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Seasonality affects milk production, its composition, as well as the spread of mastitis in dairy cows. The aim of the research work was to study the way the seasons affect milk productivity and the manifestation of mastitis among Ukrainian brown Swiss cows at a commercial dairy unit, with the animals kept in naturally ventilated premises. The relationship between the indicators was assessed by Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient. The influence of a seasonal factor and individual air parameters on cows’ milk productivity was evaluated using Factorial ANOVA in Statistica 12 software. The results of the study revealed a high correlation between the content of milk fat and milk protein and the weather conditions (temperature, relative humidity, as well as temperature-humidity index) by seasons. Moreover, the greatest negative relationship between these characteristics was observed in spring (r = 0.4‒0.8) and in autumn (r = 0.6), and not in summer during the heat, as we had predicted earlier. The influence rate of the «season» factor was significant both in terms of the daily milk yield and milk components (51–59%) and mastitis prevalence rate in cows (56%) at the dairy unit. In general, the reduction of milk yields in summer and especially in autumn, and the spread of udder pathology in cows during this period should provide for the introduction of managerial and preventive veterinary measures to mitigate the effects of hot summer among Ukrainian Brown Swiss cows at year-round housing of animals in naturally ventilated premises.

Heat stress in livestock is a function of macro- and microclimatic factors, their duration and intensity, the environments where they occur and the biological characteristics of the animal. Due to intense metabolic processes, high-producing dairy cows are highly vulnerable to the effects of heat stress. Disturbances in their thermoregulatory capability are reflected by behavioural, physiological and production changes. Expression of thermoregulatory behaviour such as reduction of activity and feed intake, searching for a cooler places or disturbances in reproductive behaviours may be very important indicators of animal welfare. Especially maintain of standing or lying position in dairy cattle may be a valuable marker of the negative environmental impact. Highly mechanized farms with large numbers of animals have the informatic system can detect alterations automatically, while small family farms cannot afford these type of equipments. Therefore, observing and analysing behavioural changes to achieve a greater understanding of heat stress issue may be a key factor for developing the effective strategies to minimize the effects of heat stress in cattle. The aim of this review is to present the state of knowledge, over the last years, regarding behavioural changes in dairy cows (Bos Taurus) exposed to heat stress conditions and discuss some herd management strategies provided mitigation of the overheat consequences.

Currently the temperature humidity index (THI) is a common method of evaluating the risk of heat stress in cows by employing climatic parameters. However, the THI is a general and indirect indicator that fails to consider individual cows. Various studies have used animal-related parameters to account for the heat load of individual cows. This review provides an overview of different heat stress indicators that have been used in the past 10 years with a focus on animal-related and non-invasive indicators. These indicators are reviewed with regard to their potential for quantifying individual heat loads in ongoing and future studies of dairy cows. The review is divided into sections covering physiological, behavioural and performance indicators. Parameters that appear to be suitable for assessing the individual stress loads of dairy cows include respiration rate and body temperature, whereas losses in milk yield are more a consequence of heat stress than an indicator. Using activity and feeding behaviour as an indicator of heat stress may depend on the cows' physiological state. However, no thresholds for animal-related indicators employed as signs of heat load can be found in the literature. In contrast, thresholds for THI levels are described above which changes in cows’ physiology and behaviour are detectable under heat stress. In conclusion, the development and use of non-invasive sensors should focus on physiological indicators, and further studies are needed to determine the thresholds for these indicators.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of evaporative cooling at two different frequencies per day on the respiration rate (RR) of lactating dairy cows, considering cow-related factors. Twenty multiparous Israeli Holstein dairy cows housed in a naturally ventilated cowshed were divided randomly into two treatment groups. The cows of both groups were exposed to 3 or 8 cooling sessions per day (3xcool vs. 8xcool, respectively). The RR was observed hourly, with a maximum of 12 measurements per day. Body posture (standing vs. lying) was simultaneously documented. Milk yield was recorded daily. Coat color was determined from a digital photograph. The RR of standing and lying cows was lower in the 8xcool group (60.2 and 51.6 breaths per min (bpm), respectively) than in the 3xcool group (73.1 and 65.6 bpm, respectively). For each increment of five kilograms of milk produced, RR increased by one bpm, and the RR of cows in early days in milk (DIM) was 12.3 bpm higher than that of cows in late DIM. In conclusion, eight cooling sessions per day instead of three lead to a RR abatement in heat-stressed cows under hot conditions, and cow-related factors directly impact the RR during heat stress assessment.

A trend of global warming has been observed over the last few years and it has often been discussed whether there is an effect on livestock. Numerous studies have been published about heat stress in cattle and its influence on the physiology and productivity of animals. Preventing the negative effects of heat stress on cattle is essential to ensure animal welfare, health and productivity. Monitoring and analysis of physiological parameters lead to a better understanding of the adaptation processes. This can help to determine the risk of climate change and its effects on performance characteristics, e.g. milk yield and reproduction. This, in turn, makes it possible to develop effective measures to mitigate the impact of heat load on animals. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the current literature. Studies especially about the physiological and productive changes due to heat stress in cattle have been summarised in this review. The direction of future research into the aspect of heat stress in cattle is also indicated.

3 páginas., In its effort to transfer the research achievements to the ruralsector, the agricultural European Innovation Partnership(EiP-AGRI) from the Directorate General of Agriculture ofthe European Commission has promoted Focus Groups thatgathered experts on a specific area to discuss strategiesaddressing current or emerging threats for Europe’s agriculture.TheFocus Group Robust and Resilient Dairy ProductionSystemsfocused on identifying the main threats for dairy pro-duction as well as suggesting the most promising and realisticstrategies to tackle them. Authors acknowledge the initiative ofthe EiP-AGRI, which gave the opportunity for discussionsthat results in this opinion paper. We would also like to thankJosé Pires (INRA) and the EiP-AGRI staff (Remco Schreuder,Cesar Resch, Quico Onega and Sirpa Karjalainen) for their con-tributions during the discussion. The views expressed in thispublication reflect the opinion of the authors but do not necessarily reflect the views orpolicies of the EiP-AGRI neitherthe DG Agriculture of the European Union.

The measurement of the respiration rate (RR) in cattle is a valuable tool for monitoring health status. Thus, an RR sensor can be essential for stress detection, especially heat stress. Heat stress leads to a deviation of the normal RR and results in a decrease of milk production and fertility. Therefore, continuous monitoring of the RR can help early detection of heat stress and, thus, initiate timely counteractive actions to minimize physical stress. The most common method to measure the RR in cattle is to count the flank movement visually; however, this method is time-consuming and labor-intensive. In addition, the continuous measurement of the RR is difficult to implement and can be physically strenuous. Therefore, a device based on a differential pressure sensor that can record RR automatically has been developed to make continuous long-term studies possible. The aim of this study was to validate the data measured by the device with the help of a reference method. The reference method used was counting the flank movements of a total of 6 cows (Holstein-Friesian). The rear flank movements of each cow were recorded by a camera and counted independently of the device by an observer. Eight videos of 1 min each were recorded per cow. The data analysis was done with cows in 3 different body positions: dozing, lying, and standing. A total of 48 RR measurements of the device were compared with the counted RR frequencies of the video recording. The results were highly correlated during dozing [correlation coefficient (r) = 0.92, n = 13], lying (r = 0.98, n = 15), and standing (r = 0.99, n = 20). The evaluation showed that the device is suitable for automated RR counting. Further development of a marketable device is planned.

Transrectal palpation of cows is a day-one competence for veterinary students, and it is an essential skill for the diagnosis of pregnancy as well as reproductive disorders. We hypothesized that transrectal palpation induces a stress response in cows, and this stress response may vary with the training students receive before their first transrectal palpation. Therefore, 52 Holstein-Friesian cows were used at the University of Veterinary Medicine Hanover. The experimental group (n = 26) was subjected to transrectal palpations by first and second-year students. Salivary and serum cortisol levels were assessed before and after the intervention. A control group (n = 26) was only restrained and tested for changes in salivary and serum cortisol. A total of 12 cows of the experimental group were examined by two groups of students with different training on two days. The examination was performed one day by students who were theoretically prepared for transrectal palpation in cows (NO-SBT, n = 12). The other day, students who underwent a simulator-based training (SBT, n = 12) performed the examination. The cortisol concentrations, as well as heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV), were measured in the examined cows. Blood and saliva samples were collected 25 min and immediately before (0 min) and 25 min and 85 min after the end of the examination in the experimental group. Serum cortisol levels between 0 min and 25 min were increased by Δ2.6 ng/ml in the cows in the experimental group compared to Δ-0.3 ng/ml in the control group (P = 0.001). The increases in cortisol in saliva (P = 0.033) and serum (P = 0.013) after transrectal palpation were higher in the NO-SBT group Δ0.32 ng/ml saliva, Δ5.8 ng/ml serum than in the SBT group Δ0.03 ng/ml saliva, Δ2.1 ng/ml serum. For HR and HRV analysis values recorded 30 min before the transrectal palpation (−30 min) were set as the baseline concentrations the sequence recorded during the transrectal examination started at 0 min. While the mean HR did not change significantly during the transrectal palpation (80–83 bpm SBT students; 81 to 79 bpm NO-SBT students), the HRV parameter square root of the mean squared differences of successive R-R intervals (RMSSD) decreased in the NO-SBT group (P = 0.034) during transrectal palpation compared to the baseline values (17.47–5.07 ms). These findings reflect an activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis as well as a reduction in vagal tone during the teaching and practice of transrectal palpation by students. Moreover, the results indicate that a transrectal palpation is less stressful for cows when the examination is performed by students that were previously prepared by simulator-based training.

In recent years, the problem of the welfare and heat load of dairy cows has become increasingly important in moderate climate zones. The objective of the present study was to determine heat load thresholds of average daily temperature-humidity index (THI) that lead to changes in different activity traits of lactating high-yielding dairy cows. Furthermore, we studied how the activity of the cows to heat load was influenced by the daily heat load duration which exceeded the heat load we had determined as threshold in our experiments. The study was conducted from June 2015 to May 2017 in a naturally ventilated dairy barn in Gros Kreutz, Germany. The climate was measured at several positions inside the barn, and the average THI was calculated every 10 min. The THI was used to define the dairy cows’ heat load exposure. In addition, the activity of the cows was measured by pedometers, and different activity traits were recorded in the functional groups "resting behavior" and "locomotion behavior”. The heat load thresholds determined by broken-stick models were 47 THI (standing bout duration, number of steps) as well as 67 THI (total lying/standing time, number of lying/standing bouts, lying bout duration). During the experimental period, the most reliable heat load threshold of 67 THI was exceeded from May to September for up to 480 h per month. The analysis model of each activity trait included the effect of the average daily THI values below and above the determined heat load threshold and the effect of the daily heat load duration exceeding the determined heat load threshold. The total lying/standing time and the number of steps showed significant changes related to increasing daily heat load duration. The effect of the daily heat load duration additionally intensified the effect of the average daily THI.

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of a new type of milking system on the behaviour of cows during milking by comparing a conventional milking system (CON) with an individual quarter milking system (MUL), MultiLactor®. Sixty-eight dairy cows were observed during their milking times (32 cows in CON, 36 cows in MUL) using video recordings to analyse their behavioural traits. The udder preparation duration, milking duration and milk yield were also evaluated. No significant differences were found between the CON and the MUL regarding cows’ head posture (P=0.38), body posture (P=0.85), number of steps (P=0.08) and number of kicks (P=0.56). However, the milk yield was lower (P=0.02), just as the udder preparation duration (P

The objective of the study was to compare the behavior of sows before and after farrowing with a focus on lying behavior and side preference in a lateral position. Collecting information on normal and deviant behaviors may consequently improve the care and welfare of animals and severe variations can indicate possible welfare issues. The study was conducted on a farrow-to-finish-farm with 14 crossbred sows. For each sow, behavior was analyzed by video observation (continuous sampling) on 2 days, one before (3 or 4 days after transfer to the trial compartment) and one after farrowing (second day after farrowing). The duration and frequency of lying on the left side, lying on the right side, lying on the abdomen, standing, sitting, and lying down per sow and day were compared for these 2 days. The total time that sows spent lying increased significantly ( P = 0.01) on the second day after farrowing compared with the analyzed day before farrowing. The time spent lying on the right side and facing the udder to the piglet nest also increased significantly ( P = 0.02) after farrowing. For the other postures (i.e., lying on the left side, lying on the abdomen ( P > 0.05), sitting, standing, lying down [ P ≤ 0.03]), the duration as well as the sum of changes in posture decreased after farrowing. On the test day before farrowing, sows spent a total of 85% of the day in a lying position (35% on the left side, 39% on the right, and 11% on the abdomen). The total lying time increased to 96% per sow and day on the second day after farrowing (31% on the left side, 58% on the right, and 7% on the abdomen). After farrowing, the lying duration of sows increased, and they preferred to lie on the body side facing the piglet nest. The sows spent the most time in a lateral lying position, which is information that should be used to adjust farrowing crates to improve the welfare of sows.

The dairy industry in regions with moderate climates, such as Central Europe, will be increasingly challenged in the future by climate change. The problem of heat stress will especially affect dairy husbandry in naturally ventilated barns (NVB). The approach of the study was to determine a heat stress threshold of the average daily temperature-humidity index (THI) that results in changes in the daily rumination time (RT) of lactating, high-yielding cows. The data set was composed of a high sample size of 183 cows and long-duration measurements of 21240 daily observations over two years from June 2015 to May 2017, which were collected in an NVB in Groβ Kreutz, Germany. The THI was calculated in 5-min intervals by data from several sensors in different positions inside the barn. Additionally, every cow from the herd of an average of 53 cows in the experimental procedure was wearing a neck collar with a Lely Qwes HR system that provided the RT 24 h a day (12 2-h recordings were summarized). The study showed that heat stress also negatively influenced RT in moderate climates. The heat stress threshold of 52 THI was determined by broken-stick regression and indicated changes of RT of lactating dairy cows in Germany. During the experimental period, the heat stress threshold for RT was reached from April to September for up to 720 h per month. The changes in RT to the heat stress threshold will be affected by cows' characteristics. Therefore, we considered several cow-related factors, such as milk yield (MY), lactation number (LN), lactation stage (days in milk, or DIM) and pregnancy stage (P) to better understand cows’ individual reactions to heat stress. Multiparous, high-yielding cows in later lactation stages are potentially more strongly affected than other cows.

Monitoring and predicting the microclimate in naturally ventilated barns (NVB) is important given the adverse effects of high summer temperatures on dairy cows in the context of global climate change. The aim of the work was to verify the accuracy of the microclimate forecast in a NVB using linear regression (LR). Our working hypothesis suggested that multiple periodic measurements of air temperature and relative humidity outside and inside the barns at the same time will allow us to build LR models for predicting the temperature-humidity index (THI). This was done not only for a specific dairy barn based on this indicator outside, but also in other dairy barns with a similar design, located in similar weather conditions. The results of the research indicate that the use of LR had a high accuracy of forecasting (93-96%) the THI in NVB of various designs during the summer heat. At the same time, differences were found between traits (air temperature, relative humidity as well as resulting THI) provided by meteorological weather stations and these data measured simultaneously next to the dairy barns. The proposed LR models can be used to predict THI in NVBs of different designs.

In this study, a video-based infrared camera (IRC) was investigated as a tool to monitor the body temperature of calves. Body surface temperatures were measured contactless using videos from an IRC fixed at a certain location in the calf feeder. The body surface temperatures were analysed retrospectively at three larger areas: the head area (in front of the forehead), the body area (behind forehead) and the area of the entire animal. The rectal temperature served as a reference temperature and was measured with a digital thermometer at the corresponding time point. A total of nine calves (Holstein-Friesians, 8 to 35 weeks old) were examined. The average maximum temperatures of the area of the entire animal (mean±SD: 37.66±0.90°C) and the head area (37.64±0.86°C) were always higher than that of the body area (36.75±1.06°C). The temperatures of the head area and of the entire animal were very similar. However, the maximum temperatures as measured using IRC increased with an increase in calf rectal temperature. The maximum temperatures of each video picture for the entire visible body area of the calves appeared to be sufficient to measure the superficial body temperature. The advantage of the video-based IRC over conventional IR single-picture cameras is that more than one picture per animal can be analysed in a short period of time. This technique provides more data for analysis. Thus, this system shows potential as an indicator for continuous temperature measurements in calves.

The severity of heat stress conditions in high-yielding dairy cows is currently underestimated. The present study aimed to determine the heat load threshold of the temperature-humidity index (THI) on physiological parameters of lactating Holstein-Friesian cows under a continental climatic zone in Germany. Physiological parameter measurements, such as respiration rate (RR), measured hourly, and heart rate (HR) and rectal temperature (RT), both measured twice daily, were performed in a total of 139 multiparous cows on three randomly chosen measurement days per week. In addition, the ambient temperature and relative humidity of the barn were recorded every 5 min to calculate the current THI. The physiological parameter data were linked to the THI, and the heat load thresholds were determined using the broken-stick model. The heat load duration effect of each physiological parameter was obtained by regression analysis. Considering the increases in the physiological parameters, our study provided reliable data to determine heat load thresholds for lactating high-yielding dairy cows in a moderate climatic zone. The heat load threshold could be determined for RR in standing cows (THI = 70) and lying cows (THI = 65) and for HR (THI = 72) and RT (THI = 70) in standing cows. The heat load duration also demonstrated a significant effect on the increases in physiological parameters among dairy cows. In particular, the present study enabled a strategy to be devised to initiate heat mitigation in high-yielding dairy cows when they are exposed to THIs above 65.

Recent approaches to minimise piglet crushing are usually active interventions in the behaviour of the piglets or the sow. However, interfering pig behaviour with the help of actuators has rarely been studied with respect to suitability, effectiveness and impact on animal welfare. In this study floor vibration and air-blows as methods to trigger posture changes have been tested on 12 sows in their late gestation and early lactation period. The intention was to quantify the effectiveness and unwanted side effects such as panic reactions as well as effects on neighbouring sows when applied in regular farrowing pens. The observed variables were reactivity, with reaction defined as posture change from lying to sitting, reaction latency and recline latency. In most cases, a reaction was achieved within 25 s and the arousal ceased in less than two minutes. In 22% of all stimulations the reaction latency was lower than 3 s, which could suggest an alarm reaction. The reactions of neighbouring sows could not be distinguished from natural occurring spontaneous posture changes and no low latency reactions were observed here. The sows in the late gestation phase showed a high reactivity on both actuators of about 80%. After farrowing, the reactivity was reduced to about 50% and nearly no low latency reactions could be observed. Hence, actuators need to be scalable to the individual reactivity level of the specific sow. This level is a complex variable that not only depends on the sow’s age and individuality but also on its antecedent and current state. The examined actuators can be dynamically adapted to the individual reactivity level. Together with a posture tracking system and a piglet stress monitoring system, such as the stress monitoring and documentation system STREMODO, this would allow an active piglet crushing intervention. With further research on the effect on piglets this technology might be usable with farrowing crates as well as in loose-housing farrowing systems.

An on-farm experiment was performed to investigate the effects of two milking systems on teat condition. An auto-tandem milking parlor made by GEA ® with a conventional milking cluster (CON) and a single tube milking system called MultiLactor ® (MULTI) from Siliconform GmbH were tested. For both milking system, in total 73 animals were milked over a period of seven months. To assess the effect of milking on teat condition, each teat was scored according to teat-condition evaluation systems. To evaluate teat condition, the teat color, ring formation at the teat base and formation of teat hyperkeratosis were assessed. The evaluation was conducted once a month after milking. The collected data were then statistically analyzed with generalized linear mixed models. The only differences found between the two milking systems occurred with respect to their effect on teat color. MULTI showed significantly better scores compared to CON. There were no significant differences between the milking systems with regard to teat-end hyperkeratosis and ring formation at the teat base.

To assess the practical use of pedometers as supervision tools in the equine prepartal period, two types, IceQube ® - and ALT-sensors, were tested. Nine mares were randomly fitted with devices of the respective types on the front legs (ALT: n =9, IceQube ® : n =7), and with an IceQube ® -sensor on a neck collar ( n =7). Measurements of 10 days ante partum for motion activity, lying times and lying bouts with a measuring interval of 15min were used to analyse changes during the ante partum interval. Technical function, animal acceptance, informative value, and the general use of the assessed data to predict the date of parturition, were observed and investigated, respectively. Therefore, deviations in the animals' behaviour were statistically determined by estimating least squares means (LSM), and their differences between the days ante partum and the day of parturition to the same hours, respectively ( P ante partum . In contrast, relatively constant patterns of motion within the same hours on the other days before were observed. These results were used to develop a real-time method that can detect the upcoming birth. The method is based on the actual moving average of motion activity and the 95th percentile of motion activity of the day before. For most mares, increasing moving average values above the 95th percentile were observed in the last two to one hours before parturition. The correlation for motion activity between the leg-instruments' data was calculated with r =0.51 during stable times. Lying times increased significantly ante partum , but this effect was too close to the beginning of parturition, and therefore not useable as a predictive marker. Lying time per day and per hour varied between the animals, and was generally on a very low level. The IceQube ® -sensors on the mares' neck collars recorded a permanent lying bout of these devices, which was increasingly fragmented due to movements of the head and the neck prior to parturition. This observation can be explained as colicky behaviour under pain. We suggest that this parameter could have a high predictive value. The number of lying bouts increased within the last prepartal hours, however, the analysed data of the single mares displayed again a high variability. The correlation for the recorded lying time was r =0.71 between IceQube ® - and ALT-devices at the mares' front legs. In conclusion, pedometers, regardless of which type tested, possess a high potential as supervision tools in the prepartal period of mares, especially two to one hours before birth. A prerequisite is, however, that the assessed data is analysed thoroughly with a suitable method.

For initial training, horses are often transferred from group housing to individual boxes, which is a potential stressor. In this study, salivary cortisol concentrations, locomotion activity, and heart rate (HR) were analyzed and the HR variability (HRV) variables standard deviation of beat-to-beat interval (SDRR) and root mean square of successive RR differences (RMSSD) were calculated in 3-year-old mares (n = 8). Mares were transferred abruptly from a group stable with access to a paddock to individual boxes without a paddock and were studied from 4 days before to 5 days after changing the stable. Mares underwent routine equestrian training for young horses. On the days before mares were moved to individual boxes, cortisol concentrations showed a diurnal rhythm with values approximately 0.6 ng/ml in the morning and a decrease throughout the day. When horses were moved to individual boxes, cortisol concentrations increased to 1.8 ± 0.2 ng/ml within 30 minutes and did not return to baseline values within 6 hours (0.7 ± 0.1 ng/ml, P < .05 over time). On the following days, a diurnal rhythm was re-established but at a higher level than before the change of stable. Locomotion activity was higher when mares had access to a paddock than when kept in individual boxes. Heart rate increased for approximately 60 minutes when mares were separated from their group. In conclusion, separating young horses from their group and individual stabling are perceived as stressful.

Scientific experiments within the design approach “Integrated Dairy Farming – Stable 4.0” demonstrate the cattle behavior in situations driven by a power load management. This study particularly investigates the manner in which energy failures, energy fluctuations, and postponements influence the daily routine of cattle, especially the animal activity and lying behavior. Based on the pedometer data, the results indicate whether the lying behavior of dairy cows alters under these circumstances. To simulate a power cut, 12 random cows out of 4 herds were not admitted to the automatic milking system for at least 2 h for 3 consecutive days. A discrete Poisson distribution was used as a mathematical basis to create a cow‘s movement pattern. However, curve fittings indicate that the distribution model in its current form (Poisson distribution) is unable to represent the movement behavior of cows. The next steps include an improvement in the still insufficient illustration of the movement behavior using a Mixed Poisson distribution. Furthermore, a trend is ascertained that older cows lie longer than younger ones (i.e., there is a dependence between the age of cow and the lying duration) and that all cows exhibit a reduced lying time on a side the day after a blackout. Hence, further research is necessary to explain the “after-blackout”-effect (e.g., hormones, and milk yield) and determine (if it exists) an appropriate distribution for describing the lying behavior of cows.

The aim of this study was to identify a low risk method to induce fever in gilts and to evaluate vaginal sensors for temperature monitoring. Therefore, a rhinitis atrophicans vaccine was used to induce fever to evaluate sensors and behavioral patterns. During 11 trials, two of four animals were injected with 2 mL of the vaccine Porcilis AR-T DF (Intervet) and the other two animals were treated with 2 mL of 0.9% NaCl as controls. A temperature logger (TRIX-8, LogTag Recorders, Auckland, New Zealand) was used to continuously monitor the vaginal temperature. Additionally, rectal temperatures were measured four times daily. The water consumption, food intake and locomotion behaviors of the animals were analysed one day before treatment and during the day of the treatment. The vaccine induced fever in all gilts, which occurred approximately 5.87 h after vaccination. The vaginal logger temperatures and the rectal temperatures showed a linear correlation in 21 vaccinated gilts (r = 0.86; p

The aim of this study was to assess the variability of temperatures measured by a video-based infrared camera (IRC) in comparison to rectal and vaginal temperatures. The body surface temperatures of cows and calves were measured contactless at different body regions using videos from the IRC. Altogether, 22 cows and 9 calves were examined. The differences of the measured IRC temperatures among the body regions, i.e. eye (mean: 37.0 °C), back of the ear (35.6 °C), shoulder (34.9 °C) and vulva (37.2 °C), were significant (P < 0.01), except between eye and vulva (P = 0.99). The quartile ranges of the measured IRC temperatures at the 4 above mentioned regions were between 1.2 and 1.8 K. Of the investigated body regions the eye and the back of the ear proved to be suitable as practical regions for temperature monitoring. The temperatures of these 2 regions could be gained by the use of the maximum temperatures of the head and body area. Therefore, only the maximum temperatures of both areas were used for further analysis. The data analysis showed an increase for the maximum temperature measured by IRC at head and body area with an increase of rectal temperature in cows and calves. The use of infrared thermography videos has the advantage to analyze more than 1 picture per animal in a short period of time, and shows potential as a monitoring system for body temperatures in cattle.

Horses are often stabled in individual boxes, a method that does not meet their natural needs and may cause psychical and musculoskeletal diseases. This problem is particularly evident in Iceland, where horses often spend the long winter periods in cramped boxes. The aim of this study was to analyze the suitability of a group housing system in Iceland, but the results are also applicable to horses of other regions. Eight Icelandic horses were observed in an active stable system, and their behavior and time budget were recorded. Movement and lying behavior were studied with ALT (Activity, Lying, Temperature detection) pedometers. The effect of an automatic concentrate feeding station (CFS) on the horses’ behavior was examined. In the first period of investigation, the horses were fed concentrates manually, and in the second period, they were fed with the CFS. Additional behavioral observations and a determination of social hierarchy occurred directly or by video surveillance. The physical condition of the horses was recorded by body weight (BW) measurement and body condition scoring (BCS). The results showed a significant increase between the first and second trial periods in both the activity (P < 0.001) and the lying time (P = 0.003) of the horses with use of the CFS. However, there was no significant change in BW during the first period without the CFS (P = 0.884) or during the second period with the CFS (P = 0.540). The BCS of the horses was constant at a very good level during both trial periods, and the horses showed a low level of aggression, a firm social hierarchy and behavioral synchronization. This study concludes that group housing according to the active stable principle is a welfare-friendly option for keeping horses and is a suitable alternative to conventional individual boxes.

Housing conditions do not frequently meet the natural needs of horses. German and Swiss studies have shown that merely 16% of horses are kept in group housing systems, but even these vary greatly with different effects on horses' behavior. The objective of the survey was to determine whether horses show increased activity in barns with various options for movements and functional elements. Free movement stables allow horses to live within a herd, to decide whether to be outside or inside the herd, and to enable them fresh air supply. Data from 25 horses kept in three different open barns (O1–O3) were compared with that from two active barns with functional elements (active barn 1 and active barn 2), for example, automatic feeder, with five horses each. Activity-Lying-Temperature-pedometers fastened to a rear leg of each horse were used to measure activity. Animal data were recorded throughout a test period of 10 days per barn. The results showed a median of 46 to 68 mean daily activity impulses per 10 minutes for horses in stables O1 to O3. In stables active barn 1 to active barn 2, this measure was exceeded considerably with medians of 77 and 151. The activity impulses in the stable systems were significantly different at an error level of α = 0.05. These results support previous studies and show that activity of horses depends on their opportunities for moving. The sectioning of a stable, placement of functional elements, and feeding frequency have considerable effects on the activity level of the horse. It is useful to integrate different functional areas in a group housing system.

The body weight of horses is an interesting variable for horse owners, as well as for veterinarians. It is useful to have methods of estimation like weight tape or formula, rather than visual estimation, when a weight scale is not available. Different methods of weight estimation exist for adult horses, but to date, there has been no validation of these methods in Icelandic horses. Therefore, three different methods of weight determination (weight scale, weight tape, and weight formula) were compared in this study to investigate whether it is possible to obtain reliable weight measurements of Icelandic horses by using an estimation method. Both the weight pursuant to weight tape and pursuant to weight formula showed no significant differences ( P = 1.00 and P = 0.37, respectively) from the actual weight. The correlation between estimated and actual weights was r = 0.94 for weight tape and r = 0.93 for weight formula. However, the differences between the estimated and actual weights were smallest when estimated using an adjusted weight formula: weight (kg) = girth² × length (both in cm)/11,400. In conclusion, the body weight of Icelandic horses can be estimated from the measurements of body girth and length, and weight tape also seems to be a suitable method.

In this study, effects of weaning on behavioral and physiological stress parameters in young horses (foals) were determined. Foals were weaned either simultaneously without the presence of adult horses (group A, n = 6), or in the presence of two adult females familiar but unrelated to the foals (group B, n = 5), or weaned consecutively by removing two mother horses per day (group C, n = 6). Behavior, locomotion, salivary cortisol concentration, beat-to-beat (RR) interval, heart rate variability (HRV) and weight were determined. Group A foals lost weight for 2 days (mean ± SEM) - 8.3 ± 1.6 kg, p 0.05. Weaning was followed by increased vocalization which was least pronounced in foals of group B (p 0.05). Locomotion was most pronounced on weaning day in foals of group A and lowest in group B (p 0.05). Weaning increased salivary cortisol concentration on the day of weaning in groups A and B and for 2 days in group C (p 0.05). The RR interval decreased most pronouncedly in group A foals (p 0.05). There were no consistent changes in HRV. Based on cortisol release and behavior, weaning is associated with stress but this was least pronounced in foals weaned in the presence of two familiar but unrelated adult female horses.