies. The range of available data is constantly growing as more and more data is harvested, and as companies seek secondary markets for their data. This paper explores issues raised by public sector access to and use of personal data held by the private sector. The analysis is framed around two examples from Canada that involved actual or attempted access by government agencies to private sector personal data for public purposes. The first involved Statistics Canada&apos;s attempt to collect and use data held by credit monitoring companies and financial institutions to generate economic statistics. The second was the use, during the COVID-19 pandemic, of mobility data by the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) to assess the effectiveness of public health policies in reducing the transmission of COVID-19 during lockdowns. Each of these instances led to public outcry and to investigation or inquiry. The paper examines the legal bases for the use of private sector data by government, the safeguards available to protect privacy, and the framing of concerns over the use of these data by different interested parties. Given that legal frameworks for data sharing may not keep pace with data needs and methods, this paper also takes a normative approach which examines whether and in what circumstances such data sharing should take place. Les gouvernements cherchent de plus en plus utiliser les donn es personnelles provenant du secteur priv des fins qui vont de la production de statistiques la planification municipale. Les donn es collect es par les entreprises sont souvent volumineuses et tr s d taill es. Les donn es de localisation et de mobilit --qui ont de nombreuses applications--sont collect es par de multiples acteurs du secteur priv , des fournisseurs de services cellulaires aux d veloppeurs d&apos;applications et aux courtiers en donn es. Les organisations du secteur financier accumulent de riches donn es sur les habitudes de d pense et d&apos;emprunt des consommateurs. M me les donn es g n tiques sont collect es par des entreprises du secteur priv . L&apos; ventail des donn es disponibles ne cesse de s&apos; largir, car de plus en plus de donn es sont collect es et les entreprises cherchent des march s secondaires pour leurs donn es. Dans le pr sent article, nous explorons les questions soulev es par l&apos;acc s du secteur public aux donn es personnelles d tenues par le secteur priv et par leur utilisation. L&apos;analyse s&apos;articule autour de deux exemples canadiens qui impliquent l&apos;acc s r el ou la tentative d&apos;acc s par des agences gouvernementales des donn es personnelles du secteur priv des fins publiques. Le premier concerne la tentative de Statistique Canada de collecter et d&apos;utiliser des donn es d tenues par des soci t s de surveillance du cr dit et des institutions financi res pour produire des statistiques conomiques. La seconde est l&apos;utilisation, pendant la pand mie de COVID-19, de donn es sur la mobilit par l&apos;Agence de sant publique du Canada (ASPC) pour valuer l&apos;efficacit des politiques de sant publique dans la r duction de la transmission de la COVID-19 pendant les fermetures d&apos; tablissements. Chacun de ces cas a suscit des protestations publiques et a donn lieu une enqu te ou une investigation. Dans l&apos;article, nous examinons les bases juridiques de l&apos;utilisation des donn es du secteur priv par le gouvernement, les garanties disponibles pour prot ger la vie priv e et la formulation des pr occupations relatives l&apos;utilisation de ces donn es par les diff rentes parties int ress es. tant donn que les cadres juridiques pour le partage des donn es peuvent ne pas suivre l&apos; volution des besoins et des m thodes en mati re de donn es, nous adoptons galement une approche normative qui examine si et dans quelles circonstances un tel partage de donn es devrait avoir lieu.

Introduction I. Mathur background II. The role and evolution of "justiciability" in climate change litigation III. Charter claims 1. Introduction 2. Positive rights 3. Mathur and positive rights 4. Principles [...], Citizens, civil society, and environmental justice organizations are increasingly turning to courts to find solutions to climate change challenges. As of November 2022, the number of climate change litigation cases throughout the world was at least 2.5 times higher than in 2017. A dominant wave of this litigation is one in which claimants assert that governments&apos; failures to take appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures violate claimants&apos; rights. We analyze this jurisprudence in this article, with a focus on the recent Ontario Superior Court of Justice decision in Mathur v Ontario. While the claims in this case were dismissed, it is groundbreaking as it is the first of these cases in Canada in which the claims were heard on the merits and were found to be justiciable. However, this case also demonstrates how difficult it is given the current state of the law in Canada for such claims to be advanced successfully. We examine the reasons for these limitations, and we propose some possible solutions. We also analyze how Mathur contributes to transnational climate jurisprudence, including the court&apos;s acknowledgement and use of international climate science. Les citoyens, la soci t civile et les organisations de justice environnementale se tournent de plus en plus vers les tribunaux pour trouver des solutions aux probl mes li s au changement climatique. En novembre 2022, le nombre de litiges li s au changement climatique dans le monde tait au moins 2,5 fois plus lev qu&apos;en 2017. Une vague dominante de ces litiges est celle dans laquelle les demandeurs affirment que l&apos;incapacit des gouvernements prendre des mesures d&apos;att nuation et d&apos;adaptation appropri es viole leurs droits. Nous analysons cette jurisprudence dans cet article, en mettant l&apos;accent sur la r cente d cision de la Cour sup rieure de justice de l&apos;Ontario dans l&apos;affaire Mathur c. Ontario. Bien que les demandes dans cette affaire aient t rejet es, il s&apos;agit d&apos;une premi re au Canada dans laquelle celles-ci ont t entendues sur le fond et jug es justiciables. Cependant, cette affaire d montre galement quel point il est difficile, dans l&apos; tat actuel du droit au Canada, de faire valoir avec succ s de telles revendications. Nous examinons les raisons de ces limitations et proposons quelques solutions possibles. Nous analysons galement la contribution de l&apos;affaire Mathur la jurisprudence transnationale en mati re de climat, notamment la reconnaissance et l&apos;utilisation par la Cour de la science climatique internationale.

Open enrollment in public schools is a form of school choice that allows students to attend schools other than the one assigned to them by their school district. Though often [...]

May 17 marks the 70th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court's landmark school desegregation decision in Brown v. Board of Education. There is ample reason to celebrate Brown: not only [...]

Certificate-of-Need (CON) laws restrict entry and/or expansion of healthcare facilities in 35 states. These laws require hospitals, nursing homes, ambulatory surgical centers (ASCs), and other healthcare providers to obtain regulatory [...]

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. BACKGROUND 775 A. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine 776 B. Medical Device Regulation 778 C. Off-Label Use 781 III. ANALYSIS 784 A. Federal Regulators 785 1. The [...], Through machine learning (ML) developments, medical devices are gaining more autonomous functions and taking on more central roles in medical care. Many scholars believe that artificial intelligence (AI) will revolutionize the healthcare industry, but the technology brings several concerns that implicate data privacy, patient security and safety, and professional responsibility. The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) acknowledged this fact, publishing proposed guidance in 2023 on artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML) medical device approval that would tighten device regulation upfront and enhance supervision throughout the regulatory process. While some have addressed the premarket approval process or tort liability frameworks for artificial intelligence-enabled devices, this Note focuses on the regulatory concerns arising from off-label use of AI/ML-enabled medical devices. This Note agrees with FDA and other scholars that the current legal system does not support the proper use of AI/ML-enabled medical devices. To remedy that lack of systemic support, this Note considers which agencies, if any, have the proper regulatory authority to handle the matter and challenges the idea that nonbinding guidance is the proper regulatory vehicle for enforcement. Ultimately, this Note argues for a multilevel regulatory framework promulgated under the formal rulemaking process, state regulatory procedure, and private regulation.

While students and parents are back-to-school shopping and meeting new teachers, a potential cyberattack shutting down their schools or stealing their valuable student data should not be on their minds. [...], Every day, a K-12 school in the United States falls victim to a harmful cyberattack that can cost it millions of dollars and keep its doors closed for days or weeks. Schools are desperate for funding to purchase essential cybersecurity services and products to protect their school&apos;s networks from these cyberattacks. Such funding should be available through the Federal Communications Commission&apos;s (FCC) E-Rate program, which was established as part of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to provide discounts for connectivity services in K-12 schools across the country. During the COVID-19 pandemic, schools and other telecommunications industry stakeholders submitted petitions asking the FCC to consider expanding the E-Rate program to include discounts for advanced firewall and network security services. While schools can currently utilize the E-Rate program to obtain discounts on telecommunications and internet services like cable modems, routers, and antennas, they are currently unable to use E-Rate program funding to purchase essential cybersecurity products and services, including advanced or next-generation firewalls, that would mitigate the impact of cyberattacks. With technological advancements, hackers are more capable than ever to devastatingly harm school networks; as such, the technological needs for achieving connectivity to schools have changed since the 1996 Act was passed. Advanced or next-generation firewalls and other network security services are now more essential than ever to obtaining safe and efficient connectivity for K-12 schools. This Note proposes that the FCC immediately expand the E-Rate program to include essential cybersecurity products and services in the program&apos;s eligible services list. The FCC has the requisite authority under the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to expand the E-Rate program&apos;s eligible services list to keep up with changing technological needs. While different sectors of the federal government are working to resolve the cybersecurity problems schools are facing, what schools need most is immediate and accessible funding.

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. BACKGROUND 837 II. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TSA'S FACIAL RECOGNITION 841 PROGRAM III. HISTORICAL DEFERENCE TO AGENCY INTERPRETATIONS 845 IV. HOW THE COURT MIGHT REVIEW THE TSA'S [...], The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has begun using facial recognition technology (FRT) to screen passengers at airports. Although travelers can currently opt out, it is not clear that this will continue to be an option as the program expands. This raises significant concerns about the amount of personally identifiable information being collected by the agency, as well as the level of discretion the agency has to implement this increasingly invasive technology without input from Congress. This Note proposes that, in light of the United States Supreme Court&apos;s shift away from its deferential Chevron standard for reviewing agency action, litigators can and should argue that the TSA&apos;s program ought to be struck down. Furthermore, it concludes that, regardless of whether the TSA&apos;s program would be invalidated in court, Congress should step in and pass legislation guiding the agency&apos;s adoption of FRT. Although much has been written about the Court&apos;s evolving Chevron-deference jurisprudence, this Note contributes to the discussion by applying this analysis to the TSA&apos;s potentially problematic new FRT program.

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 657 II. "THE LAW OF THE HORSE" 660 III. COMPUTING SYSTEMS OF THE 1990S AND TODAY 662 A. Internet of the 1990s-2000s 663 B. Spatial [...], In the wake of Judge Frank Easterbrook&apos;s critique of the development of specific laws for cyberspace, Lawrence Lessig&apos;s 1998 proposition of "code-as-law" framed the internet&apos;s regulatory landscape through the interplay of four modalities--law, norms, market, and architecture. Today, at the start of the era of spatial computing, also known as extended reality (XR), it is timely to reassess Lessig&apos;s insights for this burgeoning digital frontier. This Article seeks to (1) update Lessig&apos;s framework to suit 3D computing, (2) envision governance for these novel systems, and (3) reimagine technological governance amidst failing traditional institutions. Revisiting code-as-law, the dynamic interplay of Lessig&apos;s modalities in digital governance shows how norms have played a central role. The internet&apos;s formative years echo today&apos;s nascent XR landscape in terms of legal ambiguity and technical volatility, as the parallel between the 1990s internet and current XR statistics underscores. Leading corporations&apos; large investments in XR suggests that immersive technology will dominate future computing. XR demands new governance models due to its layering of digital environments onto real spaces, its profound sensory and psychological impact on users, and the commercial drive for content within virtual worlds, contrasting with the origins of the internet, with the impetus coming from outside the private sector. The uniqueness of XR, and more explicitly the differences from traditional flat screen computing, presents new governance challenges. When traditional modalities fail, society often reverts to hard law for intervention. This Article ponders the inflection points that could lead to such demands within XR pertaining to privacy concerns and the reemergence of online harms in a new medium. It questions the adequacy of Lessig&apos;s model in addressing systemic inefficiencies and the renegotiation of modalities in light of power imbalances. In sum, the study of cyberspace--and by extension, spatial computing--should transcend technical specifics and consider how emerging technologies can become inclusive or exclusionary. Drawing parallels with the early internet, this Article advocates for deliberate creation of networked spaces that embrace new modes of governance, thereby shaping a more equitable digital future.

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 708 II. DEFINING "PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE ONLINE DATA" 714 A. On a Baseline of Public Accessibility 715 B. Public Accessibility as a Technological Construct: 718 Automating [...], The data scraping and data collection that Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) enable are ubiquitous means of automatically and instantaneously gathering large amounts of online data. Anyone can leverage the capabilities of internet infrastructure to engage in data collection, yet the subjects of the data collection are often unaware of the full extent to which this personal data harvesting occurs. The accessibility and discreetness of large-scale automated online data collection test the overall fitness of the European data protection framework, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), to provide control to individuals over their personal data while promoting innovation and ensuring legal certainty for all parties concerned. This Article explores the extent to which the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the guidance of data protection authorities have accommodated this technological transformation. Data controllers have been the apparent focal point of institutional responses. Absent further clarification, however, an approach focused on data controllers is likely both insufficient and unsustainable. This Article outlines areas for further clarification and additional focus--namely, the concept of "public accessibility" of online data, the notion of "reasonable expectations," the capacity of the "fairness" principle, and an increased emphasis on technological infrastructure and rights-respecting AI development.

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. ELIGIBLE SUBJECT MATTER DOCTRINE 807 A. Section 101 and Methods of Interpretation 808 1. The 1980's: Section 101 as a "Coarse Filter" 808 2. The 2010's: [...], The eligibility of inventions for patent protection under 35 U.S.C. Section 101 was altered substantially by the Supreme Court&apos;s decisions in Alice v. CLS Bank and Mayo v. Prometheus. These decisions and their progeny have expanded application of the implicit "judicial exceptions" to patent eligibility for laws of nature, natural phenomena, and abstract ideas. The resulting uncertainty has proven untenable for many stakeholders in the patent system, impeding innovation. With the Supreme Court steadfastly declining to provide clarity by granting certiorari in recent cases raising Section 101 questions, many are calling for Congress to act. While policy debate around Section 101 reform is alive and well, much of the scholarship on the issue focuses on the principles that ought to guide reform. This Note seeks to further the conversation by comparing justifications for subject matter restrictions against specific statutory language. Using the Patent Eligibility Restoration Act of 2023 (PERA) as a case study, this Note compares PERA with the theory and recommendations provided by patent law scholars and finds it is strikingly consistent with utilitarian and other normative justifications for subject matter restrictions. This reformulation of Section 101 may alleviate much of the uncertainty harmful to stakeholders in the patent system. Recognizing imperfections in PERA, this Note concludes by proposing two amendments that would provide greater clarity and restrict eligibility for patents that are unlikely to provide societal value.

TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION: CIVIL INVASIONS OF PRIVACY 616 II. THE HISTORY OF PRIVACY IN DISCOVERY 620 A. Early Focus on Depositions and "Blackmail": The 1930s 623 B. Attorney [...], US citizens enjoy strong protection against criminal searches pursuant to the Fourth Amendment, but they must produce a diary entry from a bedroom drawer or a text message to a romantic partner if it is relevant to a civil case and not privileged. The reason for this paradox, long a mystery to outsiders, is a complex mixture of history and culture. Understanding the paradox is particularly important now. In the absence of any other check on discovery, federal and state courts have relied on persuasive sources to protect privacy in pretrial practice, none of which are reflected in the discovery rules. The Supreme Court gutted one of those sources, the federal constitutional right to privacy, in Dobbs. At the same time, technological advancements and increasingly intrusive discovery requests push the boundaries of the rules. It is time to strengthen individual privacy rights in the context of civil discovery requests that implicate intimate and even incriminating details. The early history of discovery rules in the federal system shows no intent that parties to a civil lawsuit waive any privacy rights they might otherwise possess. Rather, the breadth of discovery--intended to prevent secrecy before trial--resulted from grafting equity procedures onto legal claims without retaining equitable guardrails. As technology changed the discovery landscape from designated paper documents to broad categories of electronic databases, broad disclosure became akin to a constitutional right. While digital invasions of privacy were a primary issue for legislative protection and Fourth Amendment concern, no concomitant change occurred in the discovery rules. Instead, courts protected against discovery into private matters by reference to persuasive privacy laws and by use of protective orders, which are increasingly ineffective. This Article proposes a revision to the civil discovery rules that would give explicit protection to information when it is subject to a reasonable expectation of privacy. The revolution initiated by the broad discovery rules did not result in transparency and justice but instead provided tools for abuse. Simply because sensitive information housed in a database or on the cloud is potentially relevant to broad issues in litigation does not mean that it should be presumptively discoverable. Instead, courts should require production only based on a showing of substantial need. Given the erosion of constitutional protection in Dobbs and its intimations for other rights, the legal system must prevent the use of broad discovery to harass, embarrass, and deter access to the courts.

TABLE DES MATIERES I. Introduction II. Contexte et besoin d'accompagnement lors de l'entrevue sur les faits III. Les accompagnateurs et accompagnatrices, des temoins contraignables? A. Les declarations anterieures incompatibles: une [...], CET ARTICLE SE penche sur la question de l&apos;accompagnement des personnes victimes lorsqu&apos;elles sont appelees a participer a une entrevue portant sur les faits relies a leurs plaintes avec des membres de la police. L&apos;article critique le recours a l&apos;entretien sur les faits sans option d&apos;accompagnement de la personne victime. Pour ce faire, il commence par etablir la necessite de l&apos;accompagnement en offrant une mise en contexte portant principalement sur l&apos;accompagnement des personnes victimes d&apos;agressions sexuelles et de crimes policiers. Ensuite, la recherche aborde divers enjeux invoques a l&apos;encontre de l&apos;accompagnement, incluant les regles de preuve quant aux declarations anterieures incompatibles, le droit a une defense pleine et entiere et l&apos;impact de l&apos;enregistrement video sur la personne victime. A cette occasion, l&apos;article offre diverses solutions pour reconcilier l&apos;accompagnement des personnes victimes et les droits de la personne accusee dans le contexte d&apos;agressions sexuelles. Pour se faire, l&apos;auteure s&apos;appuie principalement sur la jurisprudence de la Cour supreme du Canada, les articles 276 et 278.92 du Code criminel et l&apos;etat des connaissances scientifiques portant sur les declarations incompatibles, le contact entre la police et les personnes victimes d&apos;agressions sexuelles ainsi que sur les effets d&apos;un traumatisme sur la memoire. Enfin, l&apos;article se termine par une discussion faisant etat de certains autres obstacles tels que les modalites d&apos;accompagnement et l&apos;influence d&apos;une tierce partie sur la personne victime. Cette discussion, ainsi que l&apos;ensemble de l&apos;article, rappellent l&apos;importance de favoriser l&apos;autonomie et la dignite des personnes victimes dans toutes decisions concernant leur participation au processus de judiciarisation des plaintes. THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES the issue of providing support for victims when they are called upon to be interviewed by members of the police force on matters relating to their allegations. The article criticizes the use of fact-finding interviews without providing the option of support to the victim. It begins by establishing the need for support by presenting it mainly within the context of support for victims of sexual assault and police crimes. The research then addresses various issues raised against providing support, including the rules of evidence regarding prior inconsistent statements, the right to full answer and defence, and the impact of video recording on the victim. In that vein, the article offers various solutions reconciling the support of victims and the rights of the accused in the context of sexual assault. To do so, the author draws mainly on Supreme Court of Canada case law, sections 276 and 278.92 of the Criminal Code, and the state of scientific knowledge regarding inconsistent statements, contact between police and people who were victims of sexual assault, and the effects of trauma on memory. Finally, the article concludes with a discussion on other obstacles, such as the rules of support and the influence of a third party on the victim. This discussion, along with this whole article, serves as a reminder of the importance of fostering the autonomy and dignity of victims in all decisions concerning their participation in the judicial complaints process.

Undocumented students in California's higher education system may soon be able to get a job in California's public universities and colleges. California would become the first state in the nation [...]

Recently, the Taliban-led government in Afghanistan banned all beauty parlors, stating cultural reasons that the existence of such parlors violates the tenets of Islam. They also cited another reason for shutting down beauty parlors: that it puts an unnecessary financial burden on a groom's family during marriages. The paper analyzes the policy decision by the Taliban government in light of the public-private divide, theories of Islamic feminism, and feminist understanding of the beauty industry. The author argues that sole application of either a feminist critique of the public-private divide or a feminist critique of beauty ideals fails to provide a holistic and a cogent solution to the problem faced by women in beauty industries all over the world, especially in Taliban-led Afghanistan. The paper also analyzes the ways in which Islamic feminism can better capture such inconsistencies and thereby provide an inclusive solution to the pertaining issues. Keywords: Islamic feminism, Beauty industry, Public-private divide, Beauty parlors, Patriarchy, Taliban, Afghanistan, Introduction In July 2023, the Taliban government in Afghanistan passed an order banning all beauty parlors as such bodies are against the tenets of Islam and prove to be burdensome [...]