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Purpose: Use of alternative footwear options such as flip-flop style sandals and minimalist athletic shoes are becoming increasingly popular footwear choices. The purpose of the investigation was to analyze the energy expenditure and oxygen consumption requirements of walking at preferred pace while wearing flip-flops, slip-on style shoes, and minimalist athletic shoes. Methods: Eighteen healthy male adults participated in this study. In addition to an initial familiarization session, participants were tested in three different footwear conditions [thong-style flip-flops (FF), Croc® slip on shoes (CROC), and Vibram Fivefingers® minimalist shoes (MIN)]. Then after a brief warm-up, participants walked a one-mile distance at their preferred pace. Immediately following completion of the one-mile walk, participants stood quietly on the treadmill for an additional period to assess excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). Results: A repeated-measures ANOVA that the following variables did not show evidence of a significant differently value between conditions: preferred pace (p = 0.392), average oxygen consumption (p = 0.804), energy expenditure per mile (p = 0.306), or EPOC (p = 0.088). There was shown to be a significantly higher RER during exercise in CROC compared to MIN (p = 0.031) with no significant differences observed when comparing CROC to FF (p = 0.106) or FF to MIN (p = 0.827). Conclusion: Based on the results of the current study, it appears that the alternative footwear selected for evaluation do not lead to a substantial alteration of walking pace or overall EE. However, the significant difference in RER suggesting a slightly elevated exercise intensity while wearing the CROC could perhaps be related to the softer sole, influencing overall mechanical efficiency. The study was funded by a grant awarded by the Graduate Student Council at the author’s University.

The purpose of this study was to examine changes in physical activity and fitness variables in members of 8 volunteer families after 3 months of home use of the Wii Fit™ interactive video game. Pre and postintervention measurements were obtained from 21 subjects relative to physical activity (5 days of accelerometry), aerobic fitness (graded treadmill test), muscular fitness (push-ups), flexibility (sit-and-reach test), balance (composite equilibrium score), and body composition (body mass index and % body fat). Use characteristics of the Wii Fit™ device were also determined. A series of 2 (age group) × 2 (time) repeated measures analyses of variance were conducted to assess changes over time and between adults and children. Three months of home Wii Fit™ use revealed no significant age group × time interactions or main effects of group or time for daily physical activity, muscular fitness, flexibility, balance, or body composition. An age group × time interaction (p = 0.04) was observed in peak VO2 (ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) with children displaying a significant (p = 0.03) increase after 3 months of Wii Fit™ use, whereas adults showed no significant (p = 0.50) change. Daily Wii Fit™ use per household declined by 82% (p < 0.01) from 21.5 ± 9.0 min·d(-1) during the first 6 weeks to 3.9 ± 4.0 min·d(-1) during the second 6 weeks. Most measures of health-related fitness in this exploratory study remained unchanged after 3 months of home use of the popular Wii Fit™ whole-body movement interactive video game. Modest daily Wii Fit™ use may have provided insufficient stimulus for fitness changes.

Background: Safe and effective exercise programs are needed to prevent and treat chronic diseases in childhood. In particular, preadolescent obese children should participate in activities that are specific to their special needs. Resistance or strength training has been prescribed for adult obese persons. Research is limited concerning the use of resistance training in programs that treat obese preadolescents. Methods: Nineteen treatment subjects (7-12 years of age) were enrolled in a 1 O-week weight management program which included diet, behavior modification, and aerobic and flexibi lity exercises. Forty-eight control subjects (7-12 years of age) participated in the diet, behavior modification program, and a thrice-a-week walking program. The efficacy of the overall weight management program was examined by anthropometry at 10 weeks and 1 year. Results: Fifteen treatment subjects completed the 10-week program (retention rate, 78.9%). Thereafter compliance decreased by approximately 33% for the long-term study. Seventeen control subjects completed the program (retention rate, 35%). Weight, percent of ideal body weight, and body mass index were reduced significantly at 10 weeks (P and did not increase significantly at 1-year follow-up in both treatment and control groups. Height increased significantly at 1 year in both treatment and control subjects. In the treatment subjects, percent fat decreased significantly (p P > 0.05). Conclusions: A resistance-training program may be included safely in a multidisciplinary weight management program for obese preadolescent male and female children. The addition of specific exercise regimes such as resistance training may improve program retention especially in severely obese youth.

We compared the energy expenditure to walk or run a mile in adult normal weight walkers (NWW), overweight walkers (OW), and marathon runners (MR). The sample consisted of 19 NWW, 11 OW, and 20 MR adults. Energy expenditure was measured at preferred walking speed (NWW and OW) and running speed of a recently completed marathon. Body composition was assessed via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Analysis of variance was used to compare groups with the Scheffe's procedure used for post hoc analysis. Multiple regression analysis was used to predict energy expenditure. Results that indicated OW exhibited significantly higher (p0.05) mass and fat weight than NWW or MR. Similar values were found between NWW and MR. Absolute energy expenditure to walk or run a mile was similar between groups (NWW 93.9 ± 15.0, OW 98.4 ± 29.9, MR 99.3 ± 10.8 kcal); however, significant differences were noted when energy expenditure was expressed relative to mass (MRNWWOW). When energy expenditure was expressed per kilogram of fat-free mass, similar values were found across groups. Multiple regression analysis yielded mass and gender as significant predictors of energy expenditure (R = 0.795, SEE = 10.9 kcal). We suggest that walking is an excellent physical activity for energy expenditure in overweight individuals that are capable of walking without predisposed conditions such as osteoarthritis or cardiovascular risk factors. Moreover, from a practical perspective, our regression equation (kcal = mass (kg) × 0.789 - gender (men = 1, women = 2) × 7.634 + 51.109) allows for the prediction of energy expenditure for a given distance (mile) rather than predicting energy expenditure for a given time (minutes).

The association of age and weekly swim training distance with body water, lean tissue, fat mass and regional adiposity was examined in 27 male masters swimmers. Subjects ranged in age from 25.3 to 73.1 years (mean age = 47.7 ± 11.1 years). Weekly swim distances, estimated from self-reported swim logs, were from 3 400 to 17 500 m and averaged 10 016 ± 4 223 m. Total body water (TBW), and extracellular water (ECW) were predicted from multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis and intracellular water was estimated by difference. Lean soft tissue, bone mineral content, fat mass, and percent body fat were estimated from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Measures of skinfold thickness, waist circumference, and abdominal sagittal diameter provided an indication of regional adiposity. Total body water, ECW, and ICW mean values (ranges) were as follows: 47.4 ± 4.6 L (37.9-56.9 L), 19.6 ± 1.8 L., (16.4-24.8 L), and 27.8 ± 3.2 L (21.5-34.4 L). Mean percent body fat levels were 21.9 ± 6.6% and ranged from 10.3 to 34.9%. Age was negatively associated with ICW (p = 0.02) and with the ICW/TBW ratio (p = 0.00). Multiple-linear regression analysis backward method suggested that both lean tissue and fat mass were predictors of ICW although the association with fat mass did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.00 and p = 0.06 for lean and fat mass respectively). There was a tendency for greater lower abdominal thickness with increasing age (p = 0.08), but no other associations were observed between age or with swimming and body composition variables. Changes in ICW and the ration of ICW to TBW appeared to be the strongest marker of aging in this group of adult male competitive swimmers. Key PointsSubject age was negatively associated with the volume of intracellular water and with the intracellular-to-total body water ratio.There was a trend for age to be positively related to lower abdominal thickness.Weekly swim training distance was not associated with body water, lean tissue, fat mass or regional adiposity.Lean tissue mass appeared to be a strong positive predictor of total body water and the intra- and extracellular fractions.There was a trend for fat mass to be a negative predictor of intracellular water volume.

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship and comparisons of athletic amenorrhea and bone mineral density in adolescent, cross-country runners. Subjects: Twenty-eight female adolescent cross-country runners (Mean Age + SD = 15.0 + 1.3 years); consisting of seventeen eumenorrheics & eleven amenorrheics. Design: The design consisted of a sixmonth longitudinal design in which the subjects were measured before and after cross-country season for height, weight, and lean tissue (LT), body fat (BF), bone mineral content (BMC), and bone mineral density (BMD) using whole-body scan densitiometry with a Lunar Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometer (DXA). Run performance, weekly training volumes, menstrual dysfunction, menarchal age, nutritional information, and stress fractures were reported by the subjects. Statistical analyses consisted of Pearson product-moment and partial correlations to examine the associations of the variables, paired t-tests to measure seasonal body composition changes, multivariate analysis (MANOVA & MANCOVA) to investigate the subgroup differences of variables, and simple linear regression to determine the best body composition predictor variable for BMD. Results: The eumenorrheic subgroup's BMD was significantly greater than the amenorrheic subgroup's BMD (F(1, 54) = 16.22, p

Researchers have investigated the effect of exercise on reducing subjects' responsiveness to stress. Results from the initial studies were positive, yet these studies often did not use objective measures of fitness. This investigation applied more rigorous methodology than past experiments to assess the relationship between fitness and reactivity to stress. Maximal oxygen consumption was measured to indicate the fitness of recreational cyclists who were then exposed to three stressful situations (mental subtraction, speech preparation, and the cold pressor test). Heart rate, frontalis electromyographic (EMG) levels, and self-report of tension were monitored during the stress-inducing tasks. Physical fitness was significantly related to heart rate taken during the subtraction and cold pressor tasks, with EMG during subtraction, and with self-report during all three stressor tasks. These results further support the hypothesized association of physical fitness and reducing response to stress.

Aerobic forms of exercise have been suggested as one approach to reducing the costly effects of excessive or chronic stress, yet the results of some studies related to this assumption have been mixed. The purpose of this study was to estimate the correlation between emotional states and fitness level among 8 women and 9 men who were recreational cyclists. Fitness was determined by cycle ergometric testing (VO2 max). Psychometric measures included the short version of the Beck Depression Inventory, the internal portion of the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale, Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Self-control Questionnaire. Significant correlations were observed between fitness and the depression scores, internal locus of control, and self-control measures. These results tend to support previous findings regarding the possible link between physical fitness and improved emotionality.

(1988). The Eating and Exercise Behavior Questionnaire: A Validity Assessment. Health Education: Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 6-11.

A comparison of pulmonary, cardiovascular and metabolic responses was made in 32 subjects consisting of 11 able-bodied, 8 paraplegics (T4-L3 lesions) and 13 quadriplegics (C5-C8 lesions) during maximal arm cranking exercise. A progressive continuous arm cranking test, modified for each group, was employed to elicit maximal responses with pulmonary and metabolic determinations made with open circuit spirometry and selected cardiovascular measurements made by impedance cardiography. Additionally, non-exercise static and dynamic lung function assessments were made. Quadriplegics had significantly lower (p less than 0.05) tidal volumes, vital capacities, forced expiratory volumes at 1 seconds, and maximal breathing capacities than the other two groups. The mean peak VO2 during maximal arm cranking was 28.2, 25.3 and 12.0 ml/kg.min for the able-bodied (AB), paraplegics (PP) and quadriplegics (QP), respectively. Furthermore, reduced cardiovascular function was observed in the QP as evident in the low peak HR (109 b/min), peak SV (52 ml/b) and peak Q (5.7 l/min). Values for the QP were 64% and 64% peak HR, 89% and 50% peak SV and 54% and 33% peak Q of values observed for the PP and AB groups, respectively. The peak SV and Q values were significantly lower (P less than 0.05) for the PP group when compared with the AB group. Although not statistically significant the estimated a-v O2 difference was higher for both spinal cord injured groups (14.0 and 14.6 ml O2/100 ml, PP and QP respectively). The impaired work capacity and reduced oxygen transport and utilisation of the QP group can be attributed to impaired sympathetic cardiac stimulation and a smaller available active muscle mass.