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Numerous host factors of SARS-CoV-2 have been identified by screening approaches, but delineating their molecular roles during infection and whether they can be targeted for antiviral intervention remains a challenge. Here we use Perturb-seq, a single-cell CRISPR screening approach, to investigate how CRISPR interference of host factors changes the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the host response in human lung epithelial cells. Our data reveal two classes of host factors with pronounced phenotypes: factors required for the response to interferon and factors required for entry or early infection. Among the latter, we have characterized the NF-κB inhibitor IκBα (NFKBIA), as well as the translation factors EIF4E2 and EIF4H as strong host dependency factors acting early in infection. Overall, our study provides high-throughput functional validation of host factors of SARS-CoV-2 and describes their roles during viral infection in both infected and bystander cells.

Expanding the human proteome Using mass spectrometry, ribosome profiling, and several CRISPR-based screens, Chen et al. identified hundreds of previously uncharacterized functional micropeptides in the human genome (see the Perspective by Wei and Guo). Protein translation outside of annotated open reading frames (ORFs) in messenger RNAs and within ORFs in long noncoding RNAs is pervasive. A functional screen using CRISPR-Cas9 with single-cell transcriptomics suggested critical roles for hundreds of micropeptides. Micropeptides encoded by multiple short, upstream ORFs form stable protein complexes with the downstream canonical proteins encoded on the same messenger RNAs. Science , this issue p. 1140 ; see also p. 1074

SARS-CoV-2 infection of human cells is initiated by the binding of the viral Spike protein to its cell-surface receptor ACE2. We conducted a targeted CRISPRi screen to uncover druggable pathways controlling Spike protein binding to human cells. We found that the protein BRD2 is required for ACE2 transcription in human lung epithelial cells and cardiomyocytes, and BRD2 inhibitors currently evaluated in clinical trials potently block endogenous ACE2 expression and SARS-CoV-2 infection of human cells, including those of human nasal epithelia. Moreover, pharmacological BRD2 inhibition with the drug ABBV-744 inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in Syrian hamsters. We also found that BRD2 controls transcription of several other genes induced upon SARS-CoV-2 infection, including the interferon response, which in turn regulates the antiviral response. Together, our results pinpoint BRD2 as a potent and essential regulator of the host response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and highlight the potential of BRD2 as a novel therapeutic target for COVID-19.

Diverse CRISPR–Cas systems protect prokaryotes against invasive genetic elements like phages. A new study finds that evolution has fused a multi-subunit CRISPR complex into a single protein that cuts RNA and interacts with an ancillary caspase-like peptidase, which may trigger cell suicide.

A general approach for heritably altering gene expression has the potential to enable many discovery and therapeutic efforts. Here, we present CRISPRoff-a programmable epigenetic memory writer consisting of a single dead Cas9 fusion protein that establishes DNA methylation and repressive histone modifications. Transient CRISPRoff expression initiates highly specific DNA methylation and gene repression that is maintained through cell division and differentiation of stem cells to neurons. Pairing CRISPRoff with genome-wide screens and analysis of chromatin marks establishes rules for heritable gene silencing. We identify single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) capable of silencing the large majority of genes including those lacking canonical CpG islands (CGIs) and reveal a wide targeting window extending beyond annotated CGIs. The broad ability of CRISPRoff to initiate heritable gene silencing even outside of CGIs expands the canonical model of methylation-based silencing and enables diverse applications including genome-wide screens, multiplexed cell engineering, enhancer silencing, and mechanistic exploration of epigenetic inheritance.

Summary Bacteria and archaea employ adaptive immunity against foreign genetic elements using CRISPR-Cas systems. To generate immunological memory, the Cas1-Cas2 protein complex captures 30–40 base pair segments of foreign DNA and catalyzes their integration into the host genome as unique spacer sequences. Although spacers are inserted strictly at the A-T-rich leader end of CRISPR loci in vivo, the molecular mechanism of leader-specific spacer integration remains poorly understood. Here we show that the E. coli integration host factor (IHF) protein is required for spacer acquisition in vivo and for integration into linear DNA in vitro. IHF binds to the leader sequence and induces a sharp DNA bend, allowing the Cas1-Cas2 integrase to catalyze the first integration reaction at the leader-repeat border. Together, these results reveal that Cas1-Cas2-mediated spacer integration requires IHF-induced target DNA bending and explain the elusive role of CRISPR leader sequences during spacer acquisition.

The application of the CRISPR-Cas9 system for genome engineering has revolutionized the ability to interrogate genomes of mammalian cells. Programming the Cas9 endonuclease to induce DNA breaks at specified sites is achieved by simply modifying the sequence of its cognate guide RNA. Although Cas9-mediated genome editing has been shown to be highly specific, cleavage events at off-target sites have also been reported. Minimizing, and eventually abolishing, unwanted off-target cleavage remains a major goal of the CRISPR-Cas9 technology before its implementation for therapeutic use. Recent efforts have turned to chemical biology and biophysical approaches to engineer inducible genome editing systems for controlling Cas9 activity at the transcriptional and protein levels. Here, we review recent advancements to modulate Cas9-mediated genome editing by engineering split-Cas9 constructs, inteins, small molecules, protein-based dimerizing domains, and light-inducible systems.

Bacteria and archaea possess a range of defense mechanisms to combat plasmids and viral infections. Unique among these are the CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR associated) systems, which provide adaptive immunity against foreign nucleic acids. CRISPR systems function by acquiring genetic records of invaders to facilitate robust interference upon reinfection. In this Review, we discuss recent advances in understanding the diverse mechanisms by which Cas proteins respond to foreign nucleic acids and how these systems have been harnessed for precision genome manipulation in a wide array of organisms.

Bacteria and archaea generate adaptive immunity against phages and plasmids by integrating foreign DNA of specific 30–40 base pair (bp) lengths into clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) loci as spacer segments1–6. The universally conserved Cas1–Cas2 integrase complex catalyzes spacer acquisition using a direct nucleophilic integration mechanism similar to retroviral integrases and transposases7–13. How the Cas1–Cas2 complex selects foreign DNA substrates for integration remains unknown. Here we present X-ray crystal structures of the Escherichia coli Cas1–Cas2 complex bound to cognate 33 nucleotide (nt) protospacer DNA substrates. The protein complex creates a curved binding surface spanning the length of the DNA and splays the ends of the protospacer to allow each terminal nucleophilic 3′–OH to enter a channel leading into the Cas1 active sites. Phosphodiester backbone interactions between the protospacer and the proteins explain the sequence-nonspecific substrate selection observed in vivo2–4. Our results uncover the structural basis for foreign DNA capture and the mechanism by which Cas1–Cas2 functions as a molecular ruler to dictate the sequence architecture of CRISPR loci.

Bacteria and archaea insert spacer sequences acquired from foreign DNAs into CRISPR loci to generate immunological memory. The Escherichia coli Cas1–Cas2 complex mediates spacer acquisition in vivo, but the molecular mechanism of this process is unknown. Here we show that the purified Cas1–Cas2 complex integrates oligonucleotide DNA substrates into acceptor DNA to yield products similar to those generated by retroviral integrases and transposases. Cas1 is the catalytic subunit, whereas Cas2 substantially increases integration activity. Protospacer DNA with free 3'-OH ends and supercoiled target DNA are required, and integration occurs preferentially at the ends of CRISPR repeats and at sequences adjacent to cruciform structures abutting A-T rich regions, similar to the CRISPR leader sequence. Our results demonstrate the Cas1–Cas2 complex to be the minimal machinery that catalyzes spacer DNA acquisition and explain the significance of CRISPR repeats in providing sequence and structural specificity for Cas1–Cas2-mediated adaptive immunity.

Targeted and inducible regulation of mammalian gene expression is a broadly important research capability that may also enable development of novel therapeutics for treating human diseases. Here we demonstrate that a catalytically inactive RNA-guided CRISPR-Cpf1 nuclease fused to transcriptional activation domains can up-regulate endogenous human gene expression. We engineered drug-inducible Cpf1-based activators and show how this system can be used to tune the regulation of endogenous gene transcription in human cells. Leveraging the simpler multiplex capability of the Cpf1 platform, we show that we can induce both synergistic and combinatorial gene expression in human cells. Our work should enable the creation of other Cpf1-based gene regulatory fusion proteins and the development of multiplex gene perturbation library screens for understanding complex cellular phenotypes.

Targeted and inducible regulation of mammalian gene expression is a broadly important capability. We engineered drug-inducible catalytically inactive Cpf1 nuclease fused to transcriptional activation domains to tune the expression of endogenous genes in human cells. Leveraging the multiplex capability of the Cpf1 platform, we demonstrate both synergistic and combinatorial gene expression in human cells. Our work should enable the development of multiplex gene perturbation library screens for understanding complex cellular phenotypes.

The initial stage of CRISPR-Cas immunity involves the integration of foreign DNA spacer segments into the host genomic CRISPR locus. The nucleases Cas1 and Cas2 are the only proteins conserved among all CRISPR-Cas systems, yet the molecular functions of these proteins during immunity are unknown. Here we show that Cas1 and Cas2 from Escherichia coli form a stable complex that is essential for spacer acquisition and determine the 2.3-Å-resolution crystal structure of the Cas1-Cas2 complex. Mutations that perturb Cas1-Cas2 complex formation disrupt CRISPR DNA recognition and spacer acquisition in vivo. Active site mutants of Cas2, unlike those of Cas1, can still acquire new spacers, thus indicating a nonenzymatic role of Cas2 during immunity. These results reveal the universal roles of Cas1 and Cas2 and suggest a mechanism by which Cas1-Cas2 complexes specify sites of CRISPR spacer integration.

Functional genomics efforts face tradeoffs between number of perturbations examined and complexity of phenotypes measured. We bridge this gap with Perturb-seq, which combines droplet-based single-cell RNA-seq with a strategy for barcoding CRISPR-mediated perturbations, allowing many perturbations to be profiled in pooled format. We applied Perturb-seq to dissect the mammalian unfolded protein response (UPR) using single and combinatorial CRISPR perturbations. Two genome-scale CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) screens identified genes whose repression perturbs ER homeostasis. Subjecting ∼100 hits to Perturb-seq enabled high-precision functional clustering of genes. Single-cell analyses decoupled the three UPR branches, revealed bifurcated UPR branch activation among cells subject to the same perturbation, and uncovered differential activation of the branches across hits, including an isolated feedback loop between the translocon and IRE1α. These studies provide insight into how the three sensors of ER homeostasis monitor distinct types of stress and highlight the ability of Perturb-seq to dissect complex cellular responses., National Human Genome Research Institute (U.S.) (Grant P50HG006193)

The PHD finger protein 1 (PHF1) is essential in epigenetic regulation and genome maintenance. Here we show that the Tudor domain of human PHF1 binds to histone H3 trimethylated at Lys36 (H3K36me3). We report a 1.9-A resolution crystal structure of the Tudor domain in complex with H3K36me3 and describe the molecular mechanism of H3K36me3 recognition using NMR. Binding of PHF1 to H3K36me3 inhibits the ability of the Polycomb PRC2 complex to methylate Lys27 of histone H3 in vitro and in vivo. Laser microirradiation data show that PHF1 is transiently recruited to DNA double-strand breaks, and PHF1 mutants impaired in the H3K36me3 interaction exhibit reduced retention at double-strand break sites. Together, our findings suggest that PHF1 can mediate deposition of the repressive H3K27me3 mark and acts as a cofactor in early DNA-damage response.

A key stage of CRISPR/Cas adaptive immunity in bacteria and archaea is the site-specific integration of short, foreign DNA sequences, called spacers, into the host CRISPR locus. The small RNA products of these spacer sequences are used as guides by CRISPR proteins for silencing complementary viral sequences. Despite extensive research highlighting the maturation of the CRISPR RNA guides and the targeting step mediated by CRISPR ribonucleoprotein complexes, little is known about how spacer sequences are initially integrated into the host CRISPR locus. Recently developed in vivo integration assays revealed that Cas1 and Cas2 are the only CRISPR proteins required for this step. Here we show that Cas1 and Cas2 associate to form a protein complex. Using a combination of biochemical and structural approaches, we present the mechanism of spacer acquisition mediated by the Cas1-Cas2 complex.