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Background The corrosion of drinking water pipe materials can release different elements into tap water. Especially important in this context is the heavy metal lead, which mainly leaches from the peripheral water distribution system. Lead is known to have numerous adverse effects especially to infants and children. Aim and method The aim of this project was to assess the present state of drinking water contamination with lead in Lower Saxony and to promote the replacement of lead pipes. For this purpose a project was initiated comprising three parts. Firstly, a free examination of drinking water was offered in cooperation with local public health departments for private households with young women and families with children living in buildings constructed before 1974. Participants were asked to collect a cold tap water sample in their household after nocturnal stagnation and to complete a questionnaire. The collected samples were analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry for their lead concentration. Secondly, data from local public health departments on results of lead measurements, especially in buildings for the public, were collected and analysed. Finally, a working group 'lead replacement' consisting of representatives of all relevant parties (e.g., tenant and landlord associations, handicraft, building and health administration) was initiated. Results In the project in total 2,901 tap water samples from households were collected between the years 2005 and 2007. Of these, 7.5% had lead concentrations exceeding 10 microg/L (recommended limit of the World Health Organisation) and 3.3% had concentrations above the limit of the German drinking water ordinance (25 microg/L). There were remarkable regional differences in the frequency of tap water contamination. Multi-family houses were more frequently affected than single and double family houses. Additional data were collected in a preceding study in southern Lower Saxony. Of the 1 434 stagnation samples, 3.1% had lead concentrations greater than 10 microg/L and 0.6% had concentrations above the former limit of the German drinking water regulations of 40 microg/L.

Objective.The sterility assurance level of 10−6 is an established standard that defines the quality of sterile products. The aim of the present study was to develop a method that correlated the results from microbial-barrier testing of flexible sterile barrier systems with the estimated microbial challenge that the package encounters during storage and transport.Methods.The effectiveness of microbial-barrier packaging was determined by the use of an exposure chamber test with 20 periodic atmospheric pressure changes of 50 and 70 hPa. Flexible peel pouches were used as sterile barrier systems. The logarithmic reduction value of a sterile barrier system was calculated on the basis of the experimental results and compared with the logarithmic reduction value required for the microbial challenges to maintain sterility during transport and storage.Results.For pouches made of paper and plastic-film material, a logarithmic reduction value of 5.4 was obtained on the basis of 30 of 99 plates becoming nonsterile after being exposed to a 50 hPa difference in periodic atmospheric pressure changes. For pouches made of paper and plastic-film material, a logarithmic reduction value of 5.2 was obtained on the basis of 48 of 100 plates becoming nonsterile after being exposed to a 70 hPa difference in atmospheric pressure. For pouches made of nonwoven and plastic-film material, logarithmic reduction values of 6.38 (ie, 3 of 99 plates became nonsterile after being exposed to a 50 hPa pressure difference) and 6.07 (ie, 3 of the 99 plates became nonsterile after being exposed to a 70 hPa pressure difference) were obtained. Calculating an expected microbial challenge during transport and storage that requires barrier properties corresponding to a logarithmic reduction value of 5.83 and taking the sterility assurance level into account, we found that only the nonwoven pouches fulfilled the European standard EN 556-1.Conclusions.Using the data obtained in a microbial exposure test with a specified flow rate of a bacterial aerosol, we found that the effectiveness of the sterile barrier system against the actual microbial challenge can be examined and evaluated at the sterility assurance level of 10−6.

Objective.We developed a microbiological test to detect the penetration of airborne microorganisms through the packaging of medical products after sterilization, to meet the requirements of European standard EN 556. We applied this test method to transparent pouches.Design.The microbial-barrier properties of the transparent pouches were determined using the microbial challenge test, in which the package was placed inside an exposure chamber and exposed to a defined aerosol of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The atmospheric pressure in the chamber was periodically reduced by 0-75 millibars, to simulate weather-dependent pressure changes. Thermoresistant petri dishes filled with nutrient agar were integrated into the transparent pouches before sterilization. The packages were incubated after exposure. They were then opened and examined for colony growth.Results.The number of recontaminated packages per test group (n = 50) depended on the microbial bioload (defined as the number of colony-forming units per plate) to which the packages were exposed and on the size and number of decreases in atmospheric pressure. Results of multiple regression analysis showed a significant increase in the number of recontaminated packages in correlation with the product of the values for microbial bioload and the size and number of decreases in atmospheric pressure. When we analyzed the probability of recontamination of wrapped medical devices after 2 reductions in atmospheric pressure (30 millibars each) and with a surface microbial load of 10 colony-forming units per 64 cm2, we estimated that the frequency of recontamination was 1: 100,000.Conclusion.Multiple regression analysis showed that the proposed microbial challenge test is suitable to determine the probability of package recontamination at the 1: 1,000,000 level.

Following the discovery of Legionella pneumophila as the etiological agent of Legionnaires' disease, many different serogroups and related species of this bacterium have been detected. A newly developed PCR method was used to generate strain-specific DNA fingerprinting profiles. This method is compared with the results of typing the same isolates with a set of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). To identify different strains of Legionella, the authors used different primers to amplify DNA fragments in crude bacterial lysates to generate banding profiles. The complete Dresden MAb panel contains 98 MAbs related to lipopolysaccharide characteristics. Testing of the isolates was made with these MAbs utilized in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. The authors conclude that a combination of Gottingen direct fluorescent antibody technique and PCR methods can be a useful tool for subtyping L. pneumophila serogroup 5 strains.

Blei hat zahlreiche akut- und chronischtoxische Effekte auf den Menschen. Dies gilt besonders auch fur Kinder. Die Aufnahme von Blei durch das Trinkwasser in Deutschland ist gewohnlich bedingt durch Korrosion von Rohrleitungsmaterialien. In den letzten Jahren und Jahrzehnten sind in Deutschland viele Bleileitungen gegen Rohre aus anderen Materialien ausgetauscht worden. Das Ziel dieser Studie ist es, die aktuelle Trinkwasserbelastung mit Blei zu ermitteln und die Exposition der empfindlichsten Bevolkerungsgruppe, den Kindern, abzuschatzen. Dazu wurde Eltern mit Sauglingen eine kostenlose Untersuchung ihres Trinkwassers angeboten. Es wurden aus jedem mitwirkenden Haushalt zwei verschiedene Tagesmischproben mittels Atomabsorptions-Spektrometrie (AAS) auf Blei untersucht. Insgesamt wurden im Stadtgebiet von Berlin 2109 Haushalte untersucht. Von diesen lagen 5,6% im Tagesprofil 1 bzw. 7,0% im Tagesprofil 2 uber dem WHO-Grenzwert von 0,01 mg/l. Uber dem aktuellen Grenzwert der deutschen Trinkwasserverordnung (0,04 mg/l) lagen 1,0% der Proben in Tagesprofil 1 und 1,3% in Tagesprofil 2. Die hochsten gemessenen Bleikonzentrationen waren 0,19 und 0,13 mg/l in Tagesprofil 1 bzw. 2. Am starksten betroffen waren die Bezirke Charlottenburg, Neukolln, Schoneberg, Wilmerdorf und Zehlendorf, mit jeweils mehr als 10% erhohten (> 0,01 mg/l) Messwerten in einem oder beiden der Tagesprofile.

Outbreaks of Legionnaire's disease present a public health challenge especially because fatal outcomes still remain frequent. The aim of this study was to describe the abundance and epidemiology of Legionellaceae in the human-made environment. Water was sampled from hot- water taps in private and public buildings across the area of Göttingen, Germany, including distant suburbs. Following isolation, we used polymerase chain reaction in order to generate strain specific banding profiles of legionella isolates. In total, 70 buildings were examined. Of these 18 (26%) had the bacterium in at least one water sample. Legionella pneumophila serogroups 1, 4, 5 and 6 could be identified in the water samples. Most of the buildings were colonized solely by one distinct strain, as proven by PCR. In three cases equal patterns were found in separate buildings. There were two buildings in this study where isolates with different serogroups were found at the same time.

To determined precisely a possible connection between the amount of copper in tap-water and the risk of early childhood liver disease, it was attempted through an epidemiological survey, to determine the extent of excessive concentrations of copper in the tap-water of households with copper pipes. Water samples from 956 households were tested for copper, and the state of health of the infants in these households was documented. Infants who had been fed using water with a copper concentration of 0.8 mg/l or more received a paediatric examination with a blood serum analysis to rule out any liver damage. A copper level greater than 0.8 mg/l was found in only 2% of the households examined. Eight infants were examined by a paediatrician and their serum was analysed. These infants had either been breast-fed to the 12th week or had received more than 200 ml of tap water per day during first 12 months. None of the infants examined showed any signs of liver malfunction. From the results of the study, no indication of hazards due to copper pipes connected to public water supplies could be found. (orig.) [German] Um die Moeglichkeit eines Zusammenhangs zwischen dem Kupfergehalt von regulaerem Trinkwasser und dem Risiko einer fruehkindlichen Leberschaedigung zu ueberpruefen, wurde zunaechst eine Erhebung zum Vorkommen ueberhoehter Kupferkonzentrationen im Trinkwasser zentral versorgter Haushalte mit Kupferleitungen durchgefuehrt. 956 Trinkwassermischproben aus ebenso vielen Haushalten wurden auf Kupfer untersucht. Saeuglinge, die Kupferkonzentrationen von mehr als 0,8 mg/l Cu chronisch ausgesetzt waren, wurden kinderaerztlich untersucht, einschliesslich Blutentnahme zur Frueherfassung etwaiger Leberfunktionsstoerungen. In lediglich 2% der untersuchten Haushalte wurden Kupferwerte von mehr als 0,8 mg/l Cu gemessen; acht Saeuglinge waren entsprechend exponiert. Sie waren nur bis zur zwoelften Lebenswoche oder kuerzer gestillt worden oder hatten taeglich mindestens 200 ml Trinkwasser mit mindestens 0,8 mg/l Kupfer waehrend der ersten zwoelf Lebensmonate aufgenommen. Keiner dieser acht Saeuglinge entwickelte Fruehanzeichen einer Leberfunktionsstoerung. Aus unserer Studie laesst sich nach jetzigem Erkenntnisstand ein gesundheitlicher Gefahrenverdacht fuer Kupferleitungen, die an das oeffentliche Trinkwassernetz angeschlossen sind, nicht ableiten. (orig.)

Platinum and palladium belong to the group of platinum elements and thus share many chemical properties. Platinum coordination complexes are known to be carcinogenic and genotoxic in mammalian and bacterial cells. However, little is known about palladium genotoxicity. This study compares and evaluates the genotoxic potential of selected platinum and palladium metal salts in mammalian and bacterial cells using the cytokinesis-block micronucleus test (MNT) with human lymphocytes and the bacterial SOS chromotest. Carboplatin, cisplatin(II), transplantin(II), PtCl4(IV), and K2PtCl4(II) caused a significantly elevated genotoxicity in the MNT and the SOS chromotest. The platinum compounds PtCl2(II) and K2PtCl6(IV), and the divalent palladium salts PdCl2(II), K2PdCl4(II), Pd(NH3)2J2(II), Pd(NH3)4Cl2(II), and transpalladium(II) were not genotoxic in the MNT nor in the SOS chromotest. Therefore, evidence for palladium genotoxicity seems to be low in mammalian and bacterial cells.

The herbicides alachlor, atrazine, terbuthylazine, gluphosinate-ammonium, isoproturon, pendimethaline and trifluralin were tested for genotoxicity in the mouse bone-marrow micronucleus test (MNT). Both atrazine and trifluraline caused a significant increase in the number of micronuclei at doses of 1,400 mg/kg body weight in female mice only. Alachlor, terbuthylazine, gluphosinate-ammonium, isoproturon and pendimethaline did not have any genotoxic effect in the mouse bone-marrow micronucleus test in either female or male animals.

Selected pesticides (aldicarb, 1,3-dichloropropene, methidathion, parathion, triadimefon, vinclozolin) were tested for their clastogenic and aneugenic activities in the mouse bone-marrow micronucleus (MN) test in vivo and for their sister-chromatid exchange-inducing activities in human lymphocytes in vitro in the presence and absence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat-liver S9. 1,3-Dichloropropene significantly increased the frequencies of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (PCE) in bone-marrow cells of female mice from 3.3 MN/1000 PCE to 15.3 MN/1000 PCE (187 mg per kg body weight). 1,3-Dichloropropene (100 microM) induced 16.0 SCE/metaphase after 24 h of incubation as compared with the basal rate of 11.2 SCE/metaphase (-S9) and of 15.4 SCE/metaphase as compared with 10.5 SCE/metaphase of the control (+S9). These values were statistically significantly different from each other. The other pesticides tested did neither increase the rate of micronuclei significantly in polychromatic erythrocytes in male nor in female animals. Aldicarb and methidathion induced a significant increase in SCEs in human lymphocytes in vitro only without the metabolic activating system: aldicarb, 5 microM, 24 h incubation: 15.5 SCE/metaphase; control: 12.6 SCE/metaphase; methidathion, 100 microM, 24 h incubation: 15.8 SCE/metaphase, control: 11.1 SCE/metaphase. Parathion, triadimefon and vinclozolin did not have any SCE-inducing effects.

In drinking water supplies the intake of the toxic heavy metal lead is commonly due to metal corrosion in the peripheral water distribution system, especially the user’s plumbing or lead service lines. Recently, the problem again received attention in the United States when testing data of drinking water at schools was published (Renner 2009). In Europe several countries are known to have significant numbers of buildings with elevated lead tap water concentrations, for example, the United Kingdom (Watt et al. 1996), Austria (Haider et al. 2002) and Germany (Becker et al. 2001). Lead exposure from drinking water has been a topic of public health prevention programs in several parts of Germany before, for example, Hamburg (Fertmann et al. 2004) and Frankfort (Hentschel et al. 1999). In 2005 in the northern German state of Lower Saxony, a prevention program was initiated comprising three different approaches at the same time to achieve a widespread effect. To assess the present state of drinking water contamination with lead, a free examination of lead in tap water (after nocturnal stagnation) was offered in cooperation with local public health departments for private households that included young women and families with children (Zietz et al. 2007, 2009). Along with the collection of data, the program aimed to focus public attention on this public health problem. In another part of this program, data from local public health departments on existing lead measurements, especially in public buildings, were collected and analyzed (Zietz et al. 2007, 2009). Finally, a working group on lead replacement, consisting of representatives of all relevant parties (e.g., tenant and landlord associations, crafts people, building and health administrations) was initiated. In the screening part of the project, a total of 2,901 tap water samples from households were collected during 2005–2007. Of these, 7.5% had lead concentrations > 10 μg/L (recommended limit of the World Health Organization) and 3.3% had concentrations above the present limit of the German drinking water ordinance (25 μg/L) (Zietz et al. 2009). We found remarkable regional differences in the frequency of tap water contamination. An additional inclusion criterion in this study was that buildings must have been constructed before 1974 (after which no new lead pipes were installed); therefore, the results cannot be compared directly to other studies. From the data, we roughly estimated that about 4.7% of all households in Lower Saxony have lead concentrations > 10 μg/L (Zietz et al. 2009). In an earlier study in southern Lower Saxony (Zietz et al. 2001a), households with mothers of newborn babies from the area around the university city of Gottingen were investigated. Of the 1,434 stagnation samples, 3.1% had lead concentrations > 10 μg/L. A moderately higher percentage of households with elevated composite water samples was found in the geographic area of the city of Berlin using two composite water sampling methods (5.6% and 7.0%, respectively. In total, 2,109 households were tested with both methods in the federal state of Berlin (Zietz et al. 2001b). In a representative study of samples collected in all parts of Germany during 1997–1999 (Becker et al. 2001), the 90th percentile of lead concentrations in 4,761 stagnation samples was 7.6 μg/L. Projects in association with epidemiologic investigations also provide an opportunity to design prevention programs in this field. Generally, we favor the precautionary measure of preventing exposure to lead by replacing pipes completely. The addition of anticorrosive substances to the public water supply can be effective in lowering lead concentrations. In contrast, changing water chemistry (e.g., a new water disinfectant method, as in Washington, DC, USA) can have a substantial effect in elevating lead (Renner 2009). Flushing the water pipes and using only cold water are short-term methods of decreasing exposure to lead from tap water. Using bench-top water filters can also decrease lead concentrations, but problems such as leaching of different substances into the water or microbial contamination may arise under certain conditions. Thus, lead plumbing material in buildings still poses a challenge for public health in the United States and in Europe.

Rationale and Objectives Improvements in imaging technology have led to the increased use of computed tomography (CT). For example, micro-CT and quantitative CT (QCT) are now often used in osteoporosis research, in which micro-CT is able to analyze small bones or bone samples with high spatial resolution. In contrast, QCT is able to investigate large samples with low spatial resolution. The aim of this study was to test the usefulness of flat-panel volumetric CT (fpVCT) in a rat model of osteopenia. Material and Methods Twenty-two 3-month-old rats underwent ovariectomy and were either left untreated or supplemented with estradiol for 15 weeks. After sacrificing, the rats' second lumbar vertebral body bone mineral density (BMD) was analyzed using fpVCT and ashing. The results were compared to those of a microstructural analysis of the first lumbar vertebrae and a biomechanical evaluation of the fourth lumbar vertebrae. Results BMD measurements using both fpVCT (0.39 vs 0.35 mg/cm 3 ) and ashing (0.52 vs 0.48 mg/cm 3 ) demonstrated a significant improvement after estradiol supplementation. The correlation coefficient of the two methods was 0.858. After estradiol supplementation, the bone microstructural and bone biomechanical parameters were improved, compared to no treatment. The correlations of both the microstructural and the biomechanical evaluations were closer for BMD measured using fpVCT (r = 0.482–0.769) than on the basis of ashing (r = 0.345–0.573). FpVCT was not able to display the trabecular microstructure of the rat lumbar vertebrae. Conclusion The use of fpVCT demonstrated a close relationship between morphologic and biomechanical evaluations in a rat model of osteopenia. Because of its different proportions, fpVCT might be able to bridge the gap between micro-CT and QCT in analyzing larger animals.

Scrotal and inguinal hernias are of great economic importance to the pig industry. These lesions are thought to result from incomplete closure of the inguinal ring and/or a patent processus vaginalis. Impairment of programmed cell death (PCD) may be involved in these abnormalities. As tissue Ca(2+) overload may be used as a measure of cell death, the aim of this study was to determine the tissue Ca(2+) content in samples of hernia sac, peritoneum, cremaster muscle and aqueous fluid from newborn piglets with scrotal or inguinal hernias (n=18) or cryptorchidism (n=18). Control samples from healthy piglets (n=20) were also evaluated. Tissue Ca(2+) content was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Significantly less Ca(2+) was found in the sacs (0.005 mg/g wt), peritoneal tissue (0.100 mg/g wt) and cremaster muscles (0.008 mg/g wt) of piglets with inguinal or scrotal hernias compared with control tissues (0.184, 0.144 and 0.048 mg/g wt for sacs, peritoneal tissue and cremaster muscles, respectively). These findings suggest that there may be perturbation of the apoptotic pathway in the urogenital tissues of affected piglets.

Farmers are exposed to a complex mixture of airborne substances which can represent a health hazard. Especially animal production on a farm can be a risk factor for respiratory diseases. Most studies in this context focused on bioaerosols, compounds attached to bioaerosols or on gases such as ammonia or hydrogen sulfide. Less attention was paid to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which may also cause respiratory diseases. This pilot study presents results of measuring VOCs in the air of the dwellings and stables, as well as in the outdoor environment, of cattle farms in Northern Germany in spring and autumn. Farmers on all selected farms complained of symptoms such as asthma, rhinitis and conjunctivitis which occurred especially during work in the stable but also in the dwellings. The mean concentration of total VOC (TVOC) for the outdoor environment, the dwellings, and the stables were 100 microg m(-3), 763 microg m(-3), 322 microg m(-3) in spring and 143 microg m(-3), 544 microg m(-3), 595 microg m(-3) in autumn, respectively. There was no significant difference in season. TVOC concentrations in dwellings on farms were elevated when compared to dwellings in other environments, probably because of an additional exposure to fuels and chemicals used in agriculture. Aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds, and terpenes were main compounds of the dwellings and ketones, alcohols, and esters of the stables. Terpene concentrations in the stables were low probably because straw, which was not a strong terpene emitter, was used instead of sawdust as floor covering. Large amounts of methylethylketone were encountered in the air of one stable, probably from animal exhalation caused by increased animal activity. However, it was unlikely that this caused respiratory symptoms. Generally it was likely that the concentrations of VOCs were too low to have health effects on their own. On the other hand, the VOC concentrations were in a multifactor concentration range in which health effects could occur depending on the interaction with other exposure factors. Fungal spores and bacteria were observed in addition to VOCs at the examined locations. Therefore it is possible that the observed VOCs played a role in exacerbating respiratory symptoms in this multifactor exposure.

The long-term toxicity of arsenic (As) as a result of exposure to contaminated drinking water might be modified by coinciding exposures to elements like selenium, antimony, or mercury. In this study the influence of tetravalent selenite, trivalent antimonite, and divalent mercury was investigated in vitro using cultured primary rat hepatocytes. The cell vitality was assessed in the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] (MTT), assay with concurrent exposures of the cells to up to 50 microM sodium arsenite(III) and a potential modifier [50 microM sodium(IV) selenite, 10 microM antimony(III) chloride, 25 microM mercuric(II) chloride], which indicated an additive increase in the combined cytotoxicity. Sodium arsenite was tested for genotoxicity in the micronucleus test in a concentration range of 0.25 up to 7.5 microM. In this range, the MTT conversion was at least 80%, indicating high cell viability. Adose-dependent induction of micronuclei was observed. The lowest concentration causing a significantly elevated frequency of micronuclei was 1 microM As (p0.05). A significant influence (i.e., reduction of the combined genotoxicity as a result of the presence of a potential modifier) was only observed for 10 and 25 microM antimony chloride (p0.05, Fisher's exact test). The metabolic methylation of arsenite was not affected by concurrent incubation with any of the potential modifiers.

Background The microbial barrier properties of 216 sterilization containers of 4 central sterile supply departments of different hospitals were measured using a microbial challenge test. Methods Uncovered thermoresistant plates filled with Sabouraud agar were placed on the base of the containers prior to sterilization. After sterilization, the containers were exposed to a defined microbial aerosol and periodic atmospheric pressure reductions of 10 to 70 hPa in an exposure chamber. After exposure and incubation of the entire containers, colony growth was registered as colony forming units (CFU) on the plates and the control plates to calculate the barrier effectiveness in terms of the logarithmic reduction value (LRV). Results Two out of 11 standard containers with paper filters and 9 out of 79 containers with textile filters showed no growth on the plates. The mean colony numbers were 222 CFU/600 cm 2 (standard container with paper filter) and 209 CFU/ 600 cm 2 (container with textile filter). Fourteen out of 15 containers with permanent plastic filters did not show any growth on the plates. No recontamination was observed in 18 of 111 half-size containers. The mean colony numbers of the recontaminated half-size containers were 110 (paper filter) and 34 CFU per 300 cm 2 (textile filter). The LRVs of the full-size and half-size containers tested ranged between 1.08 and >4. Conclusion As shown in this study, the microbial barrier effectiveness of sterilization containers in the routine clinical setting can be tested with a quantitative microbial challenge test at intervals of 1 year to eliminate defect or ineffective containers as potential causal factors for nosocomial infections. An LRV of >4 should be envisaged as the target assurance level.

Zur Forderung der kindlichen Bewegungsaktivitat dienten sozio-kommunale und verhaltensbezogene Masnahmen. In regularen Unterrichtsstunden von 8- bis 12-jahrigen Kindern (n=316) wurden monatlich Bewegungs- und Spielaktionen uber 2 Jahre durchgefuhrt. Eltern, Lehrer, Vertreter des Jugendamtes und der konfessionellen Einrichtungen trafen sich alle 2 Monate in Kontaktkreisen zur Verbesserung von Spiel- und Freizeitflachen. Die Fragebogenerhebung zeigt, dass subjektiv berichtetes gesundheitliches Befinden mit Bewegungs- und Sozialverhalten sowie mit Ernahrungsweise und Medienkonsum korreliert.

A DNA fingerprinting method for the characterization of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 strains was established. This method was based on the DNA extraction using Chelex 100 and subsequent PCR analysis using primers under conditions of low stringency. Sixteen single primers were tested for the typing of the 10 epidemiologically unrelated reference strains of L. pneumophila serogroup 1 as well as patient isolates and environmental strains isolated from the water system of a hospital where patients with legionellosis were treated. In addition, a combination of two primers (Lpm-1 and Lpm-2) originally established for the specific detection of Legionella strains was tested. The PCR results were compared with two further subtyping methods, i.e. monoclonal antibody analysis and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. The type strains Philadelphia 1, Knoxville 1, Allentown 1, Benidorm 0303E, Bellingham 1, and France 5811 could be distinguished clearly in experiments using all of the primers. Depending on the primer used, Heysham 1 and Oxford 4032E showed different DNA profiles. The strains Olda and Camperdown 1 were nearly indistinguishable. In contrast, the analysis by PFGE and MAb subtyping revealed distinct types for all 10 reference strains. The discrimination of the patient isolates from two suspected cases of nosocomial legionellosis and environmental isolates was not possible with the 16 single primers used in the study. However, the PCR assay with the combination of Lpm-1 and Lpm-2 as well as the PFGE and MAb analysis were able to differentiate distinct types. The use of the sequence-specific primers under low-stringency annealing conditions allowed both simultaneous gene detection as well as epidemiological typing of Legionella strains.

The plague is an infectious bacterial disease having a high fatality rate without treatment. It has occurred in three huge pandemics since the 6th century with millions of deaths and numerous smaller epidemics and sporadic cases. Referring to specific clinical symptoms of pulmonary plague the disease became known as the Black Death. This pandemic probably originated in central Asia and began spreading westward along major trade routes. Upon the arrival in the eastern Mediterranean the disease quickly spread especially by sea traffic to Italy, Greece and France and later throughout Europe by land. Until the 18th century many European cities were frequently affected by other great plague epidemics. The worldwide spread of the third pandemic began when the plague reached Hong Kong and Canton in the year 1894. The gram-negative coccobacillus now designated as Yersinia pestis has been discovered as the causative agent of plague in this Hong Kong outbreak. In the following years the role of rats and fleas and their detailed role in the transmission of plague has been discovered and experimentally verified. Today the plague is still endemic in many countries of the world.

Objectives:To develop a microbial test method to ascertain the passage of airborne bacteria through the medical device packaging System after sterilization, and to apply this test method to flexible packages under mechanical pressure changes.Methods:Petri dishes filled with nutrient agar were integrated into the packaging unit prior to sterilization. We examined paper packaging consisting of 1 (single-paper packaging [P]), 2 (double-paper packaging [PP] and textile and paper double packaging [TP]), and 3 (double packaging with transport packaging [TPP]) layers. After sterilization, the test packages were pressed five times per minute for 1 or 3 hours by a mechanical device weighing 1 kg. This exposure took place in rooms with an average airborne bacterial count of 35 (room 1) or 440 (room 2) CFU/m3. The packaging was opened following culture at 37° C for 48 hours to determine the number of colonies formed.Results:The proportion of contaminated packages rose with the duration of mechanical stress and increased airborne bacteria concentration. Thus, mechanical pressure change for 3 hours resulted in the contamination of 60% (P), 15% (PP), 0% (TP), and 0% (TPP) of the packages in room 1, whereas 100% (P), 65% (PP), 73% (TP), and 0% (TPP) of the packages in room 2 were contaminated.Conclusions:This test method allows sterile packaging Systems to be tested for contamination under practical conditions without extensive laboratory preparation. Contamination as a resuit of laboratory errors can be ruled out almost certainly.

Copper in drinking water has been associated with non-Indian childhood cirrhosis (NICC), a form of liver cirrhosis in childhood. This epidemiological study examines the exposure of infants to increased copper concentrations through drinking water from public water supplies in southern Lower Saxony, Germany, and whether this dietary copper intake causes liver damage in early childhood. In total, water samples from 1674 households with infants were tested for copper. The mean copper concentration was 0.18 mg/L in the 1619 collected stagnation samples and 0.11 mg/L in the 1660 random daytime samples. There were notable regional differences in copper values. In 10.3% of all sampled households a copper value of 0.5 mg/L or more was found. These families were requested to additionally collect 2 composite samples. An increased level of copper in the drinking water with copper concentrations at or above 0.8 mg/L in the composite samples and a defined minimum ingestion of tap water was followed by a recommendation of a pediatric examination. Fourteen infants were examined by a pediatrician and of these 11 received a blood serum analysis. None of the examined infants showed any signs of liver malfunction. From the results of the study, no indication of a hazard due to copper pipes connected to public water supplies could be found.

Copper in drinking water has been associated with Non-Indian Childhood Cirrhosis (NICC), a form of early childhood liver cirrhosis. This epidemiological study examines the exposition of infants to increased copper concentrations through drinking water from public water supplies in Berlin, Germany, and if this dietary copper intake can cause liver damage in early childhood. In total, water samples from 2944 households with infants were tested for copper. Mean copper concentrations in the two different types of collected composite samples were 0.44 and 0.56 mg/l, respectively. Families having a copper concentration at or above 0.8 mg/l in one or both of the composite samples (29.9% of all sampled households) and a defined minimum ingestion of tap water of their infant were recommended to undergo a paediatric examination. Nearly every of the 541 recommended infants were examined by a local paediatrician and of these 183 received a blood serum analysis, too. None of the infants had clear signs of a liver disease although a few serum parameters lay outside the accompanying reference range and abdominal ultrasound imaging gave slightly unusual results in five cases. Additionally, no signs of a negative health effect could be found in the statistical analysis of the serum parameters GOT, GPT, GGT, total bilirubin, serum copper, or ceruloplasmin in relation to estimated daily and total copper intakes of the infants from tap water. No dose relation of serum parameters and estimated copper intakes could be established. From the results of the study, no confirmed indication of a liver malfunction in infants whose food had been prepared using tap water with an elevated copper concentration could be found and, therefore, no indication of a hazard due to copper pipes connected to public water supplies could be detected.

Lead has numerous acute and chronic adverse effects on human beings. This is especially true for infants and children. The main path of lead ingestion in children can be different according to housing and living situation. The intake of lead through drinking water is commonly due to metal corrosion. The users plumbing can be an important factor. In recent years, many lead pipes in Germany have been replaced by pipes made of an alternative material. The aim of this study is to assess the present state of drinking water contamination and the resulting exposure of infants to lead. For this purpose mothers of new-born babies were offered a free examination of their drinking water. After a written declaration of consent had been obtained and after the infant in question had reached an age of 3 months, a stagnation sample of cold tap-water after overnight stagnation together with a random daytime sample was obtained from the family. The collected samples were analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry for their lead concentration. In total, 1485 samples from households were collected. Of the 1434 stagnation samples, 3.1% had lead concentrations greater than 0.01 mg/l (recommended limit of the WHO) and 0.6% had concentrations above the limit of the German drinking water regulation (0.04 mg/l). The values for the 1474 random daytime samples were 2.1% above 0.01 mg/l and 0.2% greater than 0.04 mg/l, respectively. By region, the areas Bovenden, Friedland, Duderstadt, Northeim and Rosdorf were particularly affected. The highest measured concentrations of lead in the stagnation samples were 0.11 mg/l and 0.15 mg/l in the random daytime samples, respectively.

Einleitung Bewegungsfördernde Aktivitäten bei Schulkindern wurden mit organisatorischen Prozessen (Beteiligung von Eltern, Lehrern, Verwaltung) und mit freiraumplanerischen Initiativen verbunden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das gesundheitliche Befinden mit den sozialen, motorischen und emotionalen Verhaltensweisen und den Freiraumbeziehungen korrelieren. Die Vernetzung der Unterrichtsgestaltung mit der Lebenswelt der Kinder wie auch die Einführung partizipativer Organisation zur Gesundheitsförderung wird empfohlen.

Introduction: Clinical parameters for the early diagnosis of a potential development of childhood cirrhosis are not available. A cross-section study was performed to investigate whether the serum copper content and the activities of the newborn's glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) may be associated with the copper contents of the drinking water and/or the maternal serum and thus could serve as early indicator of an elevated health hazard. Material and Methods: The serum concentration of copper was analyzed in samples of 141 mother-newborn pairs. Additionally, in umbilical cord serum the activities of the transaminases GOT and GPT were determined. Low molecular bound or free copper was quantified in 30 randomly chosen serum filtrates. According to questionnaire data, in 62 of the 141 households the drinking water installations consisted of copper. In these cases, the element was analyzed in drinking water. Results: The copper content of the drinking water was found ranging between 0.02 and 2.5 mg Cu/l (median 0.22 mg Cu/l), the maternal serum copper content ranged from 770–3720 μg Cu/l (median 2275 μg Cu/l), the neonatal serum from 220 to 1930 μg Cu/l (median 500 μg Cu/l), respectively. GOT (6–33 U/l); median 14 U/l) and GPT (3–21 U/l; median 6 U/l) activities could be judged as reference range data. In the statistical analysis, an association between the copper content of the drinking water and the maternal or neonatal serum copper content could not be found. Pearson regression analysis revealed slight, yet significant correlations of the neonatal GOT and GPT activities with the maternal serum copper content (GPT: r2 = 0.06; p

OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether DNA damage increased in subjects possibly exposed to high amounts of antineoplastic agents. METHODS: The level of genetic damage was determined in peripheral mononuclear blood cells with the sister chromatid exchange test, the alkaline elution technique, and the cytokinesis block micronucleus test. RESULTS: The supposed increased exposure of the study subjects was caused by a malfunction of a safety hood resulting in leakage of air during preparation of an infusion of an antineoplastic drug. Two months after a new safety hood was installed, the frequencies of micronuclei and sister chromatid exchanges of exposed nurses (n = 10) were still significantly increased when compared with a matched control group (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, one sided Wilcoxon test, respectively). In a second examination seven months later, the frequency of micronuclei had significantly decreased to control values (p < 0.05, one sided Wilcoxon test, n = 6). Moreover, the study subjects who smoked (n = 8) had significantly increased frequencies of micronuclei and sister chromatid exchanges (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, one sided U test, respectively). No differences in the rate of DNA damage could be detected with the alkaline elution technique. CONCLUSIONS: Control measures on the level of biological effect should be performed regularly to ensure maximum safety precautions for workers potentially exposed to genotoxic agents.

The synthetic polycyclic musk fragrance compounds galaxolide (1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-(g)-2-b enzopyrane), tonalide (7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamerthyltetraline), celestolide (4-acetyl-1,1-dimethyl-6-tert-butylindane), phantolide (6-acetyl-1,1,2,3,3,5-hexamethylindane), cashmeran (6,7-dihydro-1,1,2,3,3-pentamethyl-4-(5H) indanone) and traseolide (5-acetyl-1,1,2,6-tetramethyl-3-isopropylindane) were examined for their genotoxicity in the micronucleus test (MNT) with human lymphocytes in vitro in the presence and absence of an exogenous metabolizing system containing rat liver S9 and the metabolically competent human hepatoma cell line Hep G2. Compound concentrations were employed up to cytotoxic doses. Galaxolide, tonalide, celestolide, phantolide, cashmeran and traseolide revealed no genotoxicity in the micronucleus test with human lymphocytes and with the human hepatoma cell line Hep G2.

Part of the northern Palatinate region in Germany is characterized by elevated levels of arsenic and antimony in the soil due to the presence of ore sources and former mining activities. In a biomonitoring study, 218 residents were investigated for a putative increased intake of these elements. Seventy-six nonexposed subjects in a rural region in south lower Saxony were chosen as the reference group. Urine and scalp hair samples were obtained as surrogates to determine the internal exposures to arsenic and antimony. The analyses were performed using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry except for arsenic in urine, which was determined by the hydride technique. This method does not detect organoarsenicals from seafood, which are not toxicologically relevant. In the northern Palatinate subjects, slightly elevated arsenic contents in urine and scalp hair (presumably not hazardous) could be correlated with an increased arsenic content in the soil. On the other hand, the results did not show a correlation between the antimony contents in the soil of the housing area and those in urine and hair. Except for antimony in scalp hair, age tended to be associated with internal exposures to arsenic and antimony in both study groups. Consumption of seafood had a slight impact on the level of urinary arsenic, which is indicative of the presence of low quantities of inorganic arsenicals and dimethylarsinic acid in seafood. The arsenic and antimony contents in scalp hair were positively correlated with the 24-hr arsenic excretion in urine. However, antimony in scalp hair was not correlated with seafood consumption as was arsenic in scalp hair and in urine. This indicated the existence of unidentified common pathways of exposure contributing to the alimentary body burden. Short time peaks in the 24-hr excretion of arsenic in urine, which could not be assigned to a high consumption of seafood, were detected for six study participants. This suggests that additional factors relevant in the exposure to arsenic are still unidentified. Key words : arsenic, antimony, human biomonitoring, scalp hair, urine. Environ Health Perspect 106:33-39 (1998). [Online 2 January 19981 http://ehDnet 1. niehs. nih. aov/doCs/l998/106D33-39aebel/ abstract. html

Five nitro musk compounds are widely used as fragrance ingredients in perfumes, lotions and detergents; as food additives in cigarettes and fish baits, and in such technical products as herbicide formulations and explosives. Several studies identified nitro musk compounds in aquatic environment samples, human milk and fat samples as highly lipophilic and persistent bioaccumulating environmental pollutants. To examine the compounds for genotoxic activity, musk xylene (1-tert.-butyl-3, 5-dimethyl-2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene), musk ketone (4-tert.-butyl-3, 5-dinitro-2, 6-dimethylacetophenone), musk ambrette (l-tert.-butyl-4-methyl-6-methoxy-3, 5-dinitrobenzene), musk moskene (l, 1, 3, 3, 5-pemamethyl-4, 6-di-nitroindane) and musk tibetene (1-tert.-butyl-3, 4, 5-trimethyl-2, 6-dinitrobenzene) were tested for SOS inducing potency in the SOS chromotest with E. coli PQ37 and for sister-chromatid exchange inducing activities in human lymphocytes in vitro both in the presence and absence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-Mix. Nitro musks revealed no genotoxicity either in the SOS chromotest with E. coli PQ37 or in the sister-chromatid exchange test with human lymphocytes.

A part of Northern Palatinate country (Germany) was formerly influenced by mercury mining. Today, in many cases agricultural and housing areas are placed onto or near to former dump grounds of rubble. In the soil of these areas the concentration of mercury, arsenic and antimony was found ranging from basic natural contents up to strongly elevated levels. In a biomonitoring project, sheep bred on grounds contaminated with mercury (range 1-435 mg Hg/kg dry matter), arsenic (range 17-147 mg As/kg dry matter) and antimony (range 2-15 mg Sb/kg dry matter) were taken as example on the uptake of these elements from the environment and for possible effects of this exposure. Significantly elevated mercury levels were found in wool of one collective of exposed sheep (0.107 mg/kg mean vs. 0.048 mg/kg mean, p0.001, U-test). Surprisingly, the arsenic content of wool taken from sheep bred in the urban referential area was approx. 10 times higher than that of the sheep bred on the grounds contaminated with arsenic (0.57 mg/kg mean vs. 0.051 mg/kg mean, p0.001, U-test). In general, element concentrations in the examined blood samples were low and the differences between the collectives were small: mercury was found in concentrations ranging from 0.9 microgram/l up to 2.0 micrograms/l (means), arsenic and antimony were generally found in concentrations below 1 microgram/l. Neither in the alkaline elution technique nor in the sister chromatid exchange (SCE) analysis significant increases in the rate of DNA-damaging effects between the different sheep collectives were detected. This indicates that the transfer rate of genotoxic compounds of mercury, arsenic or antimony from the environment is too low to register effects with AFE and SCE although the soil was highly contaminated.

Naturally occurring substances were tested for genotoxicity using a modified laboratory protocol of the Escherichia coli PQ37 genotoxicity assay (SOS chromotest) in the presence and in the absence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-mix. Aristolochic acid I, II, the plant extract aristolochic acid and psoralene were genotoxic; cycasine, emodine, monocrotaline and retrorsine were classified as marginal genotoxic in the SOS chromotest in the absence of S9-mix. In the presence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-mix aristolochic acid I, the plant extract, beta-asarone, cycasin, monocrotaline, psoralen and retrorsine showed genotoxic effects; aristolochic acid II marginal genotoxic effects. Arecoline, benzyl acetate, coumarin, isatidine dihydrate, reserpine, safrole, sanguinarine chloride, senecionine, senkirkine, tannin and thiourea revealed no genotoxicity in the SOS chromotest either in the presence or in the absence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-mix. For 17 of 20 compounds, the results obtained in the SOS chromotest could be compared to those obtained in the Ames test. It was found that 12 (70.6%) of these compounds give similar responses in both tests (6 positive and 6 negative responses). The present investigation and those reported earlier, the SOS chromotest, using E. coli PQ37, was able to detect correctly most of the Salmonella mutagens and non-mutagens.