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Forty-nine human anti-D (Rho) monoclonal antibodies of the IgG and IgM classes were tested with red blood cells of various nonhuman primates, from anthropoid apes to Prosimians, and significant differences in reactivity were observed among antibodies of two classes depending on taxonomic position of primate animals. By and large, higher percentage of IgM mAbs gave positive reactions with nonhuman primate red cells and, particularly, with blood of lower monkeys: Old and New Worlds monkeys and Prosimians, than did those of IgG class. Allotypic reactions with red cells of African apes were produced by majority of IgG mAbs but by very few IgM reagents. Some of those reactions defined epitopes related to human D, such as chimpanzee Rc and gorilla Dgor. By contrast, individual differences among Old World monkey species were revealed almost exclusively in tests using anti-D mAbs of IgM class. Some of the epitopes detected by these antibodies on the red cells of macaques are related to human D alloantigen, as confirmed by absorption experiments. Differences among mAbs evidenced in tests with nonhuman primate red cells reflect the complexity of the immune reactions to the human D antigen.

The allele frequency distribution of two highly polymorphic DNA sequences was determined in a population from the metropolitan area of Fortaleza (Northeast Brazil). DNAs from 234 individuals were digested with Pvull and successively hybridized to each probe: alpha-Globin 3'HVR and Mucin HVR. The resulting allele frequencies were compared to those observed in a French population. There is no statistically significant difference between these populations in the 3'HVR system. On the contrary, the distribution is statistically different in the Mucin HVR/Pvull system.

The distribution of surnames in France during the period 1916-40 is analysed from the civil birth registers for each of the 36,500 administrative units. The migration rate estimated from surnames is compared with the migration rate obtained from demographic census data. The correlations calculated among the 90 Departments ranges between 0.52 and 0.76 according to the size of the communes. Moreover, the migration rate is shown to be highly correlated with the average coefficient of consanguinity based on dispensations for marriages between relatives. These findings point to the validity and the usefulness of quantifying migrations on the basis of surname data and they show that migration flux and consanguinity are inversely and closely linked.

Resume Cette etude a permis l'analyse des polymorphismes de restriction (RFLP) de l'ADN de 325 individus appartenant a deux populations differentes : 234 bresiliens et 91 Asiatiques. Ces polymorphismes de restriction ont ete obtenus apres digestion de l'ADN avec l'enzyme Pvu II puis par hybridations successives avec deux sondes : alpha globine-3'HVR et Mucin-HVR. Les distributions des frequences alleliques obtenues dans chaque groupe ethnique et pour chaque couple sonde/enzyme, ont ete comparees avec les frequences observees dans la population francaise. Nous demontrons qu'il n'y a pas de difference statistiquement significante entre les populations bresilienne et francaise, en ce qui concerne les frequences alleliques obtenues avec le couple sonde/enzyme 3'HVR/Pvu II et que les deux populations etudiees (asiatique et bresilienne) ne se trouvent pas en equilibre, selon la loi de Hardy-Weinberg.

We have analysed DNAs treated with the restriction enzyme EcoRl from man and various male and female chimpanzees and gorillas by molecular hybridization experiments after probing with the human Y-specific sequence 49f. An autosomal sequence at 2.4 kb is present in humans of both sexes, and a 3.1 kb autoradiographed band (corresponding to 15–20 similar sequences) is present in males only. Hybridization experiments with a panel of man and rodent chromosomes established that the autosomal human 2.4 kb sequence is located on chromosome 3. The autosomal band is expressed, and our hypothesis is that this 2.4 kb sequence was retro-transcribed, during primate evolution, on the Y-chromosome. The patterns of hybridizing 49f fragments are similar between human and chimpanzee males, but differ in gorilla.

Compared to others species Homo sapiens is physically underprivileged as much by his relative weakness than by his lack of natural defense. Only his mental abilities allowed him to cope with the various dangers which threaten him and to rule over the biosphere that he managed to modified for his own benefit. The neolithic revolution which saw the generalization of agriculture and the breeding of animals offered a considerable quantities of resources which lead to a strong demographic growth. All this produced a successions of discoveries which improved his quality of life. Today after an era of quantitative growth the production of the agroalimentary sector enter a qualitative period in which the aim is note only to increase the production of the traditional resources but, by the alteration of the genetic heritage, to improve their properties.

Summary Human anti-D (Rh o ) monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) of the IgG (70) and IgM (27) classes were tested with red blood cells (RBCs) of various non-human primates, from anthropoid apes to New World monkeys. Significant differences in reactivity were observed among antibodies of two classes depending on taxonomic position of primate animals. Only IgM Mabs gave positive reactions (9 out of 18 Mabs) with blood of Old World monkeys. Allotypic reactions with RBCs of African apes were produced by a majority of IgG Mabs but by very few IgM reagents, most of the latter reacting with RBCs of all chimpanzees and all gorillas tested. Eight out of 70 IgG anti-D defined chimpanzee polymorphisms related to chimpanzee R c antigen which is the chimpanzee counterpart of human D antigen. Most of IgG anti-D Mabs (61/70) were found specific of D gor antigen (gorilla counterpart of human antigen D). Most of anti-D which were found negative with all chimpanzee RBCs were also negative with human D IVb RBCs and most of anti-D which agglutinated human D IVb RBCs were positive with some or all chimpanzee blood samples. Differences among Mabs evidenced in tests with non-human primate RBCs reflect the complexity of the immune reactions to the human D antigen. The results obtained with anti-Rh Mabs of specificities other than D confirmed that chimpanzee, gorilla and gibbon express c-like epitopes and that antigens C, E, e are absent in non-human primates.

Microsatellites are tandem repeats of short sequences elements (most often CA repeats) interspersed in many genomes and which frequently show multiallele polymorphism. They have proved invaluable for genomic mapping in man and other species and may be used for evolutionary studies provided that the available primers can be used in different species. The dystrophin gene, which shows high sequence conservation between man, rodents and chicken contains such polymorphic CA repeats. Using the oligonucleotides primers developed for testing the polymorphic CA repeat of the 3'untranslated region of the dystrophin gene in man, we achieved the amplification by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the analogous region in five non human primates species (Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, Macaca tonkeana, Macaca fascicularis, Lemur fulvus). All were proved to possess the CA repeat while intraspecies variations of the microsatellite length was observed in chimpanzees, gorillas and tonkean macaques. As it was demonstrated by sequencing, these length variations depend on the number of CA repeats in the microsatellite.

DNA samples from Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews were studied with Y-chromosome-specific DNA probes p49f and p49a to screen for RFLPs and haplotypes. All 16 European haplotypes were found in Jews, but only 2 of them (VII and VIII) were widespread. Haplotype distributions in the two Jewish populations are similar, but haplotypes XI and XV are more frequent in the Ashkenazim and haplotypes IV and V are more frequent in the Sephardim, indicating their origins.

Six chimpanzee alloimmune antibodies define 20 phenotypes of the R-C-E-F blood group system, the counterpart of the human Rh system. Of the several specificities of this system, the Rc constitutes the crucial link with human Rh since the reactions of some chimpanzee alloimmune anti-Rc sera with human red cells parallel those obtained with human anti-Rho reagents. Reciprocally, properly absorbed human anti-Rho sera detect Rc specificity on chimpanzee red cells. Tests with large panels of human monoclonal anti-D antibodies confirm the notion of shared epitopes between human alloantigen Rho(D) and chimpanzee alloantigen Rc.

The antigenic closeness between the chimpanzee alloantigen Rc of the R-C-E-F system, and the human alloantigen Rho(D) suggests a phyloge-connection between their genes. To confirm at the molecular level the common origin of these genes, genomic DNA from 16 unrelated chimpanzees of various R-C-E-F phenotypes were digested by three restriction enzymes and analyzed by Southern blot using a human Rh cDNA probe and three exon-specific probes. Restrictions profiles displayed reach polymorphism. Correlations between some bands and certain R-C-E-F phenotypes demonstrate that the human Rh cDNA probe defines in chimpanzee genomic DNA some genes of the R-C-E-F system.

Maximum likelihood statistics were applied to the analysis of serological data to confirm the originally proposed genetic models of the chimpanzee R-C-E-F and V-A-B-D systems. Five hundred ninety-nine chimpanzees, including 81 parents of 114 offspring, were tested for R-C-E-F, and 60 parents of 80 offspring were tested for V-A-B-D blood groups. An estimation-maximization procedure was used to obtain maximum likelihood estimates and support intervals of the haplotype frequencies. For each haplotype, the null hypothesis of nonexistence was evaluated. The frequencies obtained by this method do not differ significantly from those calculated by the square root formula, but put these estimates on a statistically more rigorous footing.

Serum samples from 245 apes (184 Pan troglodytes, five Pan paniscus, 28 Gorilla gorilla, 23 Pongo pygmaeus abelei, and five Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) were tested for G1m (1,2,3,17), G2m (23), and G3m (5,6,10,11,13,14,15,16,21,24,28) immunoglobulin allotypes by the classical method of inhibition of hemagglutination. Some phenotypes are species specific while a few are shared by man and African apes.

The reactivities of three human anti-D monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with human, chimpanzee, and gorilla red blood cells (RBCs) were compared by quantitative radioimmunology and indirect immunofluorescence methods. The number of antigenic sites varies widely in gorillas (from 48,000-283,000), while in chimpanzees this number is very close to that observed in human R1R2 RBCs. The affinity of the anti-D antibodies was slightly lower with ape RBCs than with D-positive human RBCs. In chimpanzee, the D-like epitopes recognition is enhanced by papain while the gorilla D-like epitopes are destroyed by enzyme treatment.

The allele frequency distribution of two highly polymorphic DNA sequences was determined in a population from the metropolitan area of Fortaleza (Northeast Brazil). DNAs from 234 individuals were digested with Pvull and successively hybridized to each probe: alpha-Globin 3'HVR and Mucin HVR. The resulting allele frequencies were compared to those observed in a French population. There is no statistically significant difference between these populations in the 3'HVR system. On the contrary, the distribution is statistically different in the Mucin HVR/Pvull system.

Human alloantibodies specific of some Rh antigens cross-react with non human primates red blood cells. These crossreactions demonstrated that only African apes express equivalents of Rho (D) and hr' (c). The antigenic resemblance between these two human antigens and their primate homologues is confirmed by the reactivities of human anti-D and anti-c monoclonal antibodies. The use of a human Rh cDNA probe allowed to confirm by Southern blot hybridization that nonhuman primates possess Rh-like genes. The number of Rh-like genes per haploid genome was deduced from the results obtained with exon-specific probes.

SUMMARY Immunoglobulin allotypes were studied in a peculiar Breton community, the Bigoudens. Results showed that the incidence of the common Gm and Km phenotypes fell into the ranges quoted for Caucasian populations, except for the Gm1;…5,10,11,13,14 and Gm1,2;…5,10,11,13,14. The frequencies were found to be significantly different from those of non-Bigouden Breton neighbouring controls.

Serum protein groups and red blood cell enzymes were studied in a population of 125 unrelated Chinese men and women of the Macao Region. In most systems the results were similar to those already reported, but differencies were found in the GPT system.

Highly repeated DNA sequences from man, five other primate species and rat were compared using five restriction endonucleases. Calculations of a similarity index based on the mobility of various bands indicate that man, chimpanzee and baboons are very similar. The sequences of the genomes studied have apparently been reorganized during primate evolution.

A random sample of the Bigoudens community was tested for 16 genetic markers. The existence of silent alleles had to be postulated more often than usual although no minus-minus phenotype was observed. Four explanations may be put forward for this apparent contradiction: selection pressure for homozygosity, inbreeding, true silent alleles and random genetic drift between and within the villages. The degree of inbreeding is unlikely to be high enough to account for our data and some of the silent alleles postulated are not thought to exist. We therefore favour the explanation of genetic differentiation and the so-called Wahlund effect.

Analysis of the evolutionary conservation and change of Y chromosome-specific sequences in Man and primate species might give useful information concerning the origin and potential importance of such sequences of unknown function. We analysed DNAs treated with Bam Hl from a male and a female chimpanzee after hybridization with various Y-specific human probes. The presence of the same male-female differential pattern in chimpanzee and Man (as the 3.7 kb restriction fragment after hybridization with the 50 f probe) indicates that the corresponding fragments correspond to a sequence which was present in the Y chromosome before divergence between the two species. Other comparative patterns are seen in this study: (i) Y sequences Man-specific (as the 1 kb band with the 36 a probe); (ii) Y sequences primate-specific (as the > 23 kb band with the 49 f probe); (iii) Y sequences of one given category, but with alteration of external Bam Hl sites, which determine a modification in the length of the restriction fragment autoradiographed (as the 6.1 kb band with the 118 probe). The conservation of the hybridization signal between Man and other primate species could suggest that the corresponding sequences are functionally important.

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms of factor VIII gene have been compared between man and chimpanzee. Sequences of the gene are conserved in primate evolution, and variable Bcl I and Bgl I alleles in man are fixed in the chimpanzee. A frequent Taq I polymorphism is described in the chimpanzee, corresponding to alleles fixed in man

This study concerned 260 individuals of the Chinese population of Macau. The analysis of blood groups ABO, Rhesus, Kidd, Duffy, MNSs and Diego was performed. The Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium was only attained for the one locus system (Duffy and Kidd) because they are probably not sufficiently strong to demonstrate a disequilibrium. For the other systems, the observed imbalance was always caused by an excess of homozygotes. Several hypotheses were studied to explain these results.

Highly repeated DNA satellite α sequences from man and chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes ) have been compared, using restriction endonucleases. The two species share a 340 base pairs tandemly represented DNA, that is cut once by Eco Rt. Pan troglodytes differ from man by loss of the two Mbo I and Eco RI star sites and by the gain of an Hae III site in the repeated sequence.

Eco RI restriction fragments of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) from different primate species and the rat were hybridized using identical conditions with the human HLA 32 P probe of Sood. After agarose gel electrophoresis and Southern Blot analysis, all gave a positive autoradiographic signal. The similarity between these species reflects a common genomic structure and conservation of MHC. A tentative arrangement of the different species is proposed according to the similarities in blotting patterns: man, baboon, marmoset, lemurian and rat.

The genomic probe CB1 recognizes sites of simple sequence homotogy between the human X and Y chromosomes. DNAs restricted with Eco RI from the great apes ( Pan and Gorilla ) were examined for sequences homologous to this probe, by molecular hybridization experiments. Results reported here revealed, by genetic dosage with sex and using an internal standard, that the great apes have homologous sequences of this probe only on their X chromosome. Consequently, the corresponding sequences were transposed from the X to the Y chromosomes after the human line diverged. Comparative patterns of the sequence restricted by 10 restriction enzymes between woman and man show that the transposition is of recent origin.

A sample of 320 Aka pygmies was studied for ABO, Rhesus, Kell, Duffy Kidd, MNSs, Lutheran and Colton blood group antigens. The results show that the Aka pygmies have the blood group characteristics of black people: a high frequency of R o haplotype, a high proportion of U negative, fy (a-b-) people, a low frequency of K gene. All these results confirm that African pygmies can be considered as a very ancient population from Africa and possibly have a common origin with African people.

We have analyzed DNAs treated with the restriction enzymes Eco RI, Taq I and Bcl I from various male and female chimpanzees and gorillas after hybridization with Y-specific human probes 49f and 49a. After Eco RI restriction, the patterns of hybridizing 49f fragments are similar between human and chimpanzee males, but differ in gorilla. Probe 49a is more Y-specific because only Y fragments are revealed, with an Eco RI pattern differing between the three species. After Taq I restriction, some 49f fragments are conserved between the chimpanzee and the human (fragments B, G, K, L, M, N, O and R); chimpanzee and man are different from other primates (the corresponding chimpanzee bands are E0, H′, J0, P′ and Q′), for polymorphic bands in human, chimpanzee is A3, C1, F1 and I1; chimpanzee is also polymorphic for bands F′, H, and one individual is AOD1. After Bcl I restriction, this same last individual is also polymorphic for bands 11-8.2 kb. Primitive alleles predicted using a previousmodel were A3, D1, F1 and I1.

Variants of NADH-diaphorase have been studied among several groups of natural populations of Papio papio from Senegal. At this locus homozygosity is increased and the level of inbreeding is very high ( F = 0.67). Our results parallel those on other Papio species and it seems plausible to assume that group organization influencnes these parameters.

In the Primate species the first haptoglobin gene which appears is the Hp-Related (HpR) gene, in new-world monkeys. A first duplication give the Hp1 allelic gene, which appears in Cercopithecoids (baboons); at the same time HpR is duplicated to give HpR', which is baboon specific. Only HpR and Hp1 genes are represented in the chimpanzee. Our own species is characterized by the Hp2 allele appearance.

Comparative analysis of two antisera, one produced in chimpanzee and another of human origin, demonstrates the existence of the whole spectrum of antibodies directed against at least four, and possibly five, antigenic determinants connected with the Rh reactivity. Some of the determinants are shared by chimpanzee and human red cells, while others are restricted to one species only. Based on this study, it is suggested that both the human Rh(D)-positive type and its chimpanzee counterpart, the Rc-positive type, could be of common origin, while the negative types are the results of later, parallel events during the evolution.

According to Jean de Grouchy, the emergence of a new species is dependent on an "acceptable" chromosomic rearrangement, which passing from the heterozygous state (in the original bearer) to the homozygous state (in some of his enbred offspring) becomes definitively established and creates a population sexually isolated from its acestors. He is thus using the idea of karyotype to develop the typological theory put forward at the beginning of the century which postulates that a single mutant is at the origin of a new species. Although he gives an important place to chromosomic rearrangements in the sexual isolation of a new species, J. Ruffié demonstrates by arguments taken from population genetics and from the immunological polymorphism of wild populations that speciation is almost always the result of the evolution of an entire group, which, because of geographic isolation, drift, and differential selection, diverges from the ancestral branch and finally becomes totally incapable of breeding with it. He proposes a model of speciation which includes the two processes population and cytologic. At a first step, the group is isolated geographically and continues its independent evolution; the second step consists of chromosomic recombinations which render the sexual isolation complete. The modifications of the karyotype make the process of speciation irreversible.

The comparative immunogenetic studies of blood groups in primates, including man, which are the fruits of 15 years of collaboration between the French groups at College de France, Paris, and the American group at the Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and Surgery in Primates (LEMSIP) of the New York University School of Medicine, have allowed a better understanding of certain important aspects of the evolutionary mechanisms.

Data are presented on the red cell enzymes of the Bigoudens. Deviations fro the expected Hardy-Weinberg distribution are interpreted as the result of a recent mixing of previously separated groups, in addition to the effect of silent alleles and inbreeding. Special reference to the historical background.

The authors describe the results obtained in an examination by isoelectrofocusing of more than 1,000 serum samples from various regions in France. The autochthonous populations of the north side of the Pyrénées are characterized by a high frequency of the gene Gc2 and a very low frequency of the Gc1F gene. This distinguishes them from the other groups studied (southwestern, northwestern and eastern France). The quantitative analysis of the data emphasizes the difference. These results can only be explained by the interdependance of the genetic and metabolic factors.

Summary Data are presented on the blood groups of the Bigoudens. Deviations from the expected Hardy-Weinberg distribution are interpreted as the result of a recent mixing of previously separated groups, in addition to the effect of silent alleles and inbreeding. Special reference to the historical evidence of their origin is made.